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Theme Evidence/Statistic Source Type Link

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Institutional Deliver- “Institutional births rose to 88.6% National newspaper The Hindu: “More hospital births…”
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ies (88.6%)
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in NFHS5 (2019-21)”
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Anaemia (57% of “57% of women aged 15 - 49 are NFHS - 5 report via government NDTV: “NFHS5…anaemia, obesity on the
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women) anaemic (NFHS 5)” (cited in NDTV) rise…“

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Underweight preg- “18.7% of women are underweight NFHS - 5 aggregated data [NFHS5 State Factsheets] see table rows
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nancy (~19%) (BMI <18.5%)” for BMI

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4+ ANC checkups “Only 58% women received four or NDTV summary of NFHS - 5 [NDTV reference] (same as above)
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(~58%) more antenatal checkups”

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Statewise MMR
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“MMR: Kerala :19; Assam: 195 SRS Bulletin; reported by Factly Factly: “[…] Assam’s MMR 10× Kerala…”
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disparity (SRS 2018–20)”

National MMR de- “MMR declined from 122 (2015- 17) MoSPI Statistical Yearbook / MoSPI: Women & Men in India 2023 (Health)
cline (122→97) to 97 (2018-20)” SRS via Wikipedia
Data gaps (anaemia Rural PHCs often skip routine Reported in national press (e.g., The Hindu: “Karnataka slipping in anaemia
testing) haemoglobin tests The Hindu) prevention…”
PMSMA coverage “Low PMSMA participation:under MoHFW summary, cited in PIB/ (Exact govt release—MoHFW performance/
(<30%) 30% in some districts” NITI Aayog PIB, 2022)

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CONTENTS
01 Beyond Symbolism 11  residential References
P
Did Operation Sindoor Truly Validate Indigenous
Defence? 7
underArticle 143
Clarifying Law or Confusing Constitutional Boundaries50

02 India’sDevelopment 12 India-UK
Paradox Growth Without Fairness 11
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Will the FTA Unlock a New Era of Trade, or Expose India’s
Vulnerabilities? 53
03 AI is a tool, not a Master
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Who Decides? 15
13 Inter-StateWater Disputes
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Can Cooperation Over Shared Resources Ever Prevail

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04 Detention of non-citizens
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Over Conflict? 57
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Is Proof of Identity a Privilege? 20

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14 I s the U.S.-ChinaTrade
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05 Power Politics In India Truce aTurning Point

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Using Energy Ties to Redraw Its Global Role ? 24 or Just a Tactical Pause? 60
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06 I ndia–Bangladesh Trade 15 Port economy

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& the China Factor Can Vizhinjam Transform India into a Global Maritime
Power? 64
Is There Room for Strategic Balance ? 28

07  nvironmental
E 16 Inclusive Growth
Does India need a district led approach ? 68
Governancein India
Has the EIA Framework Delivered? 32
17 Rice and wheatproduction
Is This Cycle Threatening India’s Agricultural Future? 72
08  oreign University
F
Campuses in India 18 Digital Diplomacyin Action
Global Promise or Market Gamble ? 36
How Can India and Africa Grow Together? 76

09 Fishing Sector in India 19 A new vision for North East

Blue economy or Bleeding economy ? 40
Infrastructure vs Ecological Sensitivity ? 80

10 National Security Doctrine 20 Maternal Health in India

Does India needs it now more than ever ? 46
Progress or Persistence ? 85

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Get the maximum out

of every Burning Issue
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BURNING ISSUE #1

Beyond
Symbolism
Did Operation Sindoor
Truly Validate Indigenous
Defence?
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Note4Students
PYQs & Microthemes
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This article shows how indigenous tech in Operation Sindoor helped neutralise threats
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while signalling India’s growing self-reliance. Using the operation as an anchor, it

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[UPSC 2020, GS-3] Analyze internal security

analyses the full supply chain, key reforms since Independence, systemic challenges,
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threats and transborder crimes along Myanmar,

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and what India must do next to become a defence manufacturing powerhouse. UPSC
Ban gladesh and Pakistan borders including Line
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usually doesn’t ask straight questions like “What is Make in India in defence?” Instead,
of Control (LoC). Also discuss the role played by
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it frames analytical questions like the one in GS Paper 3 (2020) on security threats and
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various security forces in this regard.

the role of forces testing your ability to link defence capabilities, policy, and geopolitical
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threats. Aspirants often falter by mugging schemes without connecting them to real
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operations, institutional structures, or the larger strategy. This article helps fill that gap.
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Microthemes: Security Forces and their

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It offers layered understanding from Operation Sindoor’s field-level tech usage to the
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Defence Acquisition Procedure 2020 backed with examples and committee insights.
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operation sindoor marked a defining moment for Make in India, demonstrating

India’s precision strike capabilities powered by homegrown defence technolo-
gies. This operation was a powerful proof of concept for the Make in India and
Atmanirbhar Bharat initiatives.But how far has India truly come in closing the
technological gaps in defence? What structural changes are still needed to en-
sure that indigenous innovation becomes the backbone of our military strength?
And can India balance rapid modernization with strategic self-reliance to emerge
as a global defence powerhouse?

Operation Sindoor: A Defining Moment for precise strikes on terrorist infrastructure. These platforms, developed
Atmanirbhar Bharat in Defence under the ‘Make in India’ initiative, enabled India to conduct operations
Operation Sindoor was more than a military success it was a powerful with minimal collateral damage, highlighting the strategic advantage of
demonstration of India’s growing self-reliance in defence. This opera- homegrown technology.
tion showcased how the vision of Atmanirbhar Bharat is transforming 3. Government Initiatives Fueling Innovation: Programs like iDEX (In-
the nation’s defence capabilities by the following ways: novations for Defence Excellence) and SRIJAN have been instrumen-
1. Indigenous Air Defence Systems: Shielding the Nation: Indian-devel- tal in fostering innovation within the private sector. These initiatives
oped systems like the Akash Surface-to-Air Missile and the SAMAR Air provided the necessary support and incentives for companies to
Defence System played a pivotal role in neutralizing over 600 hostile develop and deploy indigenous solutions, accelerating India’s journey
drones and missiles during the operation. These systems, developed towards defence self-reliance.
by Indian public and private sector entities, proved their effectiveness 4. Validation of ‘Made-in-India’ Weaponry: The successful deployment
in real combat scenarios, underscoring India’s capability to produce of indigenous weapons during Operation Sindoor has validated their
advanced defence technologies domestically. reliability and effectiveness. This success not only boosts domestic
2. Precision Strikes with Indigenous Drones: Private sector companies confidence but also enhances India’s reputation as a global hub for
such as Tata Advanced Systems and Paras Defence supplied loitering defence manufacturing.
munitions and swarm drones that were instrumental in executing

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5. Strategic Integration Across Forces: The seamless integration of 6. Boosting Defence Exports: Operation Sindoor has paved the way for
indigenous technologies across the Army, Navy, and Air Force during increased defence exports. The successful use of indigenous equip-
the operation demonstrated the strategic advantage of a unified, ment has positioned India as a reliable supplier of advanced military
self-reliant defence ecosystem. This integration ensures coordinated technologies, with defence exports reaching ₹23,000 crore in FY25
responses and enhances operational efficiency. and projected to touch ₹50,000 crore by 2029.

India’s Defence Industry Ecosystem

Component Key Stakeholders/Entities Role in the Supply Chain

1. Government Bodies Ministry of Defence (MoD) Defence Acquisition Policy formulation, procurement approvals, funding, and
& Policymakers Council (DAC) Dept. of Defence Production (DDP) regulation

2. Public Sector HAL, BEL, BEML, MDL, GRSE, GSL, etc. Corporatised System integration and manufacturing of major
Units (PSUs) Ordnance Factories platforms (aircraft, tanks, ships, electronics)

3. R&D Institutions DRDO and its labs Academic partnerships (IITs, NITs) Indigenous research, technology development,
iDEX incubation of startups and innovation

4. Private Tata Advanced Systems, L&T Defence, Mahindra Design, production, and technology partnerships for
Sector Companies Defence, Adani Defence defence systems and components
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5. MSMEs & Startups Small and Medium Enterprises across India Funded Precision manufacturing, sub-component supply,
under iDEX and Make in India schemes electronics, and rapid innovation

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Technology transfer, joint ventures, FDI, and fulfilling
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7. Regulatory &
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Directorate General of Quality Assurance (DGQA) Quality testing, standardisation, regulatory compliance
Quality Agencies Licensing Authorities for defence production
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8. Armed Indian Army Indian Navy Indian Air Force Requirement specification, field trials, operational
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India’s Defence Indigenisation: Evolution Over the Years

1. Post-Independence Phase (1947–1980s): Import Dependence 4. Make in India & Beyond (2014 onwards): Reforms, Modernisation,
with State-Led Production and Innovation
• After 1947, India relied heavily on imports to meet its defence needs. •U  nder the ‘Make in India’ initiative, defence became a focus
• The government established defence public sector undertakings sector.
(DPSUs) like HAL (1940), BEL (1954), BEML, and DRDO (1958) to •P  olicy measures included:
kickstart indigenous production. -C  reation of Defence Corridors in UP and Tamil Nadu.
• Focus remained on license production (e.g., MiG-21 from USSR) -L  aunch of Innovations for Defence Excellence (iDEX) to support
rather than original design. startups and MSMEs.
• The military-civilian research disconnect and lack of private sec- -N  egative import list (now Positive Indigenisation List) of de-
tor involvement slowed innovation. fence items to boost local procurement.
2. The Self-Reliance Push (1980s–1990s): Limited Technological Gains -P  ush for DRDO–private sector collaborations and corporatisa-
• Indigenous projects like the Light Combat Aircraft (Tejas) and tion of Ordnance Factory Board (OFB).
Arjun tank were launched, but saw major delays. •F  lagship projects like INS Vikrant, Tejas Mk1A, Dhanush artillery,
• Import dependence continued, particularly for high-tech equipment. and AK-203 (with Russian collaboration) symbolise indigenisation
• The Defence Procurement Procedure (DPP) was introduced in progress.
1992 to formalise acquisitions but still favoured foreign vendors. 5. P resent & Emerging Trends
3. Opening Up & Strategic Partnerships (2000s–2010s): Private • India is now among the top 25 arms exporters, with key exports
Sector Enters to Southeast Asia and Africa.
• Post-Kargil Review Committee, India recognised the need for •T  he Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP) 2020 promotes indig-
self-sufficiency in critical systems. enous content across categories.
• The 2001 policy opened defence production to the private sector •S  tronger emphasis on dual-use technologies, AI in defence, cy-
and allowed 26% FDI (now up to 74% under automatic route). ber warfare tools, and space militarisation.The aim is to transform
•D efence offsets were introduced in 2005 to encourage local production. India from the world’s largest arms importer to a global hub of
• However, execution lagged due to bureaucratic hurdles and lack defence manufacturing.
of synergy.

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Challenges of defence indigenisation

Each stakeholder in the defence indigenisation chain faces specific pain points from policy bottlenecks to
SMASH technological dependence, funding gaps, and trust issues between the military and manufacturers. These
MAINS must be systematically addressed to achieve true Atmanirbharta in defence.

Component Challenges Example

1. Government Bod- Bureaucratic delays in approvals, frequent policy Despite multiple reforms, procurement under the Defence
ies & Policymakers changes, and slow implementation of procurement Procurement Procedure (DPP) often sees long delays—
reforms. e.g., the Rafale deal took over a decade to finalise.
2. Public Sector Low productivity, limited innovation, and over- HAL delayed the delivery of Tejas Mk-1, impacting Air
Units (PSUs) dependence on DRDO/IPR transfers. Slow to Force induction timelines and operational preparedness.
adopt modern production systems.
3. R&D Institutions Time and cost overruns, limited coordination with DRDO’s Arjun Tank project took over 30 years, and was
(DRDO & others) users, and weak integration with industry. only partially accepted by the Army due to performance
and logistical concerns.
4. Private Limited access to defence contracts, L&T and Tata have developed major naval platforms, but
Sector Companies technology, and design IP. Often lack level-playing frequently lose major contracts to shipyards like MDL
field vis-à-vis PSUs. due to preferential treatment.
5. MSMEs & Startups Lack of working capital, complex compliance Many MSMEs supplying parts to BEL or HAL face delays
norms, and delays in payment from DPSUs. of over 6–12 months in payments, affecting sustainability.
6. Foreign OEMs Reluctance to transfer core technologies, offset Several foreign OEMs fulfill offset obligations via
& Partners implementation delays, and strategic trust issues. services or non-critical components; core tech transfer
often avoided (e.g., no engine tech with Rafale).
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7. Regulatory & Cumbersome quality assurance, lack of DGQA processes often delay final product acceptance;
Quality Agencies automation, and inconsistent standards across Indian Army has complained about long wait times in
labs and factories. artillery trials.
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8. Armed Changing specifications, lack of alignment with The Army’s frequent upgrades to requirements delayed
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Forces (End Users) R&D timelines, and preference for proven imports. Future Infantry Combat Vehicle (FICV) development
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despite years of DRDO effort.

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Systemic Challenges
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1. TECHNOLOGY & CAPABILITY GAPS

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• Still Dependent on Imports: Even today, over one-third of our

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capability.
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• Slow Innovation in R&D: Barely 4% of the defence budget goes into

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research. This holds back growth in key areas like AI, hypersonic
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tech, and quantum systems.

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2. DELAYS & INEFFICIENCIES

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• Bureaucratic Red Tape: The procurement process is slow and

clunky equipment approvals take time, affecting how fast our forces
modernize.
• Indigenous Projects Take Too Long: Homegrown defence projects
like the Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) have taken decades, leaving
gaps in capability.
3. ECOSYSTEM IMBALANCE
• Public Sector Dominance: PSUs still dominate; private players face Way Forward
limited access and contribute only around 21% to total production. 1. B
 oost Indigenous Tech: Invest more in R&D and support
• Weak Public–Private Collaboration: There’s little synergy between startups to develop advanced defence technologies like AMCA,
state-run units and private defence manufacturers. hypersonics, and AI systems.
4. GLOBAL & STRATEGIC SETBACKS 2. S implify Procurement: Speed up and digitize procurement, pri-
• Struggles in Exporting Arms: While exports are improving, India oritize “Buy Indian,” and ease export approvals to grow domestic
still finds it hard to compete globally with giants like the US and industry and global sales.
Russia. 3. E nhance Collaboration: Promote strong partnerships between
• Cyber & EW Gaps: India lacks cutting-edge capabilities in cyberse- public sector units, private companies, and academia for faster
curity and electronic warfare, making its systems vulnerable. innovation.
5. STRATEGIC & POLICY HURDLES 4. B uild Skills & Infrastructure: Develop specialised defence
• No Fully Integrated Defence Strategy: The Army, Navy, and Air training and upgrade manufacturing with advanced technolo-
Force still don’t work closely enough—joint commands are delayed. gies and Defence Industrial Corridors.
• Internal Security Takes Focus Away: Resources often get pulled 5. S trengthen Cybersecurity: Create a dedicated Cyber Com-
toward handling terrorism and insurgency, slowing defence modern- mand and use AI to defend against modern digital threats.
ization. 6. I ntegrate Forces & Policies: Implement joint theatre com-
• Indigenisation Policy Gaps: Despite mandates, real localisation is mands and ensure consistent policies and funding for strategic
tricky—supply chains are global, and it’s hard to measure true ‘Made growth and readiness.
in India’ content.

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Back2Basics
Key Committees Shaping Defence Indigenisation in India: A Chronological Overview
8 important committees on defence indigenisation in India, arranged chronologically:

Year Committee Name Purpose / Focus

1959 Sinha Committee Early focus on defence production and self-reliance
1998 Kalam Committee Strengthening indigenous R&D and reducing import dependence
2004 Naresh Chandra Task Force Reforming DRDO and DPSUs; enhancing private sector participation
2007 Subrahmanyam Committee Defence production and technology acquisition
2016 Shekatkar Committee Enhancing defence procurement efficiency and budget optimization
2017 Shyam Saran Committee Promoting ‘Make in India’ in defence and boosting R&D
2018 Kalyani Committee Encouraging private sector in defence production
2020 Defence Acquisition Council (DAC) Reforms Indigenous content mandates and procurement process reforms

Major Defence Indigenisation Reforms in India

DOMINATE Year Reform/Policy Description & Impact
PRELIMS
Before Procurement Process Before 2000, India’s defence procurement was largely import-dependent, with minimal emphasis on indigenous manufacturing.
2000 Overview The process was slow, bureaucratic, and focused mainly on acquiring ready-made foreign equipment. Indigenous industry
played a marginal role, and there was little policy push to promote domestic capabilities or private sector participation. The
Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) handled most R&D but faced challenges in timely delivery and
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commercialization.
2001 Defence Procurement Introduced for the first time, this procedure categorized procurement into “Buy Indian,” “Buy and Make (Indian),” and “Buy
Procedure (DPP) 2001 (Global).” It aimed to prioritize indigenous manufacturing, encourage technology transfer, and create a structured framework for
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acquisitions. This marked the first policy-level recognition of the importance of self-reliance.
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2007 Defence Production This policy explicitly focused on increasing the indigenous content in defence products. It aimed to build domestic production
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Policy capacity, reduce imports, and foster R&D collaboration between public and private sectors. However, implementation was slow,
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and private sector involvement remained limited.

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2016 Make in India Defence Launched as part of the broader Make in India campaign, this initiative specifically targeted defence manufacturing. It encouraged
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Initiative private sector participation, startups, and MSMEs, and promoted innovation through frameworks like Innovations for Defence
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Excellence (iDEX). The policy also sought to reduce import dependence and boost exports.
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2017 DPP Revision 2017 The Defence Procurement Procedure was revised to give even greater priority to indigenous products. It simplified approval
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processes, provided preference to Indian vendors, and introduced better mechanisms for offset management (where foreign
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suppliers invest in India). These reforms helped speed up procurement and incentivize domestic manufacturing.
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2018 Defence Production DPEPP set ambitious targets to increase indigenous defence production to 70% and double defence exports to $5 billion by
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and Export Promotion 2025. It aimed to create a robust defence industrial ecosystem, boost private sector and MSME involvement, and promote
Policy (DPEPP) 2018 exports through government support and export incentives.
2019 Atmanirbhar Bharat Announced amid rising global uncertainties, this mission placed self-reliance at the core of India’s defence strategy. It focused on
Abhiyaan (Self-Reliant reducing import dependency, easing technology transfers, boosting indigenous R&D, and creating a globally competitive defence
India Mission) manufacturing base. Several measures to fast-track approvals and enhance funding for innovation were introduced.
2020 Defence Acquisition The updated acquisition procedure further streamlined procurement processes, expanded categories of indigenous procurement,
Procedure (DAP) and improved transparency. It also emphasized empowering startups and MSMEs by simplifying participation rules, aiming to
2020 make defence manufacturing more inclusive and innovation-driven.
2021 Defence Production Building on the 2018 policy, DPEPP 2.0 reinforced incentives for defence manufacturing and exports. It focused on deepening
and Export Promotion technology development, fostering innovation ecosystems, and promoting global partnerships. The policy stressed research
Policy (DPEPP) 2.0 collaboration, increased funding for innovation, and set higher export targets.

Summary:
Before 2000: Defence procurement was import-heavy, bureaucratic, and limited to public sector dominance, with minimal
private sector involvement.
Since 2001: India has progressively reformed its defence policies to promote indigenous production, ease procurement, foster
private sector participation, and build a globally competitive defence ecosystem. Initiatives like Make in India, Atmanirbhar Bharat,
and Defence Production Policies have been key milestones in reducing import dependency and boosting defence exports.

Smash Mains: Mock Drop

[QUESTION] Operation Sindoor marks a shift from defence dependence to indigenous dominance. In
this context, critically examine India’s progress in defence indigenisation. What are the structural
challenges that still hinder self-reliance in defence manufacturing? (15 Marks, 250 Words)

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BURNING ISSUE #2

India’s
Development
Paradox Growth Without Fairness
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Note4Students
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PYQs & Microthemes

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India’s human development story: progress, paradoxes, and inclusive AI crossroads.

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UPSC usually frames these themes as broad, thought‑provoking mains questions that [UPSC 2023, GS-1] Why did human development
fuse data with ethics—think GS 1 (2023) on “human development versus economic fail to keep pace with economic development in
growth” and GS 3 (2014) on “capitalism and inclusive growth.” Aspirants often India?
stumble because they quote HDI numbers but miss deeper threads such as widening
gaps shown under “Persistent and Widening Inequalities,” or they forget to interlink [UPSC 2014, GS-3] Capitalism has guided the
technology with equity outlined in “Human Development in the Age of AI.” This article world economy to unprecedented prosperity. How
fixes those blind spots by walking you through each phase in “Evolution of Human ever, it often encourages shortsightedness and
Development in India,” backing every claim with crisp figures (life expectancy 72 years; contributes to wide disparities between the rich and
top 1 % owns 40 % wealth) and ready‑to‑lift policy nuggets (“Aspirational Districts the poor. In this light, would it be correct to believe
Programme,” “Ayushman Bharat,” “BharatNet”). The most special bit is the fresh and adopt capitalism driving inclusive growth in
“AI Can Worsen Inequality” lens, which shows exactly how algorithmic bias or India? Discuss.
English‑heavy datasets can derail progress and also hands you counter‑ideas for
answers (e.g., inclusive AI skilling pilots in Tamil Nadu). So, while reading these tight Microthemes: Population and associated issues,
subheads and bracketed examples, you will find the perfect bridge between hard data Inclusive Growth
and big‑picture analysis that the UPSC examiner secretly wants.

h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t , a s d e f i n e d by u n d p , is about more than income

it’s about expanding people’s real freedoms, choices, and capabilities. India has
made visible progress: in the 2025 Human Development Report, it climbed to rank
130, with rising life expectancy, education years, and per capita income.
But behind this progress lies a growing paradox while national averages improve,
inequality deepens. The top 1% of Indians now control over 40% of the country’s
wealth (Oxfam, 2023), while millions still lack access to quality education, health-
care, and digital infrastructure.
Is India growing, but not developing equally? Can rising HDI numbers mask falling
social mobility? And in the age of AI and acceleration, who is being left behind?

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Evolution of Human Development in India

Phase Key Features Milestones & Initiatives

Post-Independence Focus on building a welfare state with state- Community development programs, expansion of
(1950s–1980s) led planning and social justice. primary healthcare, emphasis on universal education.

Economic Shift towards growth-led development; Rise in income levels, investment in private education/
Liberalisation Era (1991–2010) human development linked to market health, National Rural Health Mission (NRHM, 2005).
reforms.

Rights-Based Introduction of legal entitlements to welfare Right to Education (RTE), MGNREGA, Food Security
Approach (2005–2015) and human development. Act, expansion of school enrolment.

Digital Public Goods & Use of technology to improve reach and Aadhaar, UPI, Ayushman Bharat, Jan Dhan Yojana,
Targeted Delivery (2015–Present) efficiency of welfare delivery. e-Shram, rise in life expectancy (72 years), and school
years (13 years – HDR 2025).

Human Capital Push with Focus on skilling, education reform, and National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, Skill India,
Future-Readiness (Ongoing) tech-based learning. PMKVY, National Digital Health Mission.
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India in HDR 2025: Growth, Development, and •R

 egional Disparities: Southern and western states perform much
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Inequality
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better on HDI indicators compared to eastern and northeastern

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1. IMPROVEMENT IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX (HDI) regions.

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• India’s HDI Rank (2023): Improved from 133 to 130 out of 193 countries. •D
 igital Divide: Access to AI, internet, and tech-skilling is heavily
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• HDI Score: Increased from 0.676 to 0.685, placing India in the skewed toward urban, male, and English-speaking populations
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medium human development category. risking exclusion of large segments from AI-enabled growth.
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• Key drivers of improvement: 3. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN THE AGE OF AI: A DOUBLE-EDGED

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- Life expectancy: Now at 72 years (up from 58.6 in 1990). SWORD

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- Mean years of schooling: Increased to 13 years (reflecting •A

 I as a tool of empowerment: India is positioning itself as an AI
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gains in education). hub, with growing innovation and talent.

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- Gross National Income (GNI) per capita (PPP): Rose to •B

 ut... HDR 2025 warns that without inclusive policies, AI may
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USD 9,046. deepen existing inequalities:

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2. PERSISTENT AND WIDENING INEQUALITIES - Those without access to education or digital tools risk
• Income Inequality: Remains stark top 1% owns over 40% of na- being left behind.
tional wealth (Oxfam, 2023), while a large share of the population - AI models trained on data from high-HDI countries may not
lacks access to basic services. align with India’s social realities.
• Gender Gaps: Women continue to face limited access to AI-driven - Youth, women, and informal workers are especially vulnera-
tools and job opportunities, despite equal qualifications reinforcing ble to automation without adequate skilling.
the existing development divide.

Long and A decent

Dimensions healthy life Knowledge standard of living
Life expectancy Expected years Mean years
Indicators at birth of schooling of schooling
GNI per capita (PPP $)

Dimension Life expectancy

Education Index GNI index
index index

Human Development Index (HDI)

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Major Inequality Challenges in India

The Human Development Report (HDR) 2025 shines a spotlight on India’s central paradox: while the
SMASH country’s Human Development Index (HDI) has improved now ranked 130 out of 193 countries the
MAINS benefits of progress remain unequally shared. The report notes that inequality alone reduces India’s
HDI by nearly 30.7%, exposing how top-heavy economic growth masks deep divides in wealth, educa-
tion, gender, geography, and access to technology.

Inequality Type Nature and Persistence Examples / Policy Responses

Income India’s HDI is reduced by ~30.7% due to inequality (HDR Gini coefficient fell from ~0.472 (2014–15) to ~0.402
inequality 2025). The top 1% and 10% command a lion’s share of (2022–23) (SBI). 82 million filed income tax returns by 2023.
income, while poverty reduction hasn’t translated into Policies like MGNREGA, Jan-Dhan Yojana, LPG subsidies, and
equitable growth. Wealth remains tightly concentrated. universal DBT target income gaps from below. Progressive
taxation and expanded PDS also play redistributive roles.
Regional Stark east–west and rural–urban divides persist. Sikkim’s The Aspirational Districts Programme (NITI Aayog) focuses
disparity per capita income in 2024 is 3× the national average, on lagging districts. Increased Finance Commission devolution
while Bihar’s is just one-third. Health, education, and to poorer states, infrastructure schemes (PMGSY, rural
infrastructure outcomes mirror these gaps. electrification), and targeted Smart Cities in Tier-2/3 towns
aim to reduce disparities.
Gender gaps Despite better schooling and health outcomes, female Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, Janani Suraksha Yojana, Ujjwala
labour force participation remains abysmal (20–25%). Yojana, and scholarships for girls target education and
Women continue to face wage gaps, limited asset health. One-third reservation for women in legislatures (2023
ownership, and underrepresentation in leadership. amendment), Maternity Benefit Act, and Mudra loans for
SHGs aim to economically and politically empower women.
Caste & social Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and OBCs lag Constitutionally mandated reservations in education and
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inequalities in health, literacy, and jobs. PLFS (2023–24) shows public employment (SC: 15%, ST: 7.5%, OBC: 27%). Special
only ~32.2% SC women work, compared to ~46.7% ST schemes like SCSP/TSP budgets, scholarships, skill training,
women. Social stigma and exclusion remain barriers to and PM Adi Adarsh Gram Yojana. Anti-discrimination
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equality. -0
protection via SC/ST Act.
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Digital divide 95.2% of villages have 3G/4G, but digital use remains Under Digital India, BharatNet has fiber-enabled over 2.13 lakh
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urban-heavy. Rural tele-density is ~59% vs urban ~134%. gram panchayats. Internet users rose from ~252 million (2014)
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Gender, income, and education affect digital access. to ~954 million (2024). Programs like PM-WANI, Common
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The divide hampers e-services, education, and financial Service Centres, eGramSWARAJ, and start-up incentives for
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inclusion. smaller towns aim to bridge the gap.

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How AI Can Worsen Inequality in India

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Area of Concern How AI Exacerbates Inequality Examples / India Context

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Access to AI tools (e.g., in education, hiring, healthcare) often require AI-driven skilling platforms benefit tech-savvy
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Opportunity
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digital access, literacy, and connectivity — all of which are students, but large sections of rural India (especially
skewed toward urban, male, upper-income users. women, SC/ST groups) lack smartphones, stable
internet, or training (HDR 2025).
Job Displacement AI and automation threaten low-skill, repetitive jobs (e.g., India’s ITES and service sectors, employing lakhs
in BPOs, logistics, retail), which are a major source of in entry-level roles, may see significant automation
employment for the lower middle class and urban poor. without corresponding reskilling programs.
Algorithmic Bias AI trained on global/narrow datasets may misinterpret Reports show AI-based job shortlisting in private firms
Indian names, dialects, behaviors — leading to unfair discriminating against non-English resumes or women
screening in jobs, credit, or welfare. candidates. Biases against SC/ST names in financial
screening tools also feared.
Language and Most AI models are English-trained, underrepresenting Chatbots, health apps, and educational AI tools often
Regional Exclusion India’s vast linguistic and cultural diversity. This limits lack voice/text support for major Indian languages like
usability for non-English users. Bhojpuri, Santali, or Manipuri.
Widening AI-powered adaptive learning and test-prep benefit urban AI tools like Khan Academy and Byju’s serve paying
Education Divide private school students but bypass government school users. Meanwhile, 60%+ government schools still lack
systems still lacking basic tech infrastructure. computers or internet (U-DISE, 2022–23).

Way Forward
•  ecommit to universal, quality public services health, education, social protection.
R
• Invest in AI for development, not just for growth make it inclusive and accountable.
• Bridge regional and rural-urban divides through targeted resource transfers.
• Empower local governance and decentralised planning.
• Align budgeting with human development priorities (Green/SDG budgeting).

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Back2Basics
DOMINATE About Human Development Index (HDI) and Human Development Report (HDR)
PRELIMS The HDI, introduced in the UNDP’s 1990 Human Development The HDI serves as a multi-dimensional alternative to GDP, empha-
Report, is a composite index measuring average achievement in three sizing “human well-being” over mere economic output. The HDR is an
key dimensions: annual flagship publication by UNDP that evaluates progress on HDI
1. Health: measured by life expectancy at birth. and related indices like the Gender Inequality Index (GII) and Multi-
2. Education: measured by mean years of schooling and expected dimensional Poverty Index (MPI). It offers an analytical snapshot of
years of schooling. development progress and inequality, and in 2025, focuses on the
3. Standard of Living: measured by Gross National Income (GNI) per transformative power and risks of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in shaping
capita (PPP $). human progress.

Key Highlights from HDR 2025: India’s Human Development at a Crossroads

1. What the Data Shows

Area Key Finding

HDI Rank India improved from 133 (2022) to 130 (2023) among 193 countries; HDI value rose from 0.676 to 0.685, approaching
the “High Human Development” threshold (0.700).
Life Expectancy Reached a record 72 years up from 67.7 (2022), and a significant leap from 58.6 in 1990.
Education Expected years of schooling rose to 13 years, mean years to 6.9 reflecting the impact of RTE Act, NEP 2020, and
Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan.
Income Growth GNI per capita (PPP) jumped to $9,046, up 4× since 1990 ($2,167).
Poverty Reduction 135 million people exited multidimensional poverty between 2015–16 and 2019–21 (NITI Aayog MPI).
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Gender Inequality GDI at 0.874; India ranks 102nd on the Gender Inequality Index (GII) highlighting continued gender gaps.
AI Capacity India hosts 20% of global AI researchers up from nearly 0% in 2019; also leads in self-reported AI skills.

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Inequality Impact India’s HDI drops to 0.475 when adjusted for inequality a 30.7% loss, among the highest globally.
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2. Why HDI Matters for India •A

 I for Development: States like Tamil Nadu and Telangana deploy
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• Beyond GDP: Offers a multidimensional lens to assess real human AI for skilling; UNDP supports inclusive AI training.
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well-being — vital for India’s $5 trillion economy vision. •D

 igital Infrastructure: IndiaAI Mission, Aadhaar, UPI, DigiLocker,
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• SDG Alignment: HDI overlaps with SDGs on health, education, and BharatNet scale digital access.
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equity (Goals 1, 3, 4, 5, 10). •M

 onitoring Progress: SDG India Index tracks HDI-aligned goals;
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• Policy Targeting: MPI helps pinpoint sectoral gaps for more pre- AI for Good and GPAI link India to global standards.
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cise interventions.
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• Gender Lens: Tracks women-centric development under the G20 4. Persistent Challenges
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theme of Women-Led Development. •H  igh Inequality Drag: India loses 30.7% of its HDI due to inequali-
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• Human Capital Planning: Links education, skills, and health to ty — one of South Asia’s worst.
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economic productivity. •G  ender Gaps Persist: Women’s FLFPR rose to 41.7% (2023–24),
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• Centre–State Competition: Enables HDI-linked rankings, but gaps in income, literacy, and leadership remain.
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fostering cooperative federalism (e.g., NITI’s Human Development •L  earning Outcomes Lag: ASER reports low comprehension de-
Dashboard). spite high enrolment.
• Global Image: HDI performance influences investment, credit • J obless Growth: Over 90% of India’s workforce remains in the
ratings, and soft power. informal sector (PLFS).
• AI & Inclusion: Brings AI into the HDI conversation, pushing for •U  rban–Rural Divide: Disparities in basic services, infrastructure,
inclusive digital development. and access continue.
• Framework for Redistribution: Anchors debates on taxation, •D  igital Divide: Uneven access to devices and AI skews tech-driven
welfare, and inequality correction. benefits.
•W  eak Health Systems: Doctor–population ratio below WHO
3. India’s Human Development Initiatives norms; large inter-state gaps.
• Health & Nutrition: Ayushman Bharat, Poshan Abhiyaan improved •S  low Progress Pace: Global and Indian HDI growth rates are
healthcare access and outcomes. among the lowest since 1990.
• Education: NEP 2020, RTE Act drive universal, inclusive education. •G  lobal Comparison: India still trails BRICS peers — Brazil (89),
• Livelihood & Finance: MGNREGA, Jan Dhan Yojana provide China (75), Russia (59).
income security and financial inclusion.

Smash Mains: Mock Drop

[QUESTION] India’s rising Human Development Index masks deep-rooted structural inequalities in income,
gender, and digital access. In the context of the 2025 Human Development Report, critically examine how
technology—particularly Artificial Intelligence—can both bridge and widen these gaps. Suggest policy
measures to ensure inclusive human development in the digital age. (15 Marks, 250 Words)

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BURNING ISSUE #3

AI is a tool,
not a Master
Who Decides?
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Note4Students
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-0 PYQs & Microthemes
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This article maps AI’s promises, pitfalls, ethics and India‑specific policy pathways.
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UPSC tends to wrap this theme in open‑ended, multi‑layered mains prompts—one

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[UPSC 2023, GS-3] Introduce the concept of

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year it focuses on sectoral impact and privacy (GS 3 2023), the next on ethical
Artificial Intelligence (AI). How does AI help clinical
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dilemmas in governance (GS 4 2024) so the examiner expects you to juggle

diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of
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tech facts with values and Indian policy. Many aspirants slip because they parrot
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the individual in the use of AI in the healthcare?

definitions of Artificial Intelligence but can’t weave age‑specific stakes from “AI
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and Age Cohorts in India,” ignore power shifts flagged in “AI’s Expanding Role: From
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[UPSC 2024, GS-4] The application of Artificial

Support System to Decision‑Maker,” or forget to anchor answers in domestic rules
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Intelligence as a dependable source of input for ad

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like “Policy and Ethics for Human‑Centric AI in India.” This article fixes those gaps by
ministrative rational decision-making is a debatable
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giving plug‑and‑play illustrations (AI tutors translating into 22 languages for rural
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issue. Critically examine the statement from the

kids; Google Health AI reading X‑rays; Delhi High Court saying AI can’t decide
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ethical point of view.

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parole), pairing each with matching ethical or regulatory hooks, and ending with
a ready blueprint for laws, audits, and citizen opt‑outs. The standout feature is its
Microthemes: Artificial Intelligence, Applied
age‑cohort matrix: it zeros in on children, youth, workers, and the elderly in parallel,
Ethics
letting you lift tailor‑made examples for any angle the paper throws.

h u m a n ag e n cy t h e p ow e r AI and Age Cohorts in India

to make free, informed choices Children (0–14 years)
is the backbone of dignity and
democracy. But in the age of
Opportunities Present Problems
Artificial Intelligence, that agency 1. AI tutors can adapt to each child’s level, making 1. Over 60% of rural schoolchildren lack consistent
stands at a crossroads. AI now learning more inclusive (e.g., vernacular platforms internet/device access for AI-based learning (ASER
shapes how we learn, work, heal, translating content into 22+ Indian languages). Report, 2023).
and even vote. It promises pre-
2. SMS-based or low-data AI tools can help 2. Screen overuse is linked to reduced attention
cision, efficiency, and reach yet
underprivileged kids catch up in basic math and emotional regulation in children under 10 (HDR
it also risks turning people into
and language (e.g., Google’s Read Along app for 2025; AIIMS mental health survey, 2022).
mere data trails and automated
rural users).
outcomes.
As the Human Development 3. AI can create safe, filtered educational 3. Unregulated AI-generated content has been used
Report 2025 warns, AI must aug- videos for children (e.g., YouTube Kids’ to create deepfake videos of minors (HDR 2025).
ment human freedom, not silently restricted mode).
erode it. The real question isn’t 4. AI tools can detect and flag harmful online 4. India lacks a robust system to monitor and respond
whether AI is good or bad it’s who content, protecting children from abuse (e.g., to AI-facilitated child exploitation online (only 6
it’s working for. Are we building Microsoft’s Project Artemis). cybercrime units focus on child abuse – NCRB, 2022).
AI to serve human choices or are
we quietly rewiring ourselves to 5. AI can support early learning even in tribal/ 5. Most AI tools are English-centric and ignore
fit the logic of machines? rural belts where teacher shortages exist (e.g., AI- regional dialects, leaving large populations behind
powered tablets used in Jharkhand pilot programs). (India has 120+ spoken languages).

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Youth (15–24 years)

Opportunities Present Problems

1. AI can personalize skill development (e.g., AI-based coding 1. 30% of college students in Tier-2 cities report lack of access to
platforms used in Atal Innovation Labs across India). quality tech tools (AICTE survey, 2023).

2. AI-backed learning platforms can adapt to each student’s pace 2. 1 in 3 teenagers feel social media worsens anxiety or self-esteem
and language (e.g., Khan Academy in Hindi). due to AI-generated content feeds (HDR 2025).

3. Entry-level workers benefit from AI-based support systems (e.g., 3. Most online AI training is concentrated in metros; rural youth miss
call center trainees improved by 14% in task resolution using AI out on upskilling (NITI Aayog Digital Skills Report, 2022).
assist – HDR 2025).

4. Youth can use AI for civic participation, storytelling, or activism 4. High misinformation exposure due to AI-curated social media; 45%
(e.g., AI-based media projects in colleges). of youth admit they can’t tell fake news from real (PRS Youth & Tech
Study, 2023).

5. AI can help youth find jobs via better matching and interview prep 5. AI platforms often reinforce bias in job screening (e.g., non-English
(e.g., LinkedIn AI features for resume review). resumes flagged more often – Harvard-IDinsight India study, 2021).

Working-Age Adults (25–59 years)

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Opportunities (with examples) Present Problems (with data/examples)

1. AI tools can increase productivity in jobs like analytics, customer 1. 44% of Indian workers fear being replaced by AI, especially in mid-
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skill roles (PwC Future of Work survey, 2023).
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2. AI-enabled upskilling platforms (e.g., Coursera, Skill India Digital) 2. Less than 10% of India’s workforce has received any formal digital or
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can help workers shift to new roles. AI-based training (IndiaSkills Report, 2023).
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3. AI can automate paperwork and repetitive tasks, freeing workers 3. Workers in small firms often face AI-based surveillance without
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to focus on creative or decision-based work (e.g., TCS automating consent or understanding (HDR 2025; reports from garment and
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HR workflows). delivery sectors).

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4. Farmers and small entrepreneurs can use AI tools for weather 4. Informal workers (93% of India’s workforce) often lack access to
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forecasting, pricing, and crop planning (e.g., Microsoft’s AI Sowing smartphones or awareness about AI tools.
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App in Andhra Pradesh).

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5. AI can support mental health monitoring in workplaces (e.g., AI 5. Indian workers report increased stress due to AI-based performance
chatbots like Wysa in Indian corporate wellness programs). monitoring systems (e.g., delivery apps with algorithmic deadlines –
Labour Ministry, 2022).

Elderly (60+ years)

Opportunities (with examples) Present Problems (with data/examples)

1. AI health tools can monitor chronic conditions remotely (e.g., 1. Over 66% of Indian seniors say they find digital tools confusing or
wearable BP monitors linked to AI dashboards). untrustworthy (HelpAge India Survey, 2022).

2. Telehealth in local languages via AI can help seniors in remote 2. Many elderly still lack smartphones or live alone without digital
areas consult doctors (e.g., eSanjeevani AI pilots). support (Census 2011: 20 million elderly live alone).

3. AI voice assistants (e.g., Alexa in Hindi) can help with reminders, 3. Seniors often report feeling more isolated when human caregivers
news, and companionship. are replaced by tech (HDR 2025).

4. AI can help predict early signs of illnesses like Alzheimer’s through 4. Most health AI tools aren’t tailored for elder-specific needs (font
speech or behavior tracking. size, voice clarity, regional preferences).

5. Community-based AI training (e.g., digital literacy camps run by 5. Lack of government-run AI training programs for seniors means the
NGOs) can improve confidence and inclusion. digital divide widens with age.

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AI’s Expanding Role: From Support System to Decision-Maker

Artificial Intelligence has quietly outgrown its role as a behind-the-scenes assistant. No longer limited
SMASH to data crunching or recommendations, AI now actively influences, automates, and in some cases, re-
MAINS places human decision-making. Whether in classrooms, clinics, or courtrooms, algorithms are shaping
choices that were once purely human. This shift marks a profound change from AI as a tool we control,
to AI as a force we must increasingly negotiate with.

Understanding the Shift in AI’s Role

Sector What AI Does Now What That Means
Healthcare AI triages patients, reads X-rays, and suggests diagnoses Doctors may rely on AI inputs before making
(e.g., Google Health AI tools) treatment decisions it’s not just support, it’s guidance.
Hiring & HR AI screens CVs, shortlists candidates, and even assesses Employers may never see a candidate the algorithm
facial expressions in interviews filters out. AI shapes who gets a shot.
Education Adaptive platforms adjust what students see next, based on Teachers increasingly follow AI cues, altering the
performance (e.g., Byju’s, Khan Academy) curriculum journey for each child.
Justice & Policing In some countries, AI helps predict crime hotspots or Raises ethical flags AI can influence bail, sentencing,
recidivism risks (e.g., COMPAS in the U.S.) and policing focus.
Finance & Credit AI assesses loan applications, flags fraud, and scores People’s financial futures can hinge on opaque
creditworthiness (e.g., SBI’s AI-backed lending tools) algorithmic scores often with no recourse.

The shift isn’t just technological it’s political and ethical. The more AI shapes core
life decisions, the more we need to ask: who programs the program, and who remains
accountable when it fails?
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AI and Human Development
2
AI has the power to enhance human agency giving people more control, access, and ability
to make informed choices. But it also holds the potential to erode that same agency through
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manipulation, opacity, and overreach. The HDR 2025 makes it clear: AI must be designed to
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empower, not overpower. Below is a dual lens on how AI can both build and break our freedom
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to choose.
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How AI Can Enhance Human Development

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Aspect How It Empowers Examples

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Personalisation AI customizes services like learning or healthcare AI-based learning platforms like Khan Academy adapt to a
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with Autonomy without taking over decisions. student’s pace while allowing manual override.
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Assistive Technologies Empowers people with disabilities to communicate, AI speech-to-text tools and smart prosthetics (e.g.,
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navigate, or learn independently. Google’s Project Relate for speech impairment).

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Access to Information Breaks language and literacy barriers; simplifies Google Translate, ChatGPT in local languages, and news
complex content. summarisation tools (Koo AI news in Indian languages).
Human-in- Keeps humans involved in key decisions, reducing AI in radiology suggests possible diagnoses, but doctors
the-Loop Systems blind reliance on AI. make the final call.
Context-Aware Provides data-driven insights while respecting AI-assisted farming apps offering region-specific crop
Decision Support social or cultural context. advice (e.g., Kisan Suvidha).

Threats to Human Development from AI

Issue How It Undermines Choice Examples
Algorithmic Bias Decisions become unexplainable and unfair, Loan rejection or job shortlisting based on biased datasets (e.g.,
& Black Boxes leaving users powerless. Amazon’s AI recruiting tool scrapped for gender bias).
Data Colonialism AI reflects elite/global north values, ignoring Most large language models (LLMs) are trained on Western
local realities or ethics. data; few understand Indian dialects or social contexts.
Overdependence on AI People lose decision-making confidence, Over-reliance on GPS weakens spatial memory; patients self-
deferring too much to tech. diagnosing from AI health bots.
Surveillance & Nudging AI manipulates behavior via targeted ads, Cambridge Analytica scandal where voter behavior was
notifications, or content shaping. influenced using personal data.
Automation Anxiety Fear of being replaced reduces motivation In sectors like retail or customer support, AI adoption sparks job
and mental well-being. insecurity and resistance.

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India’s Strategy for an AI Future

As AI becomes deeply embedded in how Indians learn, earn, and live, its design and deployment
must be guided by ethics, not just efficiency. For India a diverse, democratic, and data-rich country
the stakes are higher: AI must be accountable, inclusive, and people-first. Policies must ensure that
AI enhances human dignity, not replaces it. Here’s how India can align its AI growth with ethical
foundations and constitutional values.

Policy and Ethics for Human-Centric AI in India

Focus Area What India Must Do Examples from Indian Context
Ethical AI Build binding standards around fairness, explainability, and NITI Aayog’s #ResponsibleAI draft lays groundwork,
Frameworks accountability. Avoid black-box algorithms, especially in but India still lacks a comprehensive AI ethics law.
public services.
Regulation for Ensure laws protect human decision-making in sensitive Delhi High Court recently ruled that AI can’t
Empowerment sectors like health, law, and education. AI should assist, not determine parole or judicial outcomes — human
replace, doctors, judges, or teachers. discretion is essential.
Transparency & Mandate public review of government AI projects. People Lack of consultation on facial recognition systems
Public Participation have the right to know how AI affects them and offer (like in Hyderabad) triggered privacy concerns.
feedback before rollout.
Data Sovereignty Create safeguards to ensure Indian data is used for Indian India’s Digital Personal Data Protection Act (2023) is
interests, respecting user consent and national control. a first step; more is needed to regulate how global AI
firms use Indian datasets.
Inclusive Design Involve marginalised communities in AI development to Most AI tools still lack voice/language support for
avoid bias and exclusion. AI should reflect India’s languages, large parts of rural and tribal India (e.g., Santali,
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values, and diversity. Bhojpuri, etc.).

Way Forward
2
3. M
 andate Public Consultation for Public AI Projects
1. L
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Require pre-implementation audits and citizen consultations for
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Enact binding legal standards ensuring transparency, fairness, ex- AI use in policing, surveillance, welfare delivery, and education.
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plainability, and redress in all AI systems especially in healthcare, 4. E

 stablish an Independent AI Ethics Commission
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education, welfare, and law enforcement. Set up a statutory body to monitor AI deployment across sectors,
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2. Make Algorithmic Decisions Contestable audit for bias, and certify algorithms similar to the role of SEBI in
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Ensure that every citizen has the right to question, appeal, or opt financial regulation.
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out of AI-based decisions from loan rejections to exam scoring or 5. P

 rioritise Vernacular and Inclusive AI Design
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government benefits. Incentivize the creation of AI tools in Indian languages, tailored for
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rural and underrepresented users with accessible interfaces for the

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Back2Basics
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DOMINATE India’s Ai Regulation Framework

PRELIMS
1. Policy Foundation: NITI Aayog’s Responsible AI Approach • Introduces concepts like consent, data fiduciaries, & lawful use
• NITI Aayog published two key papers (2020–21) on Responsible AI. of data.
• Emphasises five key principles: safety and reliability, equality, •L  imitations: Does not cover non-personal data or algorithmic
inclusivity and non-discrimination, privacy and security, transpar- bias, explainability, or accountability directly.
ency and accountability. 3. Ministry-Led Initiatives: MeitY and IndiaAI
• Focus areas include promoting ethical AI, identifying sectoral •T  he Ministry of Electronics and IT (MeitY) is the nodal agency for
use-cases (like healthcare, education, agriculture), and enhancing AI strategy and deployment.
public trust. •L  aunched the IndiaAI program to build AI infrastructure, promote
• However, this framework is advisory in nature and not legally binding. innovation, and drive skilling.
2. Data Governance Law: Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 •D  raft National Data Governance Framework Policy (2022) aims to
• India’s first comprehensive data protection law. make anonymised non-personal data available for innovation.
• Governs how personal data is collected, processed, and stored by •S  upports public–private partnerships, startup funding, and com-
digital entities, including AI systems. puting access for AI development.

4. Sector-Specific AI Oversight

Sector Oversight Approach

Finance RBI regulates AI applications in banking, fintech, credit scoring, and algorithmic trading.
Healthcare National Health Authority (NHA) uses AI for diagnostics and patient management under Ayushman Bharat. Ethical
safeguards evolving.
Policing and Justice Facial recognition, predictive policing, and surveillance tools used at state and central levels, but lack standardised
AI-specific regulation.
Education EdTech platforms use AI for personalised learning, but are currently unregulated in terms of ethical AI use.

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5. Judicial Observations 7. Proposed and Emerging Directions

• Courts have begun addressing ethical concerns around AI: • Multiple policy bodies and parliamentary committees have called for:
- Delhi High Court (2023) held that AI tools cannot replace -A  dedicated AI Regulation Bill to classify AI applications by
judicial reasoning in decisions like parole or bail. risk (e.g., low, high, prohibited).
- Supreme Court has raised concerns about AI-enabled -A  n independent AI Ethics and Accountability Authority.
surveillance and its impact on privacy. - Mandatory impact assessments before deploying AI in
• There is no binding jurisprudence yet, but increasing judicial sensitive areas like health, policing, or education.
scrutiny signals growing concern. -C  lear user rights such as opt-out options and the right to
6. Current Gaps and Regulatory Needs contest automated decisions.
• No dedicated AI law or regulatory authority. 8. Global Alignment and Engagement
• Lack of mandatory algorithm audits, bias mitigation, explain- • India is participating in international efforts such as:
ability requirements, and redress mechanisms. -G  lobal Partnership on AI (GPAI)
• No legal provision for the right to explanation or human oversight -O  ECD AI Principles
in automated decision-making. -G  20 discussions on AI safety and regulation
• No registry or audit framework for public-sector AI deployment. • India advocates for a development-first, sovereignty-focused model
of AI regulation rather than adopting restrictive Western templates.

1. Global Partnership on Artificial 2. OECD AI Principles 3. G20 Discussions on AI Safety

Intelligence (GPAI) and Regulation
Adopted: May 2019 (by 42 countries,
Launched: June 2020 including India) India’s G20 Presidency (2023):
Hosted by: OECD; supported by Canada Nature: First intergovernmental standard •A  I was a key agenda under the Digital
and France for AI governance Economy Working Group.
India’s Role: Founding member and host of • India promoted “AI for Sustainable and
Core Principles:
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the GPAI Summit (2023) in New Delhi Inclusive Development”, stressing:
1. Inclusive growth and sustainable -C apacity-building for the Global South
Objective: development -B ridging the global compute divide
-E thical use of AI in public services
2
To promote responsible development 2. Human-centred values and fairness
and use of AI in line with human rights, 3. Transparency and explainability
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07
5-

democratic values, and sustainability. 4. Robustness, security, and safety Key G20 Outcomes:
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5. Accountability for AI systems •B ali Declaration (2022): Called for risk-
-2

Key Areas of Work: based AI governance.

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•R  esponsible AI Implementation Mechanism: •N ew Delhi G20 Leaders’ Declaration

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•D  ata governance •C ountries use these non-binding (2023):

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• F uture of work -C alled for international cooperation

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principles to shape national AI

• Innovation and commercialization
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strategies and policies. on AI standards, especially on safety,

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•A  I and pandemic response •O ECD’s AI Policy Observatory bias mitigation, and cross-border data
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tracks implementation and flows.

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India-specific engagement: best practices. -E ndorsed safe-by-design AI,

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• India chaired the GPAI Working Group

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transparency, and human oversight.

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on Responsible AI (2023). Relevance for India: -H ighlighted the need to close AI
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•H  osted the GPAI Summit in December • India uses these principles as a research and infrastructure gaps
2023, focusing on inclusive AI, reference in NITI Aayog’s Responsible between developed and developing
multilingual AI models, and public sector AI documents. countries.
AI capacity-building. •R  einforces India’s emphasis on
transparency, accountability, and India’s Position:
Relevance for India: fairness in AI systems. •A
 dvocates a balanced model that safeguards
•S upports India’s aim to promote “AI for •S  erves as a soft-law model to innovation while ensuring ethical boundaries.
All” and build a people-first global AI harmonize with global norms without •O
 pposes rigid regulatory models that could
order. compromising regulatory autonomy. stifle AI adoption in low-resource contexts.
•P rovides a multilateral platform to share •C
 hampions open, multilingual, and sovereign
best practices and shape global AI norms AI systems.
while respecting national sovereignty.

Smash Mains: Mock Drop

[QUESTION] Artificial Intelligence is moving from being a support tool to becoming a decision-maker in
sectors like governance, healthcare, and law enforcement. Critically examine the opportunities and ethical
challenges this shift presents for a democratic society like India. (15 Marks, 250 Words)

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BURNING ISSUE #4

Detention of
non-citizens
Is Proof of Identity a Privilege?
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Note4Students
2 PYQs &
-0
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Microthemes
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“When identity becomes a burden, not a right.” That’s the core message of this article. UPSC
02

often frames questions on such topics through the lens of Fundamental Rights, constitutional
-2

[UPSC 2015, GS-2] Does the right

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morality, or state vs individual debates. For instance, the 2015 question on the right to a clean
to clean environment entail legal
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environment during Diwali used Article 21 to anchor a contemporary issue. Similarly, detention
regulations on burning crackers during
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and citizenship in Assam can be asked through Article 21 (life and liberty), Article 22 (procedural
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Diwali? Discuss in the light of Article

safeguards), or Article 14 (equality). Many aspirants falter because they either stick to legal jargon
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21 of the Indian Constitution and

without connecting to ground realities, or they narrate facts without showing how it affects
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Judgement(s) of the Apex Court in this

real lives or violates constitutional values. This article helps bridge that gap. It does not just list
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regard.
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laws and events but humanises them. When it says detention “detains rights” (see ‘Impact on
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Detainees’ section), it moves from abstract policy to lived experience. The example of a woman
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being excluded due to spelling errors (“Rahima Khatun” vs “Rahima Khatoon”) underlines how
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a minor glitch can alter one’s life — making your answer come alive. A very special feature of
this article is how it connects macro-constitutional ideals with micro-level injustices (like in the
Microthemes: Fundamental Rights
section ‘Marginalisation of Vulnerable Groups’ and ‘Loss of Records due to Floods’).

a s s a m ’ s i m m i g r at i o n d e t e n t i o n s y s t e m , initially designed to manage un- Common Identity Documents in India:

documented migration, has become a symbol of bureaucratic overreach and human •A adhaar Card Biometrics-based ID issued by UIDAI;
suffering. Far from being just an administrative process, it has trapped thousands proves identity and address, not citizenship.
many of them poor, marginalised, and paperless in a cycle of fear, uncertainty, and •V oter ID (EPIC) – Issued by the Election Commis-
indefinite confinement. At its core, this regime doesn’t just detain people it detains sion; used to prove Indian citizenship for electoral
rights, raising urgent alarms about India’s constitutional promises of liberty, dignity, purposes.
and fair procedure. •P assport Issued by the Ministry of External Affairs;
considered proof of citizenship.
How can a democracy justify indefinite detention without trial? What happens when •P AN Card Primarily for income tax; proves identity,
proof of identity becomes a privilege? And can a nation uphold its Constitution while not citizenship.
turning detention into default? •B irth Certificate, School Certificates, and Govern-
ment Service Records Used to prove date/place of
birth and lineage.
‘Proof of Identity’ : India & Assam •R ation Card, Driving Licence, etc. Often used for
In India, the proof of identity system is largely document-based and applies to citizens address and family-based identification.
for various purposes — accessing government schemes, voting, banking, travel, etc. Most of these documents are accepted in a presump-
There is no single universal ID that conclusively establishes citizenship; instead, a mix tive and inclusive way, meaning people are generally
of documents are used to prove identity, address, and date of birth. presumed to be citizens unless proven otherwise.

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How is Assam Different?

Assam operates under a distinct and exclusionary framework due to its unique history
of migration and the NRC (National Register of Citizens) process. Here, the burden of
proving citizenship is far higher, more complex, and often punitive in nature.

Key Differences in Assam: 3. F

 oreigners Tribunals (FTs): Individuals suspected of being illegal
1. L egacy Data Requirement: Individuals must prove that they or immigrants may be summoned by FTs to prove citizenship. Even if one
their ancestors were in Assam before March 24, 1971 (as per the has Aadhaar or Voter ID, it may not be accepted as conclusive proof.
Assam Accord). Requires linking one’s name to pre-1971 docu- 4. P
 resumption of Illegality: Unlike the rest of India, in Assam,
ments (like 1951 NRC or 1971 electoral rolls), a huge burden in a individuals are presumed to be foreigners until proven otherwise,
state prone to floods and displacement. reversing the usual principle of natural justice.
2. Family Tree Verification: People must prove lineage through 5. D
 etention and Exclusion: Failure to prove identity/citizenship can
official documents — often not available for women, orphans, or lead to detention in designated centres and loss of legal rights.
displaced persons. Minor spelling errors (e.g., “Rahima Khatun” vs.
“Rahima Khatoon”) can lead to exclusion.

While most Indians rely on flexible, inclusive identity documentation for everyday life,
Assam applies a rigid, high-stakes system focused on citizenship verification, rooted in
historical anxieties over migration. This makes identity not a tool for inclusion, but a test
of belonging often with life-altering consequences.

Issues in NRC Process

The NRC (National Register of Citizens) process in Assam, intended to identify illegal migrants,
has been mired in controversy due to deep procedural and structural flaws. While the goal was to
create a fair and accurate record of legal residents, the implementation raised serious humanitari-
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an and constitutional concerns. The process disproportionately affected the poor, rural, and mar-
ginalized communities often not because they were illegal immigrants, but because they lacked
paperwork, faced systemic disadvantages, or encountered bureaucratic opacity. The table below

2
highlights key issues that plagued the NRC process, undermining both its credibility and fairness.
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Factor Explanation Example

02
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Stringent Documen- Proof of ancestry before March 24, 1971 required. Rural residents lacked land/birth records due to
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tation Requirements illiteracy or displacement.

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Loss of Records Floods and natural disasters destroyed old Many families in flood-prone Assam lost records
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documents. multiple times.

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Minor Discrepancies Differences in names/spelling across documents led “Rafiqul” vs “Rafiqul Islam” flagged as suspicious.
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to exclusion.
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Marginalisation of Affected women, Bengali Muslims, and tribal groups Women lacked independent lineage proof due to
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Vulnerable Groups disproportionately. patriarchal norms.

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Opaque and Unfair No transparency or meaningful opportunity to People declared foreigners without notice or hearing.
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Tribunal Procedures appeal decisions.

Impact on Detainees
Threat to Liberty & Well-being Constitutional Principles Affected Examples

1. Indefinite detention without trial Article 21 – Right to Life and Many declared foreigners have been held in detention for
Personal Liberty years without deportation or conviction.

2. Detention of Indian citizens due to Article 14 – Right to Equality before Poor, illiterate individuals lacking documents are more likely to
document issues Law be wrongfully detained.

3. Poor living conditions in detention Article 21 – Dignity as part of Right Reports reveal lack of medical care, overcrowding, and denial
centres to Life of basic needs in detention facilities.

4. No legal aid or fair representation Article 22 – Protection against Many accused of being foreigners are tried in quasi-judicial
arbitrary arrest and detention Foreigners Tribunals without proper legal help.

5. Disproportionate impact on Article 15 – Non-discrimination on Bengali Hindus and Muslims are most affected, raising
marginalized groups grounds of religion, caste, etc. concerns of discriminatory implementation.

6. Uncertainty, fear and mental Directive Principles – Human dignity Even children of detainees suffer from trauma, education loss,
health trauma and social justice (Article 39A) and social stigma.

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Constitutional Violations Under Article 21 and 22

Provision Violation Example
Article 21: Right to Life and Detention without fair legal basis undermines Innocent individuals held for years without real
Personal Liberty personal liberty. deportation prospects.
Article 22: Procedural Lack of information on grounds of detention; Detainees often unaware of reasons or denied timely
Safeguards no legal aid. counsel.
Detention Without Trial or Law allows detention mainly through judicial People detained by quasi-judicial tribunals despite no
Conviction process, not executive action. criminal charge.
No Legitimate Preventive Preventive detention requires imminent Detentions continue even when deportation is not
Purpose threat, not document issues. feasible.
Executive Overreach Detentions ordered by executive/tribunals Judiciary bypassed, undermining rule of law and access
without judicial oversight. to remedy.

Way Forward for Reforming India’s Detention Regime 4. D

 evelop Alternatives to Detention: Shift towards community-based
India’s detention regime urgently requires a rights-based, rule-of-law- monitoring, reporting obligations, or bail systems for those not posing
oriented overhaul. The following steps offer a tight and actionable security risks, especially families, the elderly, and children.
path forward: 5. E
 nsure Humane Conditions: Detention centres must comply with
1. Enact a Comprehensive Law: India needs a dedicated and codi- basic human rights standards, including access to healthcare,
fied immigration and detention law that clearly defines grounds for clean living spaces, and education for children. Independent bod-
detention, outlines procedures, provides safeguards, and distin- ies should regularly audit these facilities.
guishes between illegal immigrants, stateless persons, and asylum 6. A
 ddress Statelessness and Identity Gaps: Formulate a clear
seekers. national protocol for dealing with stateless persons and those
2. R eform Foreigners Tribunals: Make Foreigners Tribunals more
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excluded from citizenship due to documentation gaps, in line with
transparent and accountable by ensuring judicial oversight, stan- international principles.
dardized procedures, and access to free legal aid. Appeals must be 7. P
 rotect the Vulnerable: Women, children, and marginalised com-

2
allowed before a competent and impartial authority. munities require special procedural protections during verification
3. C ap Detention Periods: Introduce a legally mandated, time-bound
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and detention processes to avoid systemic injustice.
07

8. E
 stablish Parliamentary Oversight: Institutionalise regular
5-

limit on administrative detention — for example, six months —

02

beyond which individuals must be released if deportation is not reporting to Parliament or a standing committee on the number
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feasible. of detainees, conditions in centres, and legal outcomes to ensure

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transparency and accountability.

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Only by combining legal clarity, administrative fairness, and humane treatment can India
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reconcile its immigration control with constitutional values and international obligations.
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Back2Basics
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Detention Regime in India

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India’s detention regime refers to the legal and administrative framework under which individuals
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are detained either as foreigners or under preventive detention laws without regular criminal
trial. It is especially relevant in the context of immigration enforcement and national security.
1. Detention under Foreigners Act, 1946 3. Preventive Detention under Indian Constitution
• Who can be detained? •C  onstitutional Provision:
Foreigners who are: Article 22(3)–(7) allows preventive detention in the interest of:
- Overstaying visas -N  ational security
- Entering illegally -P  ublic order
- Declared as “foreigners” by a Foreigners Tribunal (particularly -F  oreign affairs
in Assam) -M  aintenance of essential supplies
• Legal Basis: •L  aws Allowing Preventive Detention:
The Foreigners Act, 1946 empowers the government to detain -N  SA (National Security Act), 1980
and deport any foreign national without a criminal conviction. -C  OFEPOSA (for economic offences)
• Purpose: - J &K PSA (Public Safety Act)
Detention is considered administrative, not punitive aimed at deportation. •S  afeguards:
2. Detention in the Context of NRC (National Register of Citizens) -D  etention beyond 3 months requires advisory board
in Assam approval.
• Special Case: -D  etainee may not be told full grounds of arrest if it’s against
People excluded from the NRC and declared as “foreigners” by public interest.
Foreigners Tribunals may be detained. 4. Detention of Refugees and Asylum Seekers
• Problem: • India is not a signatory to the 1951 UN Refugee Convention.
Many of those detained: •R  efugees like Rohingyas and undocumented migrants may be
- Were Indian citizens wrongfully excluded detained as illegal foreigners.
- Had no country to be deported to (e.g., stateless) •D  etention is not governed by a uniform refugee law — policies
• Detention Centres: vary by government orders.
Special prisons within jails, and standalone facilities, such as the
large centre in Goalpara (Assam).

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5. Key Concerns with India’s Detention Regime

Issue Explanation
Lack of Legal Aid Many detainees cannot access lawyers or understand the legal process.
Indefinite Detention Without bilateral agreements, deportation is impossible — leading to endless jailing.
Poor Detention Conditions Overcrowding, lack of medical care, and absence of facilities for women/children.
Statelessness Risk Many excluded individuals have no citizenship anywhere.
Arbitrary and Disproportionate Minor documentary issues lead to grave consequences, violating natural justice.

India’s detention regime, particularly in Assam, raises serious human rights, constitutional,
and due process concerns. While the state has a right to control illegal immigration and ensure
national security, the current system lacks transparency, uniform safeguards, and accountability,
making it vulnerable to misuse and injustice especially for the poor and marginalised.

Chronology of NRC (National Register of Citizens) in Assam

Year/Period Event/Development
1951 – The First NRC After India’s first Census, the NRC was created in Assam to record who was living there legally. It wasn’t
updated thereafter it stayed frozen in time.
1971 – Bangladesh War in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) led to a massive refugee influx into Assam. This caused tensions
Liberation War over identity, jobs, and land among locals.
1979–1985 – Assam Agitation A mass movement led by student bodies like AASU demanded the identification and deportation of
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“illegal foreigners” (mainly from Bangladesh).
1985 – Assam Accord Signed The Centre and protest leaders signed the Assam Accord. It set March 24, 1971, as the cut-off date for
identifying foreigners and promised an NRC update.

2
2005–2013 – NRC -0
NRC update efforts revived under Congress and BJP. Pilot projects began but stopped due to violence.
07

Update Gains Steam In 2013, the Supreme Court took charge of the process.
5-
02

2015 – NRC Update People in Assam had to prove that they or their ancestors were in India before March 24, 1971, using
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Process Officially Begins documents like land records and voter lists.
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2018 – Draft NRC Released The first draft excluded over 40 lakh people, leading to panic, confusion, and widespread controversy.
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2019 – Final NRC Published On August 31, 2019, the final NRC was released, excluding 19.06 lakh people. Appeals were to be made
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in Foreigners Tribunals. Many were dissatisfied with the list.

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Post-2019 – What Now? The NRC hasn’t been officially notified. The Assam government rejected it, and it may be rechecked or
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redone. Excluded individuals face legal uncertainty and fear.

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nsa

Smash Mains: Mock Drop

ba

[QUESTION] In the context of the NRC process in Assam, examine how document-based identity verification
challenges the constitutional promises of liberty, equality, and due process. Suggest a rights-based framework to
reconcile immigration control with fundamental rights. (15 Marks, 250 Words)

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BURNING ISSUE #5

Power Politics
In India
Using Energy Ties to Redraw
Its Global Role ?
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Note4Students PYQs & Microthemes

2
UPSC often frames questions on India’s bilateral relations through a current affairs -0 [UPSC 2020, GS-2] What is the significance of
07
lens and asks aspirants to connect them with broader themes like regional stability
5-

Indo-US defence deals over Indo-Russian defence

02

or strategic autonomy (as seen in 2020’s Indo-US vs Indo-Russia defence question deals? Discuss with reference to stability in the
-2

or the 2024 Maldives question on maritime security). Aspirants usually falter in Indo-Pacific region.
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one key area they either focus too much on generic facts or fail to weave in current,
l.c

evolving trends like the energy-defence convergence or how diplomacy has become [UPSC 2024, GS-2] Discuss the geopolitical and
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issue-specific. This article helps bridge that gap. It takes two concrete anchors
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geostrategic importance of Maldives for India with

energy cooperation (like green hydrogen collaborations and clean tech tie-ups) and
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a focus on global trade and energy flows. Further

defence collaboration (like GE-HAL engine co-development, foundational pacts like
18

also discuss how this relation ship affects India’s

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LEMOA) and explains how these are not isolated moves but part of a deeper strategic maritime security and regional stability amidst
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shift. It also brings a fresh structure by showing how India’s diplomacy has been “re- international competition?
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engineered”no longer driven by ideology, but by sectors like health (Vaccine Maitri),
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technology (iCET for semiconductors), or digital diplomacy (exporting UPI). The real
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Microthemes: Bilateral Relations

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win for students is the “table of transformation” that compares India’s diplomacy then
and now. This gives a ready-made, analytical framework to tackle any mains question
not just about the U.S., but about how India is positioning itself globally.

in a significant signal of The Emerging India–U.S. Energy-Defense Axis: A Strategic Convergence

strengthening strategic ties, U.S. As geopolitical uncertainties mount and global power dynamics shift, the India–U.S. relationship is
Vice-President J.D. Vance recently entering a new phase marked by deepening ties in two high-stakes sectors: energy and defense. This
affirmed that the United States is evolving “energy-defense axis” is not merely transactional—it’s strategic, with long-term implications
prepared to deepen its partnership for regional security, technological collaboration, and the global energy transition.
with India, with a particular focus 1. Energy Cooperation: Securing Futures, Greening Growth
on energy cooperation and defense a. Oil and Gas Trade Expansion: The U.S. has become one of India’s top suppliers of crude oil and
collaboration. This statement LNG, helping India diversify away from Middle East dependence.
reflects not just shared geopolitical b. Clean Energy Partnerships: Joint initiatives like the U.S.-India Strategic Clean Energy Partner-
interests but also a recognition of ship (SCEP) and India–U.S. Climate and Clean Energy Agenda 2030 aim to promote cleaner fuels
India’s growing role as a key player in and technologies.
global stability and technology-driv- c. Green Hydrogen Collaboration: Both countries are cooperating on R&D and infrastructure for
en development. As both nations green hydrogen, a key future fuel for decarbonisation.
navigate an increasingly complex d. Solar and Battery Supply Chain Integration: The U.S. is helping India reduce dependence on
Indo-Pacific and energy landscape, Chinese solar imports by boosting domestic solar and battery ecosystems.
what could closer cooperation look e. Carbon Capture and Climate Finance: Pilot projects and policy dialogues focus on carbon cap-
like—and what opportunities and ture and climate-resilient infrastructure, especially in high-emission sectors like cement and steel.
challenges lie ahead? And is the f. S
 trategic Energy Dialogue Platforms: Institutional mechanisms like the India–U.S. Energy
emerging energy-defense axis the Dialogue ensure regular government-to-government coordination on energy policy, technology
foundation of a new India–U.S. era? transfer, and financing.

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2. Defense Cooperation: From Buyer–Seller to d. D  efense Co-Development Initiatives: Projects like the GE-HAL
Strategic Partners jet engine deal and potential drone manufacturing partnerships
a. M ajor Defense Partner Status: India was granted “Major indicate a shift from arms buyer to co-producer.
Defense Partner” status in 2016, unlocking access to advanced e. Technology Transfer & Industrial Tie-ups: U.S. companies are
U.S. defense technology and systems. entering joint ventures with Indian firms to manufacture defense
b. Foundational Defense Agreements: India has signed LE- equipment locally under Make in India.
MOA, COMCASA, BECA, and GSOMIA, which enable logistics f. Indo-Pacific Security Convergence: Shared concerns over Chi-
sharing, encrypted communications, and geospatial intelligence na’s assertiveness in the Indo-Pacific have brought India and the
exchange. U.S. closer in maritime surveillance and strategic planning.
c. Bilateral and Multilateral Military Exercises: Regular joint exer-
cises like Yudh Abhyas (Army), Malabar (Navy), and Cope India (Air
Force) improve interoperability and combat coordination.

Re-engineering of India’s Diplomacy over the years

Indian diplomacy no longer pivots on a single axis. In the age of climate risk, digital
public goods, contested supply chains and a revisionist China, New Delhi has morphed
from the champion of non-alignment into a hyper-pragmatic power that builds different
coalitions for different problems. Whether it is shipping vaccines to 70-plus countries,
co-developing jet engines with the United States or pitching India’s UPI stack in Africa,
the Ministry of External Affairs now treats every sector—energy, technology, defence,
health—as a separate theatre of influence. The table below captures this subject-wise
evolution at a glance.

Subject Area Primary Focus Current Focus (2000s – 2020s) Flagship Examples & Platforms
(1950s – 1990s)
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Political & Secu- Decolonisation, non- Indo-Pacific strategy, Quad, LEMOA / COMCASA / BECA with the U.S.;
rity Diplomacy alignment, UN peace foundational defence pacts, counter- Quad Leaders’ Summits; BIMSTEC security

2
speeches terror outreach -0 dialogue
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5-
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Economic Import substitution, aid FTAs, supply-chain resilience, India-UAE CEPA; Australia-India ECTA; Indo-
-2

Diplomacy seeking, rupee trade investment pitching, PLI incentives Pacific Economic Framework (observer)
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Energy Secure Gulf oil, Soviet Green hydrogen, LNG from U.S., International Solar Alliance; U.S.–India Strategic
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Diplomacy assistance for refineries nuclear deals, solar alliances Clean Energy Partnership; Kudankulam &
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Kovvada nuclear projects

ya
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Technology & Technical training for Export of digital public goods, space Vaccine Maitri; deployment of UPI in
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Development neighbours, limited IT launches, chip-research tie-ups Nepal, France & UAE; iCET semiconductor
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Diplomacy exports cooperation with the U.S.

Diaspora & Cul- Protect Indian workers Diaspora as economic & political lobby; Large-scale diaspora events in Madison Square
tural Diplomacy abroad, cultural troupes Yoga Day; OCI card reforms Garden, Sydney, Abu Dhabi; Pravasi Bharatiya
Divas

Climate & Glob- Low-profile participant in Lead voice of Global South on equity G20 Delhi Declaration 2023; Coalition for
al Governance climate talks & finance, host of G20, CDRI champion Disaster Resilient Infrastructure; “LiFE”
initiative

Health & Limited medical aid, WHO Pharmacy of the World, vaccine Supply of generic ARV drugs to Africa; WHO
Humanitarian cooperation exports, traditional medicine hub Global Centre for Traditional Medicine in
Diplomacy Gujarat

Space & Cyber Scientific launches, INSAT Commercial launches, space Contract launches for OneWeb; Artemis
Diplomacy for telecom situational norms, cyber norms Accords sign-on; India-France space-security
advocacy dialogue

India’s external relations are no longer a single narrative of East-West balancing; they are a
portfolio of mini-strategies tailored to energy security, digital supremacy, climate leadership
and strategic deterrence each with its own partners, platforms and playbook.

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Assessment of India’s policies

India’s diplomacy has grown bolder, broader, and more issue-driven in the 21st century. It has
made significant strategic gains, but challenges persist in converting ambitions into sustained out-
comes. Below is a structured analysis of both successes and challenges in this evolving journey.

Major Diplomatic Successes

Area Successes
Global Leadership Hosted a landmark G20 Summit in 2023, positioning India as a voice of the Global South and a key player
Recognition in global governance.
Strategic Partnerships Signed foundational defence agreements with the U.S., deepened defence ties with France, and balanced
ties with Russia amid shifting power equations.
Technology Diplomacy Pioneered digital public infrastructure diplomacy (e.g. UPI, Aadhaar), earning praise from nations across
Africa, Southeast Asia, and Latin America.
Energy & Climate Championed the International Solar Alliance and Mission LiFE, securing credibility as a green energy
partner while balancing fossil fuel needs.
Health Diplomacy Executed Vaccine Maitri, supplying over 250 million COVID-19 vaccine doses to 100+ countries—soft
power at its peak.
Diaspora & Soft Power Transformed the diaspora into a diplomatic asset through emotional connect, political lobbying, and
economic investment channels.

Key Diplomatic Challenges

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Area Challenges
Strategic Balancing Managing contradictions between deepening ties with the U.S. and continuing defence cooperation with

2
Russia, especially post-Ukraine war. -0
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Neighbourhood Stressed ties with Maldives, Nepal, and Sri Lanka at various points due to internal politics, Chinese influence,
5-
02

First Policy and delivery gaps.

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Trade India walked out of RCEP, and several FTA negotiations (e.g., with EU) have faced delays or limited ambition.
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Negotiation Capacity
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Institutional Capacity India’s diplomatic machinery (limited number of IFS officers, under-resourced embassies) often struggles to
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match global ambitions.

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China Challenge Despite growing global influence, India faces an aggressive China on its borders and in strategic regions like
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the Indian Ocean and South Asia.

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Climate & Balancing between green transition commitments and domestic energy security remains tricky, especially
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Energy Dilemma with rising power demand.

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India has successfully redefined its diplomacy from being merely reactive and moralistic
to becoming assertive, agenda-setting, and diversified. But to become a true global
power, India will need to:
• Build institutional depth in foreign policy,
• Manage great power tensions deftly,
• Deliver on-the-ground impact in its neighbourhood,
• And maintain credibility as a reliable, rule-based partner in an increasingly turbulent world.

Way Forward for India’s Evolving Diplomacy 4. L

 everage Diaspora as Economic Connectors: Move beyond
1. S trengthen Institutional Capacity: Expand the Indian Foreign cultural events—use diaspora networks to channel investments,
Service (IFS) cadre, improve training in tech, trade, and crisis startup capital, and tech partnerships into Indian innovation
diplomacy, and empower missions abroad with better resources ecosystems.
and coordination. 5. L
 ead on Global South Issues: Champion fair climate finance,
2. Bridge Strategy with Delivery in the Neighbourhood: Ensure equitable digital infrastructure, and food-energy security for the
faster implementation of infrastructure, energy, and connectivity Global South to build long-term strategic goodwill.
projects in South Asia to counter Chinese influence and restore 6. Invest in Issue-Specific Diplomacy Cells: Set up dedicat-
trust in India’s leadership. ed units within MEA and other ministries for climate, cyber,
3. Diversify Strategic Autonomy Playbook: While deepening ties with maritime, and space diplomacy to respond rapidly to emerging
the U.S., India must maintain a pragmatic balance with Russia, Middle global issues.
Eastern powers, ASEAN, and Africa to preserve diplomatic flexibility.

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Back2Basics
Importance Of India’s Energy Diplomacy
As the world’s third-largest energy consumer and a rapidly growing economy, India’s energy
needs are massive and urgent. From securing oil in the Gulf to leading the green energy
transition, India’s energy diplomacy has evolved into a strategic pillar of its foreign policy. It
now cuts across geopolitics, climate goals, and technological cooperation, reflecting the
country’s twin priorities: energy security and energy transition.

Key Pillars of India’s Energy Diplomacy Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) waiver.
1. Oil and Gas Diplomacy •K  udankulam (Russia) and Jaitapur (France) nuclear power projects.
• Objective: Ensure uninterrupted supply of crude oil and LNG to • India now promotes nuclear energy as a clean base-load source
power India’s economy. for energy transition.
• Engagements: 4. Renewable Energy and Climate Diplomacy
- Long-term contracts with Gulf countries like Saudi Arabia, • India is a major global player in solar and wind energy:
UAE, Iraq. - International Solar Alliance (ISA) founded by India to unite
- Strategic investments in Russian and African oil blocks. tropical countries around solar.
- Sourcing LNG from Qatar, Australia, and the U.S. - Global leader in pushing green hydrogen, offshore wind,
• Institutions: Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserve (ISPR), OVL and battery storage.
(ONGC Videsh Ltd), GAIL. • Partnering with Germany, Denmark, Japan, and UAE for clean tech.
2. Energy Security through Strategic Partnerships 5. Green Hydrogen & Future Tech Diplomacy
• With the U.S.: India–U.S. Strategic Energy Partnership (SEP) • India’s National Green Hydrogen Mission has international tie-
focuses on oil, gas, clean energy, and innovation. ups with EU, Australia, and Japan.
• With Russia: Cooperation on nuclear energy, oil & gas invest- • Aim: Become a hub for low-cost, exportable green hydrogen by 2030.
ments (e.g., Sakhalin-I). 6. Multilateral Energy Engagements
• With IEA: India is an Associate Member, giving access to global •A  ctive in IEA, OPEC+ dialogues, G20 energy track, and BRICS
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energy data and best practices. energy platforms.
3. Nuclear Energy Cooperation •P  ushes for “just energy transitions” in the Global South, linking

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• Civil nuclear deals with the U.S., France, and Russia post-2008 development with clean growth.
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Challenges Successes Conclusion:

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•O  ver-dependence on fossil fuel imports • Diversification of suppliers and fuel India’s energy diplomacy today is no longer
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(85% of oil is imported). types. just about importing oil—it is about shap-
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• Vulnerability to geopolitical shocks (e.g., • Global leadership in solar diplomacy and ing global energy trends. From influencing
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Russia-Ukraine war, West Asia tensions). green transition. climate finance conversations to pioneering
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• Technology gap in clean energy manufac- • Smart use of energy diplomacy in solar coalitions, India is positioning itself not
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turing (e.g., solar modules, batteries). strengthening bilateral ties (e.g., with just as a consumer—but a leader of energy
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• Financing issues in scaling renewable UAE, U.S., Saudi Arabia). transition for the developing world.
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infrastructure and transmission. • Progress in building strategic petroleum

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reserves.
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Smash Mains: Mock Drop

[QUESTION] India’s evolving partnership with the United States, driven by energy and
defence convergence, marks a shift from ideological diplomacy to sectoral strategic
alignment. Critically analyse this transformation in the context of India’s broader foreign
policy objectives. (15 Marks, 250 Words)

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BURNING ISSUE #6

India–Bangladesh
Trade & the China
Factor
Is There Room for Strategic Balance ?
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Note4Students
2
-0 PYQs & Microthemes
07
5-

India‑Bangladesh ties shift from warmth to worry, trade to tension, diplomacy to

02

dilemmas. UPSC usually throws a big‑picture question that links neighbourhood

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[UPSC 2017, GS-2] ‘China is using its economic

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politics with wider security, just as it asked in 2017 about China’s trade surplus turning
relations and positive trade surplus as tools to
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into military clout; a similar mains prompt could use “The 2025 Flashpoint: From
develop potential military power status in Asia’, In
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Cooperation to Confrontation” to test how you weigh trade bans against strategic fallout.
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the light of this statement, discuss its impact on

Many aspirants stumble because they list facts but miss the chain of cause‑and‑effect
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India as her neighbor.

across subheads like “Key Aspects of India‑Bangladesh Trade Relations” and “Impact
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of Geopolitical Issues on India’s Trade with Neighbours,” leaving answers scattered and
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shallow. This article fixes that by walking you through the logic first it shows why Dhaka’s
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China tilt alarms Delhi (see “Geopolitical Realignment Toward China and Pakistan”),
Microthemes: Groupings involving Immediate
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then it maps the spill‑over into anti‑India sentiment and Northeast security worries
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and Extended neighbours

ba

(under “Implications for India”). The most special part is its blueprint for solutions in
“Using Multi‑Vector Diplomacy to Reset India‑Bangladesh Ties,” which turns theory into
ready‑to‑use policy ideas like pairing UPI payments with border haats or talking to both
BNP and grass‑roots groups so you can plug gaps that UPSC loves to probe.

india and bangladesh have historically

shared a strong and multifaceted relation- The 2025 Flashpoint: From Cooperation to Confrontation
ship, particularly flourishing since the Awami In 2025, the bilateral relationship took a sharp turn when India imposed trade restrictions on
League came to power under Sheikh Hasina Bangladeshi goods, notably readymade garments. This marked a clear shift from cooperation
in 2009. This partnership has brought politi- to confrontation, triggered by growing unease over Bangladesh’s internal political develop-
cal goodwill, strategic cooperation, and deep ments and its external alignments.
economic ties. India became Bangladesh’s
second-largest trading partner, exporting Three key developments prompted India’s reaction:
machinery, vehicles, and raw materials, while 1. Geopolitical Realignment Toward China was interpreted as undermining Indian
importing garments, fish, and jute products and Pakistan: sovereignty and portraying Bangladesh as a
from its neighbour. The interim Bangladeshi government, led by leverage-holding power over a geopolitically
Mohammed Yunus, has been perceived by sensitive region.
Beyond trade, the two countries collaborated India as pivoting towards China and Pakistan. 3. Democratic Backsliding in Dhaka:
on key infrastructure and connectivity proj- A notable flashpoint was Yunus’s invitation India was also alarmed by domestic political
ects such as the Akhaura–Agartala rail link, to China to access India’s Northeast through developments. The interim regime banned
the India-Bangladesh power grid, the Maitree Bangladesh—a move seen in Delhi as a the Awami League and indefinitely post-
Setu bridge, and cross-border energy pipe- direct challenge to India’s strategic interests. poned elections—moves that India saw as
lines. These projects not only enhanced eco- 2. Provocative Comments About Northeast India: undemocratic. The trade restrictions were
nomic integration but also helped stabilise Yunus described India’s Northeast as also intended as a signal of disapproval and
India’s Northeast by improving connectivity “landlocked” and implied that Bangladesh an assertion of normative pressure.
and fostering people-to-people ties. served as its essential gateway. This narrative

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Implications for India: More Than Just Trade into Indian territory in the form of refugee influx, cross-border
The diplomatic rupture has wider ramifications for India: tension, or even radicalisation in sensitive areas like Assam and
1. Rising Anti-India Sentiment in Bangladesh: Tripura.
Trade restrictions may be perceived within Bangladesh as punitive 3. Loss of Diplomatic Influence:
and politically motivated, potentially fuelling anti-India rhetoric, By limiting economic engagement, India also risks reducing its
particularly among nationalist and radical segments. soft power and losing valuable diplomatic space. In a region where
2. Security Instability in the Northeast: influence often rides on connectivity and aid, such restrictions can
Any political or economic instability in Bangladesh could spill over narrow India’s options for dialogue.

Key Aspects of India-Bangladesh Trade Relations 3. Security & Strategic Cooperation

1. Trade & Economic Exchange • J oint efforts include managing borders, tackling cross-border
DOMINATE • In 2023–24, bilateral trade stood at $14.01 billion. crime, and regular military exercises like SAMPRITI and MILAN.
PRELIMS • India’s main exports: electricity, cotton yarn, refined petroleum. •B  oth nations align on sub-regional maritime goals, including
• Bangladesh’s top exports: garments (e.g., men’s suits), textile Indo-Pacific cooperation and ocean economy development.
scraps, and even some aircraft components. 4. Cultural & People-to-People Ties
• Both countries view each other as critical trade partners. • Institutions like the Indira Gandhi Cultural Centre and Indian Cul-
2. Investment & Infrastructure tural Centre in Dhaka promote cultural and educational exchange.
• Indian investments in Bangladesh are steadily growing, especially 5. Emerging Trends
in energy and infrastructure. •T  rade and investment are on a steady rise, deepening economic
• Initiatives like the Protocol on Inland Waterways Trade and Transit interdependence.
(PIWTT) and access to Chittagong and Mongla Ports are enhanc- •T  his growing interlinkage contributes to shared prosperity and
ing regional connectivity. regional stability.

Impact of Geopolitical Issues on India’s Trade with Neighbours

India’s trade with its neighbours is deeply intertwined with regional geopolitics. While geography offers
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natural trade advantages, political tensions often override economic logic. Border disputes, shifting
alliances, and domestic instability in neighbouring countries routinely disrupt trade flows, stall infra-
structure projects, and limit market access. The following table highlights how geopolitical issues have

2
directly impacted India’s trade with each of its key neighbours.
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Neighbour Geopolitical Issue How Trade is Affected Example

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China Border tensions (e.g. Rise in tariffs, curbs on Post-Galwan, India banned 200+ Chinese apps, restricted
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Galwan clash, 2020), trust Chinese investments, non- Chinese firms in infrastructure and telecom sectors. Imports
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deficit tariff barriers slowed, especially in electronics and machinery.

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Pakistan Cross-border terrorism, Complete trade suspension; After Pulwama (2019), India withdrew MFN status and imposed
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Pulwama attack, no MFN loss of cross-border trade 200% duty; Pakistan responded by suspending all trade ties.
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status routes
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Bangladesh Shift in foreign policy, tilt Imposition of trade In 2025, India restricted readymade garment imports over
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towards China, election- restrictions, loss of access Dhaka’s perceived China tilt and comments on Northeast
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related tensions routes India.

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Nepal Map dispute (Kalapani- Strain on bilateral 2020 map row led to tensions; projects like India-Nepal railway
Lipulekh), growing Chinese infrastructure and logistics and hydro deals slowed; pro-China tilt in Kathmandu affected
presence cooperation trust.
Sri Lanka Chinese debt trap Reduced Indian influence in Chinese control of Hambantota port raised Indian security
diplomacy, strategic port maritime trade routes, delay concerns; India lost competitive edge in some logistics and
control (Hambantota) in key Indian projects energy projects.
Myanmar Political instability post- Connectivity projects India’s Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit project slowed down;
coup, Chinese influence disrupted; security risks for insurgency spillovers affected border trade via Mizoram and
trade corridors Manipur.
Afghanistan Taliban takeover, lack of India lost major export After 2021 Taliban takeover, Indian wheat and pharma exports
direct land access via market; stalled infrastructure halted; access blocked as Pakistan denied land route.
Pakistan and trade deals

Need Of Multi-Vector Diplomacy For India

Multi-vector diplomacy simply means not putting all your eggs in one basket
SMASH when dealing with another country. Instead of relying on just one type of
MAINS connection (like only government-to-government talks or only trade), you build
many kinds of relationships at the same time with:
• Government (ruling and opposition),
• Businesses and traders,
• People and culture,
• Universities and tech sectors,
• Media, youth, and civil society.
So, even if one door closes, you still have other doors open to keep the
relationship strong.

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India‘s Experience with Multi Vector diplomacy

India has repeatedly practised “multi-vector diplomacy,” using several parallel channels
(security, economy, technology, people-to-people) and partnering with rival blocs at the
same time.

What India Did Why It Counts as Multi-Vector

Kept the Russia lifeline open cheap oil, strategic trade- even while deepening Shows India’s willingness to ring-fence energy & defence
its “Comprehensive Global Strategic Partnership” with the United States ties with Moscow while courting U.S. tech and investment
(iCET tech pact, critical-minerals supply chains, joint fighter-jet engines). two opposite “vectors” managed simultaneously.
Sits in the Quad and hosts the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO). Demonstrates the “two chairs, one table” tactic maritime
•Q uad summits (2021-24) shape Indo-Pacific rules with the U.S., Japan & Australia. security with the West, continental security with Eurasia
• India chaired the 2023 SCO summit an organisation led by China & Russia without choosing sides.
and refused to sign the BRI clause while pushing digital payments and
counter-terror statements.
Championed BRICS expansion in 2023 & 2024 and launched the Voice of Runs with a China- and Russia-heavy club (BRICS) while
Global South Summits during its G-20 presidency. positioning itself as spokesperson for 100+ developing
countries two very different coalitions, one Indian bridge.
Middle-East balancing act: Keeps defence tech flowing from Israel, gains Gulf capital
• Joined the I2U2 mini-lateral (India, Israel, UAE, U.S.) on food & green-energy for food-energy projects, and preserves goodwill in the
corridors. Arab street three vectors in one theatre.
• Votes variously at the U.N. backing a Gaza cease-fire in Dec 2023, abstaining
on an HRC arms-embargo vote in Apr 2024 while remaining a top defence-
tech partner of Israel.
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Crisis-manager in Sri Lanka co-chaired the Paris creditors’ platform with Japan Engages finance (debt relief), development (credit & fuel),
& France, gave ~$4 billion credit lines, and rolled out UPI digital payments and fintech (UPI link) showing how India mixes soft-power
there. tools with hard cash to keep China at bay.

2
Signed on to the India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) while -0
Bets on both a U.S./Saudi-led supply route and an Iran-
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still pushing the older International North-South Transport Corridor (via Iran- Russia route, diversifying geography as well as partners.
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Russia).
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Using Multi-Vector Diplomacy to Reset India-Bangladesh Ties

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Vector What India Should Do Why It Works

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Political Engagement Engage not just the ruling party (Awami League), Prevents over-dependence on one regime and ensures
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but also BNP, emerging parties, reformist groups, continuity in ties despite leadership changes.
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and local influencers.

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People-to-People Ties Scale up border haats, youth exchanges, cultural Builds public goodwill, which cushions political friction and
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scholarships, tourism, and education links. generates long-term trust.

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Trade + Transit + Tech Bundle trade deals with digital payments (UPI), Deepens economic interdependence, making disruption
logistics upgrades, and cross-border power grid costly for both sides.
projects.
Soft Power Diplomacy Offer India’s digital stack, language training, Offers Bangladesh value China can’t replicate culturally
medical support, media collaboration, and aligned, people-centric development tools.
disaster management capacity.
Regional Use BBIN, BIMSTEC and SAARC-like forums to Shifts the conversation from bilateral blame-games to
Multilateralism promote joint projects and regional rules. shared regional goals and norms.

When a relationship feels stuck, don’t push harder in one direction open more
lanes. Multi-vector diplomacy gives India the tools to engage with Bangladesh
across society, not just state, ensuring that ties are resilient, not reactive.

Conclusion
Geography may make neighbours, but smart diplomacy makes them partners. India’s
trade with its neighbours has often been hostage to shifting politics, border tensions,
and third-party influence. To insulate economic ties from such volatility, India must
adopt a broader, multi-vector diplomatic approach—engaging not just governments
but also opposition parties, civil society, and regional platforms. In a geopolitically
sensitive neighbourhood, resilience in trade will come not from rigid alliances but from
flexible, layered diplomacy.

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Back2Basics
India–Bangladesh Relations:
A Test Case of Neighbourhood Diplomacy
India and Bangladesh share more than a 4,000-km border — they share history, culture,
rivers, language, and bloodshed during the 1971 Liberation War. Since then, the relation-
ship has been described as both “tested” and “transformational.” While cooperation has
grown in trade, connectivity, and security, sensitive issues like migration, water-sharing,
and border tensions continue to stir political emotions on both sides.

Key Pillars of the Relationship

Area Cooperation/Developments
Historical Ties India supported Bangladesh’s independence in 1971, hosting over 10 million refugees and intervening militarily.
Trade & India is Bangladesh’s second-largest trade partner. Bangladesh is India’s biggest trade partner in South Asia.
Economic Cooperation Trade crossed $18 billion (2022).
Connectivity & Projects like BBIN (Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal), cross-border railways (Kolkata–Khulna), and waterways
Infrastructure revive pre-Partition connectivity.
Energy Cooperation India supplies 1,160 MW electricity to Bangladesh. Adani’s power export deal, and a growing clean energy focus
signal deeper energy diplomacy.
Security & Bangladesh has cracked down on anti-India insurgents. Joint efforts on border management, terror control, and
Counterterrorism intelligence-sharing have improved.
Cultural & Peo- Exchange of language, films, tourism, and festivals reinforces soft power and cultural proximity.
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ple-to-People Ties

Irritants & Contentious Issues

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Issue Explanation -0
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Teesta Long-pending treaty over sharing Teesta river water is stalled due to opposition from West Bengal government.
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Water Sharing
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Illegal Migration Assam and border states raise concerns over illegal migration; politicised in domestic Indian politics, especially
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around NRC-CAA debates.

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Border Killings Despite coordination, incidents of civilian killings by BSF remain a sore point. India claims anti-smuggling action;
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Bangladesh calls for restraint.

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China Factor Bangladesh has growing defence and infrastructure ties with China, creating strategic anxiety for India.
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Rohingya Issue Bangladesh seeks stronger Indian support for Rohingya repatriation from its territory to Myanmar. India walks a fine
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line to balance regional ties.

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Recent High Points Conclusion

•M  aitri Setu (Friendship Bridge) opened in Tripura to India–Bangladesh relations represent the most stable and promising bilateral
boost Northeast–Bangladesh connectivity. equation in South Asia, but they require constant nurturing. From liberation
• CEPA (Comprehensive Economic Partnership partners to strategic partners, the two countries have come a long way and with
Agreement) discussions underway for deeper trade political will, they can emerge as a model for regional cooperation in a turbulent
integration. neighbourhood.
• Joint River Commission revived; cooperation on
over 50 shared rivers being negotiated.
• India supplied COVID vaccines under Vaccine Maitri Smash Mains: Mock Drop
and extended credit lines for infrastructure projects.

Way Forward [QUESTION] In the context of recent downturns in India–Bangladesh

1. F
 inalise Teesta and other water-sharing deals relations, critically analyse how India’s trade policy and
transparently and equitably. geopolitical responses to shifting alignments in its neighbourhood
2. Expand regional trade zones and speed up CEPA can either deepen regional stability or fuel strategic anxieties. Can
to deepen economic interdependence. multi-vector diplomacy offer a sustainable path forward? (15 Marks,
3. E
 ngage Bangladesh more actively in BIMSTEC and 250 Words)
Indo-Pacific strategies.
4. J ointly tackle border crimes through tech-based
surveillance and people-friendly protocols.
5. Respect domestic political sensitivities, particu-
larly in West Bengal and Dhaka, to avoid diplomatic
frictions.
6. Counterbalance China’s influence through timely
delivery of projects and concessional funding.

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BURNING ISSUE #7

Environmental
Governance
in India
Has the EIA Framework
Delivered?
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Note4Students PYQs &
2
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Microthemes
07
5-

Court verdict ends post‑facto clearances, pushing India toward greener growth. UPSC
02

[UPSC 2015, GS-2] ‘Does the right

likes to wrap this theme inside a rights question, much like 2015’s Diwali‑crackers case on
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to clean environment entail legal

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Article 21; it will ask how judgments such as “Why the Supreme Court Struck Down Post‑Facto
regulations on burning crackers during
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Environmental Clearances” reshape governance and balance growth with the right to life.
Diwali? Discuss in the light of Article
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Students often list data on bad air but forget to link it to constitutional hooks or to the broken
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21 of the Indian Constitution and

approval chain flagged under “Institutional and Systemic Challenges,” so answers feel like fact
@

Judgement(s) of the Apex Court in this

dumps. This article fixes those gaps by walking you through each link in the chain: it shows
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regard.
the EIA gap (“EIA process was undermined”), the legal anchor (“Alembic Pharma 2020”), and
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the economic cost of inaction (pollution drains 1.3 % of GDP). The result is ready material to
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weave law, economics, and policy into one clear argument. The standout feature? The table
Microthemes: Fundamental Rights
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in “Significance of the Verdict” turns big legal ideas into everyday stakes—health, jobs, global
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image—so readers can lift exact impacts (over 100 mining projects lose their shield) straight
into a mains answer without sounding abstract.

i n d i a m ay b e t h e w o r l d ’ s
fifth-largest Why the Supreme Court Struck Down Post-Facto Environ-
economy, but it’s choking on its own growth. mental Clearances
Fourteen of the 20 most polluted cities are in India’s top court has drawn a clear line: you can’t break environmental laws first and ask
India (IQAir, 2023), with Delhi’s AQI regularly for permission later. In a major ruling on May 16, 2025, the Supreme Court junked the
shooting past 400 in winter turning the air into Centre’s 2017 notification and 2021 Office Memorandum that allowed retrospective
poison. Pollution isn’t just a health disaster; it’s environmental clearances essentially giving legal cover to projects that had already
an economic one too. The Economic Survey violated the law.
(2022–23) says pollution-linked diseases drain
1.3% of India’s GDP every year. The World Bank The Legal Logic Behind the Verdict
pegs the broader cost of environmental damage 1. E IA Process Was Undermined: The 2006 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
at a staggering $80 billion annually. rules demand clearance before a project begins. Granting it after the fact guts the
whole point public consultation, screening, and review are meaningless if damage is
Against this grim backdrop, the Supreme Court’s already done.
May 16, 2025 verdict struck down the Centre’s 2. Past Judgments Already Said No: In Alembic Pharma (2020) and Common Cause
move to allow post-facto environmental clear- (2017), the Court made it clear post-facto clearances go against environmental law
ances calling them “illegal.” It’s a strong reminder and the precautionary principle.
that you can’t legalise damage and then pretend 3. Violation of Article 21: The right to a clean and healthy environment is part of your right
it’s green growth. to life. The Court said that letting polluters off the hook like this tramples that right.
4. Centre’s U-turns: The government first called the 2017 move a one-time fix then
But the real questions include: Is judicial action extended it in 2021 and gave cover to over 100 violators, including big mining firms.
enough to plug the holes in environmental gover- The Court called it out for “going out of its way to protect polluters.”
nance? And most importantly who should be held
accountable when pollution becomes policy?

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The Constitutional Backbone of the Judgment 4. J udicial Pragmatism (Article 142): While the Court struck down
1. A rticle 21: The Court slammed the idea that pollution control can future misuse, it allowed already-granted clearances to stand tem-
be an afterthought. Right to life includes the right to breathe clean porarily showing it wasn’t out to create chaos, but restore balance.
air not beg for it after damage is done. 5. E nvironmental Law Anchors: From the Polluter Pays Principle
2. Articles 48A & 51A(g): Both the State and citizens are constitu- to Precautionary Principle, the Court reaffirmed that these aren’t
tionally bound to protect the environment. The Centre’s conduct abstract ideals they’re enforceable tools of justice.
violated this duty. This judgment wasn’t just a legal cleanup it was a loud and clear
3. Article 14: By giving violators a free pass, the government penal- reminder that sustainable development can’t be built on shortcuts,
ized those who actually followed the law. That’s inequality, plain broken laws, or bureaucratic excuses.
and simple.

Significance of the Verdict

Impact Area What Changed Significance

1. Rule of Law Restored Post-facto approvals declared The Court revived core environmental principles like precaution, public trust, and
illegal. inter-generational equity. Think of cases like Sterlite or Goa mining — now back
under legal scrutiny.

2. EIA Process Prior clearance is now non- This puts public hearings and local community consent back at the center of
Strengthened negotiable. project approvals — not just rubber stamps.

3. Govt Centre was called out for Regulatory bodies like the MoEF&CC can’t act like industry lobbyists anymore.
Accountability Upheld shielding violators. Constitutional duties under Articles 48A & 51A(g) must be followed.
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4. Real Impact on Mining, cement, steel & real Over 100 shady projects (coal, iron ore etc.) now face real scrutiny. No more
Key Sectors estate lose the post-facto amnesties for environmental violations.
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5. Health & Right to clean air & water tied 1.6 million pollution-linked deaths (Lancet, 2019) can’t be ignored. This is as
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Justice Spotlighted to Article 21. much about people’s rights as it is about forests and rivers.
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6. Growth Redefined Verdict supports green over With 5.7% of GDP lost to environmental damage (World Bank), this ruling pushes
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greedy. for sustainable economic planning instead of short-term loot.

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7. Boost to Aligns India with SDGs, Rio, From EPI’s worst rank (180/180) to climate leadership — this ruling helps repair
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Global Credibility and Paris targets. India’s environmental image on global platforms.
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8. People + Civil society warnings echoed Groups like CSE and Parliamentary panels had flagged this long ago. The ruling
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Judiciary = Change in Court. shows what’s possible when watchdogs and the bench work together.

Institutional and Systemic Challenges in Imple- particularly in ecologically sensitive and tribal areas. The draft EIA
menting the Supreme Court Ruling 2020 proposed extensive exemptions, undermining procedural
SMASH 1. R egulatory Capacity Deficits fairness.
MAINS Pollution Control Boards (PCBs) suffer from chronic under-resourc- 5. T ransparency and Data Gaps
ing, limited autonomy, and susceptibility to regulatory capture. The Lack of real-time, publicly accessible environmental monitoring
CAG (2022) found that nearly 40% of Environmental Clearance data hinders accountability and weakens both civil society over-
(EC) conditions were inadequately monitored. sight and institutional response systems.
2. I nstitutional Fragmentation 6. Policy Conflict: Economic Growth vs Environmental Safeguards
Overlapping mandates between the Ministry of Environment, The prioritization of “Ease of Doing Business” has often resulted in the
Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC), National Green Tribunal dilution of environmental norms, with the draft EIA 2020 perceived as
(NGT), and State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) create oper- promoting extractive industrialism at the cost of ecological sustainability.
ational ambiguities, as illustrated by the response failures in the 7. F ederal Asymmetry and Norm Evasion
Vizag LG Polymers gas leak case. State governments, citing developmental prerogatives, have at
3. I nadequate Sanctioning Mechanisms times circumvented central environmental norms—as seen in infra-
The Environment Protection Act, 1986 provides weak deterrents- structure and mining approvals in Andhra Pradesh and Odisha—
maximum penalties often capped at ₹1 lakh rendering enforce- posing challenges to regulatory uniformity.
ment ineffective. Between 2017–2021, more than 55 industrial 8. J udicial and Administrative Delay
projects were regularized without due environmental diligence. Environmental litigation is characterized by procedural lags,
4. E rosion of Participatory Governance reducing the efficacy of redress mechanisms. NGT rulings, such as
Mechanisms like public consultations integral to Environmental in the Bellandur Lake pollution case, face prolonged enforcement
Impact Assessments (EIAs) are frequently bypassed or tokenized, timelines, undermining legal deterrence.

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Role of Judiciary in Shaping India’s Environmental Jurisprudence

In India, the judiciary has emerged as a vital guardian of the environment, often stepping in where
executive agencies falter. Through its interpretations of the Constitution, especially Article 21
(Right to Life), the Supreme Court and High Courts have expanded the scope of environmental
protection, introducing doctrines like the “Polluter Pays Principle,” the “Precautionary Principle,”
and “Public Trust Doctrine.” These interventions have helped create a robust framework of envi-
ronmental jurisprudence, even in the absence of stringent legislative mechanisms. Here’s how
the judiciary has played a transformative role:

Judicial Role Explanation Landmark Examples

Expanding Right to Interpreted ‘life’ to include clean air, safe water, and Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar (1991); M.C. Mehta v.
Life (Article 21) ecological balance. Union of India (1987)
Polluter Pays Principle Makes polluters financially liable for the damage they Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action v. Union of India
cause to the environment. (1996)
Precautionary Prevents irreversible environmental harm even in Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India (1996)
Principle cases of scientific uncertainty.
Public Trust Doctrine Treats natural resources as collective property under M.C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath (1997)
state stewardship.
Enforcement Citizens and NGOs can approach courts directly for Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra v. State of UP
through PILs environmental justice. (1985)
Institutional/Policy Judicial orders led to new institutions like the National Constitution of NGT (2010) post M.C. Mehta cases; SC
Impact Green Tribunal (NGT) and schemes like Ganga Action push for Namami Gange
Plan revamp.
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Striking Down Reined in arbitrary government orders that diluted SC Verdict on Post-Facto Clearances (2025); T.N.
Executive Overreach environmental norms. Godavarman case (Forest Bench)

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The Indian judiciary has not only upheld but enriched environmental governance by interpreting
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constitutional rights dynamically and stepping in as an institutional watchdog. From cleaning
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rivers to regulating polluting industries, courts have played an indispensable role. Yet, as judicial
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activism fills governance gaps, it also raises questions about institutional overreach and the need
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for stronger executive enforcement mechanisms.

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Environmental Clearances in India: A Mixed Shortcomings

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Report Card
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1. R ampant Use of Post-Facto Clearances

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Environmental Clearance (EC) was institutionalized through the EIA Projects started illegally and were later regularized, violating the
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Notification, 1994, and later strengthened in 2006. While the system very essence of EC.
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was created to ensure that development does not come at the cost Example: Over 100 mining and industrial projects were retrospec-
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of ecology, its implementation in India reveals a complex picture tively approved between 2017 and 2021, including polluting mines
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marked by achievements, serious shortcomings, and institutional in Jharkhand and Odisha.

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contradictions. 2. W eak Enforcement and Monitoring

Achievements Even when ECs are granted, compliance with conditions is poorly
1. L
 egal Framework and Institutional Structure in Place tracked.
India has a codified, layered EC process: Screening → Scoping → Example: CAG Report (2022) found that 40% of projects were not
Public Consultation → Appraisal. monitored post-clearance.
Example: The Coastal Road Project in Mumbai was stopped mid- 3. E rosion of Public Consultation
way until CRZ (Coastal Regulation Zone) clearance was obtained, Public hearings are often rushed, poorly advertised, or bypassed in
showing procedural enforcement. “strategic” projects.
2. E mpowerment of Civil Society Example: The EIA 2020 Draft attempted to dilute public hear-
The mandatory public consultation stage allows civil society and ings for many categories, leading to massive protests and expert
local communities to register their objections. criticism.
Example: In Vedanta’s Niyamgiri Bauxite mining case, the tribal 4. C onflict Between Growth and Ecology
community’s opposition led to the cancellation of EC one of the The EC process is often subordinated to “ease of doing business”
strongest examples of public participation shaping outcomes. goals.
3. D igital Initiatives like PARIVESH Portal Example: The Char Dham Highway project in Uttarakhand
Launched by MoEF&CC, it enables online submission, monitoring, bypassed several environmental concerns in the name of national
and clearance tracking, improving transparency. security, despite clear evidence of ecological fragility.
Example: Real-time status updates for developers and public 5. I nstitutional Capture and Conflict of Interest
under the Single Window System. Expert Appraisal Committees (EACs) are often accused of being
4. J udicial Oversight too lenient or industry-friendly.
Courts have intervened to check misuse of EC. Example: A study by CPR (Centre for Policy Research) showed
Example: In Alembic Pharmaceuticals (2020) and Common that 90% of all projects seeking clearance between 2014–2019
Cause (2017), the Supreme Court ruled that post-facto clearanc- were approved.
es are illegal.

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Mixed/Contextual Realities
1. S
 tate-Centre Friction
Environmental norms are often diluted at the state level for political
or economic reasons.
Example: Several states bypass central regulations using
state-level environment impact authorities, especially for small-
scale mining.
2. E
 cological vs. Livelihood Dilemmas
In ecologically sensitive zones, people’s immediate economic
needs sometimes conflict with long-term sustainability.
Example: Brick kilns in Bihar and stone crushers in Himachal
Pradesh provide local employment but worsen air quality.

Way Forward 5. M
 ake Polluters Pay
1. C
 odify a Strong EIA Law Amend the Environment Act to impose high fines and jail time for
Finalize a clear, participatory EIA law that mandates early commu- repeat offenders. UK-style liability laws force polluters to restore
nity input and bans post-facto clearances. Learn from Canada’s Im- what they damage.
pact Assessment Act, where public voice is part of project design. 6. G
 reen the Judiciary
2. F
 ix Pollution Control Boards Create fast-track environmental courts and train judges in ecolog-
Grant independence, hire real experts (ecologists, health econo- ical law. This will speed up stalled cases like the Bellandur Lake
mists), and boost funding. ₹900 crore isn’t enough for enforcement pollution mess.
in a country this size. 7. L
 ink Budget to Green Action
3. T
 rack in Real Time Tie budget allocations to environmental performance. Encourage
Make CEMS and satellite tools mandatory to monitor emissions green investments using bonds and tax breaks like the EU’s Green
and land use. Use platforms like PARIVESH and upcoming tools Deal playbook.
8. Follow Global Best Practices
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[email protected]
like NASA-ISRO’s NISAR to catch violations early.
4. P
 ut People First Align with UNEP’s Rule of Law framework and draw lessons
Make public hearings legally binding, held in local languages, and from US EPA and NEPA for stricter checks and rapid clean-up of

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allow mobile-based complaints. This follows the spirit of the Aar- damage.
hus Convention on public access and rights.
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DOMINATE Environmental Clearance (EC)

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PRELIMS Environmental Clearance (EC) is the official go-ahead from the Government—specifically
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the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC)—that a proposed

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project is environmentally safe to begin. It ensures that industrial, infrastructure, or min-

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ing activities do not harm the environment or local communities before they even start.
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In simpler terms, you can’t build a factory, dam, mine, or highway until you’ve proved that
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the project won’t damage forests, pollute rivers, displace people unfairly, or disturb fragile
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ecosystems.
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Why is it Needed?
Projects like thermal power plants, cement factories, mining operations, highways, and
airports can have massive environmental and social impacts. EC acts like a green gate-
keeper, ensuring:
• Sustainability in development
• Legal compliance with India’s environmental laws
• Protection of local communities, especially tribal, rural, and ecologically vulnerable groups

Legal Backbone: EIA Notification, 2006

The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification of 2006 (under the Environment
Protection Act, 1986) governs the entire EC process. It breaks down the clearance into a
structured four-stage process, making it scientific, participatory, and rule-based.

The 4-Stage EC Process:

Stage What Happens Why It Matters
1. Screening Determines if the project needs detailed environmental scrutiny Filters out minor/harmless projects from full EIA.
(based on size, type, and location).
2. Scoping Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC) sets the terms of reference Ensures the EIA study focuses on real, project-
for environmental studies. specific risks (e.g., groundwater, deforestation).
3. Public Local people and civil society groups give feedback, concerns, or Builds trust, improves transparency, and empowers
Consultation objections in public hearings. communities.
4. Appraisal Based on the EIA report and public feedback, the EAC makes a Final gatekeeping: ensures all voices and data are
recommendation to grant or reject clearance. considered.

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BURNING ISSUE #8

Foreign
University
Campuses
in India
Global Promise or Market Gamble ?
[email protected]

[email protected]
Note4Students PYQs &
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Microthemes
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India is inviting top foreign universities to set up campuses here to improve access, bring in
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global quality, and help Indian students get world-class education without going abroad. UPSC [UPSC 2015, GS-2] The quality of
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often asks such topics in the form of big-picture questions like in 2015, when it asked if foreign higher education in India requires
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universities will actually improve Indian higher education. Many students struggle with these major improvements to make it
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because they either stay too generic (just talking about GER numbers) or miss out on real-world internationally competitive. Do
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details that make an answer stand out. This article helps bridge that gap. It walks you through you think that the entry of foreign
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key facts from the new UGC 2023 rules (like how Deakin University is setting up in GIFT City, educational institutions would help
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or how foreign campuses can set their own fees and hire freely) to the deeper concerns (like improve the quality of higher and
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no reservation for marginalized students or risk of only elite courses being offered). One thing technical education in the country?
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that makes this article truly special is how it doesn’t just list pros and cons it shows you both the Discuss.
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promise and the problems in one go. For example, yes, it can stop brain drain (India loses $15–20
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billion a year), but it can also make education more commercial if not done right. With clear
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subheadings like “Challenge of Commercialisation” and “Way Forward,” this article makes your Microthemes: Education
UPSC prep more grounded, specific, and confident.

from the ancient universities of Takshashila

and Nalanda, where students and scholars from
across Asia gathered to study medicine, astrono-
my, and philosophy, India once stood as a beacon
of global learning. Centuries later, as the world
reinvents education for the 21st century, India is
once again at a crossroads. With over 500 million
youth aged 5–24, the country holds immense hu-
man capital potentialbut with a Gross Enrollment
Ratio of just 27.3%, it risks falling short of global
benchmarks (USA: 88.2%, China: 51.7%).

To unlock this demographic dividend, NEP

2020 sets a bold target of 50% GER by 2035.
Achieving it will require not just more seats and
campuses, but a fundamental reimagining of
how Indian universities engage with the world.
The internationalization of higher education from
foreign universities setting up campuses in India
to Indian institutions integrating global best prac-
tices is not a luxury. It is a strategic necessity.

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UGC 2023 Regulatory Framework for Foreign Higher

Educational Institutions (FHEIs)
In a landmark move to globalize India’s higher education ecosystem, the
University Grants Commission (UGC) in 2023 notified a dedicated regulatory
framework allowing Foreign Higher Educational Institutions (FHEIs) to set up
independent campuses in India.
This framework marks a decisive shift in India’s education policy from regulat-
ing entry to actively facilitating global collaboration, in line with the National
Education Policy (NEP) 2020.

Key Features of the UGC 2023 FHEI Framework: •U  niversity of Southampton in Gurugram
1. Eligibility Criteria • I llinois Institute of Technology, USA in Mumbai (first U.S.
- Only top 500 globally ranked universities or reputed foreign university approved by UGC)
institutions in their home country are eligible. 4. S
 afeguards and Compliance
- Institutions must demonstrate academic excellence, financial - Campuses must adhere to Indian laws, including provisions
stability, and commitment to Indian law. related to national security and student protection.
2. Autonomy in Operations - UGC retains the power to inspect, review, and de-register
- FHEIs can: FHEIs found in violation.
• Set their own admission criteria and fee structure. 5. P
 rohibited Programs
• Recruit foreign or Indian faculty without salary caps. -P  rograms that may compromise India’s national interest, sov-
• Offer degrees identical to their home campuses, with no ereignty, or religious harmony will not be permitted.
equivalence requirement from UGC. 6. Q
 uality Assurance
3. L
 ocation Flexibility -F  oreign institutions are required to maintain academic stan-
- FHEIs can set up campuses anywhere in India, including Spe- dards equal to their home campuses.
cial Economic Zones (SEZs) and GIFT City. - No franchise or third-party collaborations allowed only direct
- Notable examples:
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investment is permitted.
• Deakin University and University of Wollongong in GIFT City

Evolution of Internationalization of Education in India

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Period Milestone / Phase Key Highlights

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Ancient India Global Learning Centres Universities like Takshashila, Nalanda, and Vikramashila attracted scholars from
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(Before 12th Century) China, Korea, Tibet, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia. India was a global education hub.
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Colonial Period
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Introduction of Western British-established universities (e.g., Calcutta, Bombay, Madras) shifted focus toward
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(1857–1947) Education colonial administrative needs. Knowledge exchange was one-way: India imported
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Western models.
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Post-Independence Self-reliance and Focus on building Indian institutions (e.g., IITs, IIMs) with limited foreign collaboration.
(1950s–80s) Institution Building Internationalization was minimal and state-controlled.

1991–2000 Liberalization and Economic reforms led to openness in higher education. Indian students began going
Global Exposure abroad in larger numbers; collaborations with foreign institutions increased modestly.

2000–2010 Growing Mobility and Indian institutions signed MoUs for faculty exchange, joint research, and dual degrees.
MoUs Regulatory bodies like UGC and AICTE began recognizing foreign qualifications.

2010–2020 Global Rankings and Indian HEIs began engaging more with global rankings (e.g., QS, THE).
Policy Attention Internationalization became a policy goal. Study in India campaign launched (2018).

2020 (NEP 2020) Policy Breakthrough The National Education Policy 2020 called for the entry of top 100 foreign
universities, student/faculty exchange, joint campuses, and credit transfer systems.

2023–Present Regulatory Framework UGC’s 2023 guidelines officially allow foreign universities to set up campuses in India.
for FHEIs Deakin, Wollongong, and IIT Chicago began operational plans. This marks the first
institutional-level internationalization from within.

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Recommendations on Internationalisation of Higher Education

Year Committee / Policy Recommendation Rationale / Logic
2005–09 National Knowledge Advocated entry of reputed foreign universities To expand capacity, improve quality, and align
Commission (NKC) and promotion of academic collaboration. Indian education with global standards.
2009 Yash Pal Committee on Supported allowing foreign universities with To break silos, encourage innovation, and
Higher Education regulation; emphasised interdisciplinary make Indian institutions globally competitive.
learning.
2011 Narayan Murthy Committee Recommended international faculty To boost research output and improve global
on IITs recruitment, global research tie-ups, and ranking of IITs.
foreign student intake.
2016 T.S.R. Subramanian Supported international partnerships, To enhance quality, encourage competition,
Committee (NEP Drafting mobility programs, and entry of foreign and reduce outflow of Indian students.
Committee) universities.
2018 Draft Higher Education Proposed a regulatory framework To simplify governance and enable
Commission of India (HECI) encouraging international tie-ups and foreign international-level academic freedom and
Bill entry. diversity.
2020 National Education Policy Called for top 100 global universities to operate To raise Gross Enrollment Ratio, reverse brain
(NEP) 2020 in India; promoted internationalisation of drain, and position India as a global knowledge
curricula, faculty, and students. hub.
2023 UGC Regulatory Allowed foreign universities to set up To institutionalise NEP goals, diversify higher
Framework for Foreign independent campuses with autonomy. education, and attract global investment in
Higher Educational academia.
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[email protected]
Institutions (FHEIs)

Challenge of Commercialisation of Higher Education

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As India opens its doors to foreign universities under the UGC 2023 framework, the promise is clear:
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global standards, research collaboration, and expanded access. But beneath the surface lies a crit-
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ical concern is internationalisation driving a shift from education as a public good to a market com-
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modity? With rising costs, profit-driven models, and elite-focused institutions entering the scene,
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internationalisation may unintentionally deepen inequity and fuel the commercialisation of learning.
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Trend / Mechanism How It Fuels Commercialisation Example

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Premium Foreign campuses may charge high tuition fees, Deakin University (GIFT City) and University of
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Pricing Models excluding lower-income students and reinforcing Wollongong reportedly plan fee structures on par with
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education as a privilege. international campuses.

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Market-Driven Programs are often designed based on employability Foreign universities focusing on STEM, business, and
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Course Offerings or market demand, not social need or foundational finance, with limited emphasis on humanities or regional
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knowledge. studies.
Brand over Student choices may lean more on global brand IIT Chicago’s Mumbai campus gaining traction largely
Substance perception than academic quality, creating a two-tier due to name recognition, not proven Indian-market
system. relevance yet.
Faculty as Recruitment and salaries become aligned with market Foreign institutions are allowed to recruit without salary
Market Assets value rather than teaching quality or public service. caps, potentially poaching top faculty from Indian public
universities.
Exclusion of Foreign universities are not obligated to follow No reservation norms for foreign campuses under UGC
Affirmative Action reservation policies, which may exclude historically 2023 undermines social justice goals of Indian higher
marginalised groups. education.
Franchise Model Though formally disallowed, informal tie-ups may still Past concerns about foreign “study centres” operating
Risks in Disguise function as for-profit franchise centres under other legal without oversight resurface in newer forms under
names. international collaboration banners.

Way Forward EduTrust Scheme, India can offer autonomy with regular audits to
1. Focus on Quality, Not Quantity: Only top-tier institutions with ensure quality.
academic depth should be allowed. Australia’s Tertiary Education 5. C ollaboration with Indian Institutions: Encourage joint degrees,
Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA) model can offer guidance. research hubs (e.g., IIT Madras-Zurich ETH) to combine global and
2. Tailor to Indian Needs: Programs must align with India’s skill gaps, local strengths.
regional priorities (e.g., Agri-tech in Punjab, AI in Bengaluru), and lo- 6. I ncentives for Tier-II Cities: To decongest metros and ensure
cal language and culture. equitable growth, promote campuses in underserved regions with
3. Balanced Curriculum: Move beyond just STEM. Encourage liberal arts, sops (e.g., land grants, PPPs).
humanities, and interdisciplinary courses, critical for holistic education. 7. Feedback Loop Mechanisms: Empower NAAC/NIRF to evaluate foreign
4. Regulatory Autonomy with Accountability: Like Singapore’s campuses regularly and create a public dashboard for transparency.

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Back2Basics
Foreign University Campuses in India: Global Promise or Market Gamble?
Why It Matters
Area Significance Examples / Data
Capacity Expansion Helps bridge India’s huge demand–supply gap in India needs 800–900 universities by 2035 (Economic Survey
higher education. 2022–23).
Global Expo- Offers international learning without the cost of 73% of Indian students value global exposure (QS Student
sure at Home going abroad. Survey).
Curbing Brain Drain Retains talent and saves foreign exchange. 7.5 lakh Indians went abroad in 2022 (MEA); FHEIs could save
$15–20 bn annually (NITI Aayog).
Boosting Research Enables institutionalised partnerships and IITB–Monash and IITD–Queensland models.
Ecosystems innovation networks.
Strategic Diplomacy Aligns with India’s global partnerships and regional India–UK Roadmap 2030, India–Australia CSP.
strategy.
Local Job Creation Spurs regional growth and skilling ecosystems. NYU Abu Dhabi created 5,000+ jobs — GIFT City campuses
could follow suit.
Legal Backing SC has upheld institutional autonomy for private TMA Pai Foundation v. State of Karnataka (2002).
and foreign actors.

Initiatives
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[email protected]
Initiative Purpose / Mechanism Example
NEP 2020 Framework for internationalisation at home. Encourages FHEIs, student mobility, global tie-ups.

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UGC Dual Degree Enables joint Indian–foreign academic credentials. -0Ashoka–Sciences Po; IIT–Queensland dual programs.
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GIFT City Incentives SEZ-style model to attract FHEIs. 100% tax exemption, no forex control.
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SPARC & GIAN Promotes research collaboration and global faculty visits. IIT–Monash; international lectures across NITs/IITs.
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Study in Attracts foreign students to Indian campuses. Scholarships and branding for Indian institutions.
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India Programme
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Budget Push & Expands capacity for both domestic and hybrid ₹1.12 lakh crore in 2023–24; National Digital
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Digital Scale-Up international models. University.

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Challenges
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Issue Why It’s a Concern Examples / Implications

Not-so-elite Brands FHEIs entering India aren’t always top-tier. Risks of “diploma mill” image in a market with IITs, IIMs, ISB.
Narrow Course Focus Emphasis on business & IT limits academic depth. Neglects liberal arts, social sciences, research fields.
Poor Campus In- Rented, vertical campuses lack full-campus No libraries, green zones, sports—hurts brand perception.
frastructure experience.
Regulatory Maze FCRA, FEMA, and land laws still complex. Delays and compliance costs discourage foreign entry.
Style Over Substance Heavy marketing without strong faculty or Short-term enrolments but poor long-term trust.
curriculum.
Low Research Most focus only on teaching; little research No PhDs or global labs; weak academic impact.
Investment capacity.
ROI Concerns High fees, unclear job value deter value- Domestic students ask: is the premium worth it?
conscious students.
Global Financial Geopolitical shifts and post-COVID cutbacks Foreign universities reassessing Indian plans amid cost
Headwinds affect foreign expansion. pressures.

Bottom Line:
Foreign university campuses offer
Smash Mains: Mock Drop
India a chance to scale, diversify,
[QUESTION] While the entry of Foreign Higher Educational Institutions (FHEIs)
and globalize its higher education
in India promises global exposure and capacity expansion, it also raises serious
system but only if backed by equity,
concerns about equity, autonomy, and the commodification of education.”
rigour, and ecosystem support. With-
Critically examine in the context of UGC’s 2023 regulatory framework. (15 Marks,
out guardrails, they risk becoming
250 Words)
expensive outposts rather than
engines of academic excellence.

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BURNING ISSUE #9

Fishing Sector
in India
Blue economy or
Bleeding economy ?
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Note4Students
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Fish wealth, fisher woes, and fixing India’s sea crisis in one sweep. UPSC loves to
02

[UPSC 2014, GS-1] Critically evaluate the various

frame such topics as big, open questions that fuse resources with equity, just like
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resources of the oceans which can be harnessed

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the 2014 ocean‑resources essay: expect a prompt asking whether India’s “Blue
to meet the resource crisis in the world.
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Economy” can grow without sinking small fishers, pulling material straight from
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“Traditional vs Mechanised: An Unequal Sea.” Many aspirants stumble because they

gm

[UPSC 2015, GS-3] Livestock rearing has a big

only count tonnes of catch or exports and forget people and ecology, so answers feel
@

potential for providing non-farm employment and

lopsided; they skip numbers like a trawler’s 500 kg haul versus a canoe’s 50 kg (see
18

income in rural areas. Discuss suggesting suitable

table in that subhead) or miss the warning on juvenile bycatch under “Ecological Tip-
ya

measures to promote this sectors in India.

av

ping Points.” This article patches those gaps by giving ready links showing how gear
ln

conflict, climate shifts, and subsidy skew fit the bigger GS syllabus. It also slips quick
Microthemes: Natural resources Potential,
sa

fixes you can quote, like Kerala’s monsoon bans and mangrove planting in Andhra
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Non-Farm Activities (Live stock)

ba

(see “Learning from the Coastline: Local Solutions”). The coolest part is the heads‑up
that the Blue Economy can be a “Bleeding Economy” if policy backs only ports and
trawlers an angle that turns a fact‑sheet answer into a sharp critique.

f r o m t h e m at s ya avata r
rescuing sages during the great
flood to fishermen guiding sages in
search of wisdom, India’s epics and
Puranas are rich with reverence
for the sea and those who live by
it. Yet today, the very communi-
ties once revered in myth India’s
traditional fisherfolk are caught
in a real-world crisis. While the
marine fisheries sector boasts 3–4
million tonnes of annual catch, this
apparent success hides a storm: va-
nishing fish stocks, rising coastal
inequality, and ecological collapse.

Is the ocean still a source of

sustenance or a battleground of
exploitation? Can small-scale fish-
ers survive in a market tilted toward
industrial trawlers? And will India’s
coastal legacy endure or be lost
beneath unsustainable waves?

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Traditional vs. Mechanised: An Unequal Sea

India’s coastal waters are not just biologically rich they are socially contested. What was
once a largely community-driven livelihood is now increasingly dominated by industrial-scale
players. Mechanised trawlers and deep-sea fleets, backed by capital and technology, have
begun to outfish, outcompete, and outmuscle traditional fisherfolk. This has created not just
ecological stress but a stark divide in access, income, and dignity. The table below captures
how this unequal sea is shaping India’s coastal crisis.

Issue How It Creates Inequality Examples / Evidence

Gear and Tech- Mechanised trawlers use high-powered engines, sonar, and LED In Tamil Nadu and Gujarat, a mechanised boat may
nology Divide lights to fish deeper and faster, while traditional fishers rely on return with 500–1,000 kg of catch per day, compared
canoes or small boats. This leads to unequal catch volumes. to 10–50 kg by a traditional canoe.

Zone Violations Trawlers often illegally fish in nearshore waters (within 5–10 km), Kerala and Odisha report frequent gear conflict cases,
violating zones reserved for artisanal fishers, depleting their where trawlers trespass into artisanal zones, leading to
catch and damaging nets. physical confrontations and net loss worth lakhs.

Overfishing Trawlers sweep large areas indiscriminately, including juvenile Studies from Andhra Pradesh show juvenile catch
and Bycatch and non-target species, reducing long-term availability for small ratio exceeding 30% in mechanised fishing,
fishers who rely on selective fishing. threatening future stock regeneration.

Market Capture Mechanised operators dominate cold storage, transport, and In Visakhapatnam, large traders often fix prices in
auctions, forcing traditional fishers to sell catch at low rates or advance, leaving small fishers without bargaining
depend on middlemen. power despite rising input costs.
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[email protected]
Subsidy Skew Government fuel subsidies, loans, and harbour infrastructure Mechanised boats receive diesel subsidies,

2
disproportionately benefit mechanised operators, while small- while traditional fishers must bear rising fuel and
scale fishers receive limited gear support.
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maintenance costs without commensurate support.
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Ecological Tipping Points

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India’s coastal waters are nearing an ecological breaking point. Overfishing, destructive gear,
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climate change, and pollution are not just reducing fish stocks they’re unraveling marine
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ecosystems. From shrinking fish sizes to coral bleaching and habitat collapse, the signals are
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unmistakable. These tipping points threaten not just biodiversity, but the food security and
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livelihoods of millions who depend on the sea.

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Ecological Pressure Impact on Marine Ecosystems Examples / Evidence

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Overfishing Reduces fish populations below recovery levels, In the Bay of Bengal, species like hilsa and mackerel show
disrupts food chains, and affects breeding cycles. signs of collapse due to overharvesting, especially during
spawning seasons.

Bottom Trawling Destroys seabed habitats, including corals and In Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, trawl nets drag across
benthic organisms; causes long-term loss of 70%+ of shallow seafloor, wiping out breeding habitats of
biodiversity. shrimp and demersal fish.

Bycatch and Non-target species including endangered turtles Studies show up to 30–40% of marine catch in Indian
Juvenile Fishing and juveniles are caught and discarded, undermining trawlers is bycatch, including threatened species like olive
ecological balance. ridley turtles (Orissa coast).

Climate Change Rising ocean temperatures, acidification, and sea- On the west coast, Indian oil sardines are migrating
level rise alter fish migration, breeding, and survival. northward due to warming seas; coral bleaching reported in
Lakshadweep and Gulf of Mannar.

Pollution and Nutrient runoff and plastic waste degrade water The Chilika Lake outlet and Gujarat coast show early
Dead Zones quality and create hypoxic zones, reducing marine signs of oxygen-depleted dead zones due to industrial and
life density. agricultural discharge.

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Blue Economy or Bleeding Economy?

India’s ambitious push for a Blue Economy harnessing ocean resources for economic growth
SMASH promises jobs, sustainability, and prosperity. But on the ground, a key question emerges: is this
MAINS vision inclusive and ecological, or is it extractive and elite-driven, widening inequalities and
degrading fragile marine systems? The answer lies in how policies are designed, and who they
really serve.

Government Strategy / Scheme Intended Goals Critical Assessment

Blue Economy Policy Promote sustainable use of marine While it promises community participation and sustainability,
Framework (Draft, 2021) resources across sectors like fisheries, it lacks binding safeguards for small fishers. No legal
energy, tourism, and shipping. guarantees to protect artisanal access to fishing zones.
Pradhan Mantri Matsya Double fisheries exports, enhance Benefits skewed toward export-focused aquaculture,
Sampada Yojana (PMMSY) infrastructure, and boost incomes of fishers mechanised fleets, and cold-chain players. Traditional
through ₹20,000+ crore investment. fishers often struggle to access subsidies or loans.
Sagarmala Project Expand port-led development and create Critics warn of large-scale displacement of coastal
coastal economic zones (CEZs). communities and habitat destruction. Many CEZs lack
proper environmental and social impact assessments.
Deep Ocean Mission (2021) Invest ₹4,000 crore over 5 years in seabed Focus on deep-sea mining raises alarm over ecological
mining, marine biodiversity, and climate risks. Indigenous fishing communities fear exclusion from
studies. decision-making on ocean governance.
Fisheries and Aquacul- Finance infrastructure (harbours, cold Infrastructure often benefits exporters and large players.
ture Infrastructure De- storage, processing units) to modernise Traditional fisherfolk still lack access to cold storage or
velopment Fund (FIDF) fisheries. modern boats.
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[email protected]
Coastal Regulation Zone Protect ecologically sensitive zones while Successive amendments (e.g., CRZ 2019) have diluted
(CRZ) Notifications allowing livelihood activities. protections, allowing real estate, tourism, and port
projects near coastlines, undermining sustainability.

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Learning from the Coastline: Local Solutions

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Initiative / Model What It Does Where / Impact

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Kerala’s Fisheries Democratically managed fisher co-ops ensure fair Kerala has over 600 active marine co-operatives,
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Co-operatives pricing, gear access, and representation in policy. They supporting 90,000+ members. Helps small fishers
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also promote savings and insurance for fishers. counter market capture by exporters and middlemen.
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Seasonal
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Government-imposed monsoon bans allow fish stocks Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and West Bengal implement 45–61
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Fishing Bans to regenerate. Widely respected by traditional fishers. day bans annually. Studies show improved catch volumes
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post-ban seasons.
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Community Quotas Local bodies issue limited fishing rights to prevent Maharashtra piloted village-level licence caps in Ratnagiri;
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& Licensing overfishing and resolve gear conflicts. Supports equity helped reduce inter-gear tension and over-extraction in
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and sustainability. nearshore waters.

Co-management Fishers, scientists, and officials jointly manage Odisha’s Chilika Lake Fisheries Federation blends local
Committees resources, enforce seasonal rules, and monitor stocks. knowledge with scientific input. Reduced illegal fishing,
improved prawn and fish yields.
Mangrove & Fishers and women’s collectives lead mangrove In Andhra Pradesh’s Krishna delta, women’s SHGs
Habitat planting, reef protection, and turtle conservation to replanted over 50,000 mangroves, helping reduce
Restoration revive breeding grounds. cyclone impacts and boost fish catch.

State of India’s Fishing

In India, marine fish production has stabilized at around 3.7 million tons per annum, as per the Ministry
of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying (2023). Despite this, widespread poverty, ecological
degradation, and regulatory fragmentation persist. Urban biodiversity is equally imperiled: the Forest
Survey of India (2023) pegs average green cover in major Indian cities at just 10.26%, with Chennai
and Hyderabad losing over 4 square kilometers of forest cover in just two years.

India’s fisheries sector is a vital economic rectly and indirectly, of which ~16 million are in the marine sector
and nutritional pillar: (NITI Aayog, 2023).
1. C ontribution to Economy: It contributes 1.1% to national GDP 4. C
 oastline: India’s coastline stretches 11,098 km, housing 3,688
and over 7% to agricultural GDP (MoF, 2024–25). marine fishing villages and 1,914 landing centres.
2. Production: India is the second-largest fish producer globally and 5. E
 xports: Marine product exports were worth ₹63,969 crore in
the fourth-largest exporter (FAO 2022), producing ~14.1 million 2023–24, with frozen shrimp alone contributing 40% (MPEDA
tons annually (marine and inland combined). Marine fisheries, data). The sector has witnessed significant growth, with seafood
contribute approximately 4.12 million metric tons (MMT) to the exports valued at ₹60,000 crore in 2023–24. Schemes like PM
total fish production. Inland fisheries and aquaculture, account for Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY) (budget ₹20,050 crore) aim
about 12.12 MMT, making up over 75% of the total fish production. to double exports, enhance fish production to 22 million tonnes
3. Employment: Provides livelihoods to over 28 million people, di- by 2024–25, and create 55 lakh jobs.

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Issue of Overfishing
Overfishing poses a significant threat to India’s
marine ecosystems and the livelihoods dependent
on them. The Central Marine Fisheries Research
Institute (CMFRI) reported in 2022 that over 4% of
India’s fish stocks are currently facing overfishing,
while 8.2% have already been overfished.
1. Overcapitalization: Mechanized vessels domi-
nate the catch—90% of fishers are small-scale,
but they capture just 10% of the harvest.
2. Juvenile Fishing: Widespread use of small mesh
(<25mm) nets results in juvenile fish mortality;
e.g., over 10 kg of bycatch for every 1 kg of
shrimp in trawlers (Arabian Sea study, 2024).
3. Biodiversity Loss: Multi-species bycatch harms
reef systems and trophic balance, making recov-
ery from stock collapses difficult or irreversible.
4. Historical Collapses: Canada’s cod fishery
crash (1992) and the Pacific sardine collapse
(1967–86) show how mismanagement can
destroy entire economies.
5. Fishmeal Industry Distortion: The FMFO sec-
tor, feeding on juvenile bycatch, converts edible
protein into export-based aquafeed, creating
perverse market incentives. Fragmented regula-
[email protected]

[email protected]
tion further exacerbates the crisis. Each coastal
state has its own Marine Fisheries Regulation
Act (MFRA), leading to inconsistent enforcement

2
and fish laundering across borders.
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Significance of the Fishing Sector for India 5. G

 ender Role: Women constitute around 56% of the post-harvest
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1. L ivelihood Security: The fisheries sector provides direct em- fisheries workforce, playing key roles in drying, processing, and
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ployment to over 4 million marine fishers, primarily from marginal- marketing of fish (PMF IAS). Empowering them boosts family
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ized coastal communities. Overall, it supports 28 million liveli- incomes and local entrepreneurship.
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hoods across fishing, processing, and marketing (NITI Aayog, Example: In Tamil Nadu, women-run self-help groups manage
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Example: In Odisha, the Chilika Lake fishing community de- fish drying yards and retail networks in coastal villages.
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pends almost entirely on estuarine fisheries for daily income. 6. C

 limate Mitigation: Sustainable marine ecosystems like man-
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2. Food and Nutritional Security: Fish is a key source of affordable groves and seagrasses act as major carbon sinks, capable
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protein and omega-3 fatty acids, vital for states with low animal of sequestering 10 times more carbon than terrestrial forests
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protein intake. It is often referred to as “Rich Food for Poor Peo- (ResearchGate).
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ple” for its accessibility and nutrition (PMF IAS). Example: The Sundarbans mangroves not only support biodi-
n

Example: In West Bengal, fish forms a dietary staple, especially versity but also offset significant carbon emissions.
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among rural populations with limited protein options. 7. B

 lue Economy Potential: According to NITI Aayog and the Min-
3. Export Revenue and Foreign Exchange: Seafood exports were istry of Earth Sciences, India’s Blue Economy could contribute $1
valued at ₹60,000 crore (~$8 billion) in 2023–24, making fisheries a trillion to GDP by 2030, with fisheries being a core pillar.
crucial contributor to India’s foreign exchange reserves (MPEDA, PIB). Example: The Sagarmala project integrates fisheries into port-
Example: India is the world’s largest exporter of frozen shrimp, led development for coastal economic upliftment.
with the USA and China being top importers. 8. C
 ultural and Indigenous Identity: Fishing sustains traditional
4. Regional Development: Coastal states like Kerala, Andhra knowledge systems, indigenous livelihoods, and community-based
Pradesh, and Gujarat rely heavily on fisheries-based microecono- conservation practices that preserve biodiversity.
mies that sustain local employment and trade. Fisheries infrastruc- Example: The ‘Sasi’ fishing method in Kerala, passed down
ture boosts regional GDP and livelihoods. generations, emphasizes harmony with nature and selective
Example: The port city of Veraval in Gujarat thrives as a hub for harvesting.
marine exports and fish processing units.

Challenges to Sustainable Fishing Example: Cyclone Amphan in 2020 displaced thousands of

1. O
 verfishing and Stock Depletion: Around 30% of India’s marine fishers in West Bengal and Odisha, impacting fishing seasons.
fish stocks are overexploited (CMFRI, 2022), driven by indiscrimi- 3. P
 ollution and Habitat Destruction: Marine plastic, oil spills,
nate trawling, juvenile fishing, and weak monitoring. This threat- untreated sewage, and coastal construction degrade coral reefs,
ens long-term sustainability and biodiversity. mangroves, and estuaries—critical breeding grounds for fish.
Example: Sardine and mackerel stocks along the southwest coast Example: The Ennore Creek in Chennai has suffered massive
have shown sharp declines due to excessive harvest pressure. ecological damage due to industrial effluents and fly ash dumping.
2. Climate Change Impacts: Rising sea surface temperatures, 4. S
 ocio-economic Disparities: Though 90% of the fishing popula-
ocean acidification, and changing currents are disrupting fish tion comprises small-scale fishers, they land less than 10% of the
breeding patterns, altering migratory routes, and intensifying total catch and suffer from market exclusion, debt, and poverty.
cyclonic events (IPCC AR6, WMO). Example: In Maharashtra’s Raigad district, mechanised boats
dominate markets, leaving artisanal fishers with minimal income.

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5. I llegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing: IUU fish- 7. P

 olicy and Regulatory Gaps: The Marine Fishing Regulation Acts
ing causes massive ecological and economic loss, estimated to (MFRAs) differ across coastal states, enabling regulatory evasion;
reduce global catches by 11–26 million tonnes annually (FAO, fish banned in one state can be legally landed in another.
2022), and undermines regulatory efforts. Example: Juvenile threadfin bream protected in Kerala is frequent-
Example: In India’s east coast, foreign vessels are often found ly sold legally in Tamil Nadu, undermining conservation gains.
trawling in Indian waters without permits, flouting marine laws. 8. D
 ata Deficiencies and Scientific Gaps: Decisions on catch limits
6. Inadequate Infrastructure: Deficits in cold storage, processing and fishing licenses are often based on historical rights or vessel
units, landing centres, and transport networks result in post-har- size, not robust stock assessments, leading to unsustainable
vest losses of up to 20-25% in marine fish (MoFPI, 2023). practices.
Example: In Kerala, small harbours without ice plants force Example: India lacks a nationwide real-time fishery database,
fishers to sell fresh catch at reduced rates to middlemen. unlike New Zealand’s QMS-based management system.

Way Forward 4. R egulate FMFO (Fishmeal & Fish Oil) Industry

1. E nact a National Fisheries Law Cap bycatch diverted to FMFO, promote nutrition-first use, and
Unify fragmented state Marine Fishing Regulation Acts (MFRAs) incentivize plant-based aquafeeds.
into a central framework with standard rules on Minimum Legal Example: Kerala’s pilot linked low-value catch to local school
Size (MLS), gear restrictions, and closed seasons. meal programs.
Example: Resolve enforcement gaps in overlapping waters like 5. S cale Up Community Co-Management
Kerala–Tamil Nadu. Empower fisher cooperatives and panchayats to co-govern Marine
2. Introduce Quota-Based Fisheries Management Protected Areas (MPAs) with real authority and funding.
Pilot science-driven catch quotas and tradable fishing rights for Example: Chilika Lake model improved yields and curbed illegal
key species, inspired by global models. fishing.
Example: New Zealand’s hoki QMS curbed overfishing while 6. I nvest in Ecological Restoration
preserving livelihoods. Fund coastal wetland and estuary regeneration to boost biodiversi-
3. B an Destructive Fishing Gear ty and climate resilience.
Example: Chennai’s Pallikaranai marshland revival restored bird
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[email protected]
Mandate use of Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs), LED lights, and
selective nets to reduce bycatch and protect endangered species. habitats and flood control.
Example: Odisha’s TED adoption lowered turtle deaths significantly.

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The State of India’s Fishing Sector: Promise, Pressure, and Paradox

02

DOMINATE
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PRELIMS A Sector on the Brink poverty, and regulatory fragmentation persist. Urban ecology fares
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India’s marine fish production has stabilized at around 3.7 million no better — the Forest Survey of India (2023) reports average green
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tonnes annually (MoFAHD, 2023). Yet, beneath this apparent cover in major cities at just 10.26%, with Chennai and Hyderabad
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success lies an ecological and social crisis: overfishing, habitat loss, losing over 4 sq. km of forest in just two years.
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Why Fisheries Matter

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Dimension Key Contributions & Examples

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Economic Engine Contributes 1.1% to GDP and over 7% to agricultural GDP (MoF, 2024–25). India ranks 2nd in global fish production
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(~14.1 million tonnes total; marine: 4.12 MMT, inland: 12.12 MMT).
Livelihood Provider Supports 28 million livelihoods, with 16 million in marine fisheries (NITI Aayog). In Odisha, Chilika Lake fishers rely
entirely on estuarine fishing.
Export Powerhouse Exports valued at ₹63,969 crore (2023–24). Frozen shrimp alone forms 40%, making India the top global exporter.
Regional Growth Coastal states like Kerala, AP, Gujarat benefit from port-led fisheries infrastructure. Example: Veraval thrives on
Driver marine exports and fish processing.
Nutrition and Fish is affordable protein “rich food for poor people.” In West Bengal, fish is a daily staple for low-income rural
Food Security families.
Women’s Women form 56% of post-harvest workers, managing drying, processing, marketing. Example: Tamil Nadu’s women-
Workforce Role run SHGs operate retail networks.
Climate Mitigation Coastal ecosystems like mangroves and seagrasses sequester up to 10x more carbon than forests. Example:
Sundarbans play a dual role in biodiversity and carbon offsetting.
Cultural Identity Fishing sustains indigenous practices and community conservation. Example: Kerala’s ‘Sasi’ method promotes
selective, sustainable harvesting.
Blue Projected to contribute $1 trillion to GDP by 2030 (MoES). Schemes like Sagarmala integrate fisheries into port-
Economy Potential based economic growth.

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Overfishing: The Silent Crisis

According to CMFRI (2022):
• 4% of India’s fish stocks are actively overfished
• 8.2% are already overexploited

Driver Impact Example

Overcapi- 90% of fishers are small-scale but catch <10% of total Mechanised vessels dominate markets across the western
talisation harvest. coast.
Juvenile Fishing Sub-25mm nets cause early stock depletion. Trawlers in Arabian Sea: 10 kg bycatch per 1 kg shrimp (2024).
Biodiversity Multi-species bycatch disrupts reef systems and food Reef degradation in Gulf of Mannar linked to trawl fishing.
Collapse chains.
Global Collapses like Canada’s cod (1992) show irreversible Historical evidence warns of repeatable patterns.
Warning Signs ecosystem loss.
FMFO Fishmeal and fish oil (FMFO) industry creates perverse Kerala’s bycatch is diverted to FMFO instead of food
Distortion incentives — turning edible fish into aquafeed. markets.

Challenges to Sustainable Fishing

Challenge Impact Example
Stock Depletion ~30% of marine stocks are overfished (CMFRI). Sardine/mackerel decline along southwest coast.
Climate Change Warmer waters, ocean acidification, erratic Cyclone Amphan (2020) displaced fishers and disrupted
migration. breeding cycles.
[email protected]

[email protected]
Pollution Plastics, oil spills, sewage damage breeding Ennore Creek, Chennai: severe degradation from fly ash.
grounds.

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Socio-econom- 90% of fishers are small-scale but lack market -0
Raigad, Maharashtra: mechanised boats monopolise landings.
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ic Inequality power.
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IUU Fishing Reduces global catch by 11–26 million tonnes Foreign vessels trawling illegally off India’s east coast.
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(FAO, 2022).
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Poor Infrastructure Up to 25% post-harvest loss due to weak cold Kerala harbours lack ice plants and processing centres.
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chains.
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Policy Each state has a different MFRA, leading to fish Juvenile threadfin bream banned in Kerala, sold in TN.
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Fragmentation laundering.
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Data Gaps Catch limits based on boat size, not science. India lacks real-time national fishery database, unlike NZ’s QMS.
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Conclusion
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India’s fishing sector sits

at the intersection of
livelihood, nutrition, biodi-
versity, and climate resil-
ience yet faces existential
risks. It is time to pivot
from volume-focused
extraction to science-led,
community-driven, and
sustainability-based
management. The ocean
is not just an economic
frontier; it is a public trust
that must be governed
with equity, wisdom, and
urgency.

Smash Mains: Mock Drop

[QUESTION] Examine the role of political and bureaucratic leadership in public policy formulation in India.
How can greater citizen participation improve the effectiveness of policy outcomes? (15 Marks, 250 Words)

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BURNING ISSUE #10

National
Security
Doctrine
Does India needs it now
more than ever ?
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[email protected]
Note4Students
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PYQs &
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India needs a clear National Security Doctrine not just quick fixes every time there’s a crisis. UPSC Microthemes
02

usually asks such topics in a broad, “threat and response” way like that 2021 question on chal-
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[UPSC 2021, GS-3] Analyse the

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lenges from external and non-state actors. The examiner wants you to connect real threats like
multidimensional challenges posed by
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terrorism, cyberattacks, and border tensions to the bigger picture of how India thinks about secu-
external state and non-state actors, to
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rity. Many students get stuck just listing events like Galwan or the Balakot airstrike. But they miss
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the internal security of India. Also discuss

the real issue India doesn’t have a long-term plan. That’s where this article helps. It doesn’t just tell
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measures required to take to be taken to

you what happened; it explains why we still don’t have a formal doctrine (check the part “Reasons
18

combat the threat

for Avoiding a Formal NSD till now”) be it political hesitation or civil–military disconnect. It takes
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you through committees like the Kargil Review and Naresh Chandra Task Force, shows why we
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need a doctrine now more than ever, and even gives solid solutions like publishing a declassified
Microthemes: Threat from External
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summary or building tiered sub-doctrines (just like the UK does). One standout moment is when
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state and Non-state actors

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it calls India’s Blue Economy push “strategy without doctrine” a powerful reminder that even great
ideas mean little without a guiding vision. Use examples like “no doctrine behind Balakot strike”
or the confusion around our nuclear policy (“No First Use” debate) to show that you get both the
facts and the framework.

“Strategy without doctrine is like

a ship without a compass.”
that are no longer just about tanks at the border
i n d i a fa c e s s e c u r i t y t h r e at s
they range from terror attacks and border stand-offs to cyber hacks and information war-
fare. From Kargil in 1999 to Galwan in 2020, the nature of threats has become sharper,
faster, and more complex. Yet, even today, India does not have a formal National Security
Doctrine (NSD) a clear document that outlines what we see as threats, how we respond,
and how we prepare.

Despite being a nuclear power and home to one of the world’s largest militaries, India often
relies on reactive measures, rather than a long-term strategic roadmap. As K. Subrah-
manyam, one of India’s foremost strategic thinkers, rightly said, “No nation can pursue ef-
fective security policy without doctrinal clarity.”This article tries to uncover some nuanced
questions.

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About National Security Doctrine

A National Security Doctrine is a comprehensive framework
of guiding principles, strategic beliefs, and operational postures
that shape a nation’s military, diplomatic, and internal security
responses. It goes beyond reactive tactics, providing predict-
ability, strategic clarity, and inter-agency coordination. It
serves as:
• A blueprint for defense and foreign policy.
• A guide to modern warfare readiness.
• A communication tool for deterrence.
• A confidence-building measure for both citizens and allies.

India’s only formal doctrinal articulation is the 2003

Nuclear Doctrine, which emphasizes “credible minimum
deterrence” and a “No First Use” policy. However, in the
absence of a broader doctrine, India’s responses to terror-
ism, cyber threats, or asymmetric warfare lack cohesive
strategy.

Reasons for Avoiding a Formal NSD till now

Despite facing a complex threat matrix from cross-border terrorism and cyber warfare to assertive
SMASH neighbours India has yet to publish a formal National Security Doctrine (NSD). While many countries
MAINS use such documents to guide policy and project strategic clarity, India continues to rely on broad
policy signals and tactical responses. Why? Because what seems like a gap on paper is, in reality, a
product of calculated caution, institutional friction, and political trade-offs.
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Reason Explanation Example / Impact
1. Strategic India prefers flexibility over fixed rules to adapt to No declared doctrine behind surgical strikes or

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Ambiguity evolving threats and maintain tactical surprise. -0
Balakot airstrikes, yet effective messaging.
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2. Political A formal doctrine requires firm stances on internal No government has committed to codifying a doctrine
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Sensitivities conflicts, Pakistan/China policy, and preemptive action since independence.

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politically risky topics.

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3. Institutional Lack of coordination among military, intelligence, foreign Army, Navy, and Air Force have separate doctrines; no
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Fragmentation
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and home ministries hinders unified strategy-making. integrated national framework.

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4. Civil-Military Strategic planning is dominated by civilian bureaucracy; NSD requires greater integration of armed forces in
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Disconnect the military often remains outside national security policy, which is still evolving post–CDS creation.
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doctrine-making.
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5. Fear of A public doctrine may be seen as provocative or escalate Explicit offensive postures could alarm Pakistan or
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Misinterpretation tensions with neighbours, especially nuclear-armed ones. China, triggering unintended consequences.
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6. Changing With threats evolving rapidly cyber, AI, grey-zone warfare The absence of a doctrine allows dynamic responses
Nature of Threats leaders may see fixed doctrines as limiting or outdated. to emerging hybrid threats.

Committees & Reports on National Security Doctrine

DOMINATE Year Committee / Report What They Recommended / Observed
PRELIMS
1999 Kargil Review Committee (KRC) First major call for a National Security Doctrine and Strategy. It recommended better
chaired by K. Subrahmanyam intelligence coordination, creation of a National Security Council Secretariat (NSCS), and a
comprehensive strategy document to avoid future surprises like Kargil.
2001 Group of Ministers (GoM) Report Endorsed KRC’s call for a codified doctrine; proposed integration of intelligence and military
on Reforming the National decision-making, establishment of agencies like NSCS, Defence Intelligence Agency (DIA),
Security System and Strategic Policy Group (SPG).
2012 Naresh Chandra Task Force on Recommended formulating a comprehensive National Security Strategy, clarifying roles of
National Security civil and military leadership, and streamlining civil-military synergy.
2018 Defence Planning Committee Mandated to draft a National Security Strategy and provide guidance on defence
(DPC) – chaired by NSA Ajit Doval preparedness, capability development, and strategic planning. The draft strategy was
reportedly prepared but not released.
2019 N. Ramachandran Committee on Indirectly linked national security to internal stability. Emphasized the need for a cohesive
Police Reforms internal security doctrine, especially to tackle Left-Wing Extremism, insurgency, and terrorism.
2021 Parliamentary Standing Committee Criticized the government’s delay in formulating a National Security Strategy and demanded
on Defence (17th Lok Sabha) its early release, especially in light of threats from China and Pakistan.
2023 National Security Advisory Board Various former military officials and strategic experts (e.g., Lt. Gen. D.S. Hooda, Shivshankar
(NSAB) & Strategic Community Menon) publicly called for a codified NSD, given India’s evolving hybrid threat environment.
(unofficial inputs) While not formal committee reports, these have added urgency to the debate.

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Why India Needs a National Security Doctrine Now

India’s threat matrix is no longer conventional it is layered, persistent, and multidimensional.
A National Security Doctrine won’t just define how India defends itself it will shape how India
thinks strategically, coordinates internally, and projects power externally.
I. Evolving External Threat Landscape •F ragmented Inter-Agency Coordination
• Volatile Geopolitical Neighborhood Defence, Home, MEA, and intelligence agencies operate in silos.
Sandwiched between two nuclear-armed adversaries, India A doctrine offers Command, Control & Communication (C3) for
faces frequent tensions—Doklam (2017), Galwan (2020), Kargil seamless inter-agency synergy.
(1999). A codified doctrine helps anticipate and manage conflict •D isjointed Internal Security Vision
in a region where, as Kautilya’s Mandala Theory notes, “the Issues like Left-Wing Extremism, communal violence, and insur-
immediate neighbor is your enemy.” gency are treated piecemeal. A doctrine can unify internal threats
• Reactive vs Proactive Posture under a comprehensive national security architecture.
India largely responds after the event (e.g., Uri, Pulwama). A III. Countering Hybrid and Unconventional Threats
doctrine enables pre-emptive preparedness, much like China’s •C ross-Border Terror and Grey-Zone Warfare
“Active Defence” doctrine. Despite Balakot and surgical strikes, terror persists. A doctrine
• Strategic Signaling Asymmetry enables a “massive but non-escalatory” retaliation framework to
While China uses its Sun Tzu–style strategy for psychological handle such unconventional threats.
dominance, India lacks clear messaging. A doctrine enhances •H ybrid Warfare and Cyber Threats
geopolitical signaling and deterrence credibility. India faces cyberattacks, disinformation campaigns, and
• Ambiguity in Nuclear Posture territorial salami slicing. An NSD provides clarity on thresholds,
Despite a 2003 doctrine, No First Use remains debated (e.g., attribution, and coordinated response.
Parrikar’s 2016 remark). An updated, unambiguous doctrine IV. Strategic Synergy in Foreign and Defence Policy
strengthens nuclear deterrence and diplomatic clarity. •L ack of Diplomatic–Defence Alignment
II. Need for Internal Coherence and Integration India’s foreign and defence policies often move in parallel, not
• Civil–Military Disjoint together. A doctrine would align both, akin to the Nixon–Kissinger
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Without a unified national doctrine, civilian and military leader- model, where foreign policy was shaped by security realism.
ship lack alignment. As India builds Integrated Theatre Com-
mands, an NSD is essential for operational coherence (similar to

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the U.S. National Security Strategy).
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Way Forward
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1. I nstitutionalize a Periodic National Security Strategy (NSS)

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Draft and update a National Security Strategy every 4–5 years to

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assess threats, set priorities, and ensure strategic continuity across

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governments.
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(Kargil Review Committee recommended this in 1999 still pending)

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2. Adopt a Tiered Doctrine Framework

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Structure the NSD into layered sub-doctrines defence, cyber, internal

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security, intelligence, diplomacy under one unified doctrine.

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(UK’s Integrated Review, 2021, offers a successful model)

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3. Release an Unclassified Public Summary

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Publish a concise, declassified version to aid public understanding,

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strategic communication, and international signaling.

(NATO’s Strategic Concept, 2022, openly outlines threats and
policy direction)
4. Legislate the NSD for Institutional Permanence
Enact the doctrine via Parliament to ensure democratic legitimacy,
role clarity, and continuity across political cycles.
(U.S. Goldwater–Nichols Act, 1986, restructured military planning
and oversight)
5. Mainstream Strategic Education Across Services
Integrate national security and strategic thinking into the training of
civil, police, foreign, and military services.
(Israel’s National Security College prepares top officials in inte-
grated policy thinking)
6. Align NSD with Budgeting and R&D Priorities
Ensure defence allocations, capital procurement, and R&D (e.g.
DRDO, iDEX) are guided by doctrinal needs not ad hocism.
(U.S. Quadrennial Defense Review aligns strategy with defence
capability planning)
7. Embed Cyber, AI, and Hybrid Threat Preparedness
Explicitly incorporate responses to cyberattacks, AI-led disinforma-
tion, and digital sabotage within the NSD.
(NATO’s Cyber Defence Centre addresses emerging tech threats)
8. Link Diplomacy with Security Strategy
Align foreign policy instruments alliances, economic corridors, mari-
time presence with national security goals.
(India’s IPOI, QUAD, IMEC exemplify strategic-diplomatic alignment)

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Back2Basics
Why a National Security Doctrine (NSD) Matters: Impact & Significance

Significance (E.g., mountain warfare capabilities over ceremonial expansion)

1. Strategic Coherence and Clarity •F  aster Crisis Response: Codifies escalation ladders, avoiding
• Defines India’s Security Vision: Moves policy from tactical reac- paralysis in emergencies.
tions to long-term planning and threat anticipation. (E.g., confusion post-26/11 vs swift Balakot action in 2019)
(E.g., codified response to China’s salami slicing in Ladakh) 4. Global Messaging and Partnerships
• Enhances Deterrence: Signals clear red lines to adversaries, •B  uilds Trust with Allies: Gives QUAD, France, Japan clarity on
strengthening India’s posture. India’s strategic approach.
(E.g., US “Pivot to Asia” doctrine shaped Indo-Pacific alignment (E.g., France–India defence roadmap includes joint doctrinal
with Japan, Australia) planning)
2. Operational Synergy •E  nables Security Diplomacy: Expands regional influence
• Fosters Inter-Agency Coordination: Aligns defence, intelli- through SAGAR, IPOI, and maritime awareness.
gence, cyber, space, MEA, and internal security under unified (E.g., Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative, I2U2, BECA with the US)
goals. 5. Strengthens Internal Security Architecture
(E.g., Jointness in Balakot-type operations across IAF, RAW, MEA) •C  ounter-Terror & COIN Coherence: Brings uniformity to re-
• Boosts Defence Reforms: Provides direction for theatre com- sponses in J&K, Northeast, and LWE areas.
mands, cyber defence, and indigenization. (E.g., intelligence-led operations using tech surveillance in
(E.g., Atmanirbhar Bharat in drones, AI, EW systems) Kashmir)
3. Better Resource Allocation & Crisis Response • I nformed Public and Strategic Culture: Enables democratic
• Smarter Budgeting: Aligns India’s ₹6.2 lakh crore defence spend accountability and mature discourse.
with actual threat priorities. (Counters misinformation and populist war narratives)

Existing Indian Steps Toward a Doctrine

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•2  003 Nuclear Doctrine: Emphasised No First Use, credible
minimum deterrence.

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• Defence Planning Committee (2018): Tasked with formulating a
national security strategy.
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• Integrated Theatre Command Development: Moves toward

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joint force structures.

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• National Cyber Security Strategy (Draft): Awaiting clearance,

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fits within NSD.

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• Strategic Agreements: BECA (US), France-India joint doctrines,

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QUAD-level interoperability.
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What’s Holding India Back: Key Challenges

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1. P olitical Hesitation: Fear of being seen as aggressive; lack of

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cross-party consensus.
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2. Civil-Military Disconnect: Armed forces have limited input in

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national-level doctrine-making.
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3. Institutional Silos: No central authority driving unified strategic

planning.
4. Doctrinal Rigidity Risk: Need for balance between core princi-
ples and adaptability.
5. Tech Lag and Import Dependence: Fast-evolving threats (AI,
drones, cyber) outpace domestic capability. (E.g., reliance on
imported jet engines, semiconductors)
6. No Declassified Strategy Document: Unlike the US, India
lacks a publicly debated NSS.
7. Hybrid Warfare Complexity: Gray-zone threats blur war–peace
lines. (E.g., LAC stand-offs without shots fired)
8. Weak Strategic Culture: India’s long-term planning suffers from
ad-hocism. (As noted by George Tanham – RAND)

Smash Mains: Mock Drop

[QUESTION] In the absence of a codified National Security Doctrine, India’s security responses remain
reactive rather than strategic.” Critically examine this statement in the context of evolving conventional and
unconventional threats to India’s internal and external security. Suggest a structured framework for an
integrated doctrine. (15 Marks, 250 Words)

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BURNING ISSUE #11

Presidential
References
under
Article 143
Clarifying Law or Confusing
Constitutional Boundaries
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Note4Students PYQs &
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-0 Microthemes
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This article is built around Article 143 a quiet, underused clause in the Constitution. UPSC
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typically frames this as a deep-thought GS2 question under Separation of Powers (like the
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2023 question on judicial independence). It’s less about just quoting cases and more about [UPSC 2023, GS-2] “Constitutionally
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showing how checks and balances actually work. Many aspirants falter because they get guaranteed judicial independence is a
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stuck listing Article 143 cases without showing how this article keeps governance smooth and prerequisite of democ racy”. Comment.
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institutions in harmony. They often forget to show the purpose behind it that it prevents clashes
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between the executive, legislature, and judiciary before things explode. This article fixes that
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gap by walking you through themes like “Role of Article 143 in Indian System of Checks and
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Balances” and “Five Landmark Advisory Opinions” (like the Berubari Case and Third Judges Microthemes: Separation of Powers
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Case). It also links the tool’s potential with real-life urgency like the 2025 reference on Gover-
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nors delaying state bills, showing how Article 143 can prevent Centre-State tensions.
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t h e i n d i a n c o n s t i t u t i o n is more than just a legal text

it’s a dynamic blueprint for governance that grows through
court rulings and legislative responses. One standout feature
of this framework is Article 143, which allows the President
to ask the Supreme Court for its opinion on important legal or
constitutional questions. As noted in Law Commission Report
No. 272, this reflects the judiciary’s role as a co-equal branch
of government. Justice Fali S. Nariman rightly called such provi-
sions a mark of “mature constitutional statesmanship.”

About the issue

In May 2025, President Droupadi Murmu used Article 143 to
ask the Supreme Court for advice about Articles 200 and
201 which deal with how Governors and the President give
approval to state laws. This came after the Supreme Court set
deadlines for acting on State Bills, sparking an important de-
bate about the balance of power between the Centre and the
states. Since 1950, there have only been 15 such Presidential
references, showing that this is a rare and special tool in the
Constitution. It helps clear up tricky constitutional questions
without leading to bitter legal battles.

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Role of Article 143 in Indian System of Checks and Balances

Article 143 of the Indian Constitution allows the President to ask the Supreme Court for
its opinion on important legal or constitutional questions. This advisory role doesn’t settle
disputes like a court judgment but helps clarify complex issues before they become bigger
problems. By doing so, Article 143 acts as a tool to maintain a healthy balance between the
different branches of government and supports smooth governance.

Point Explanation Example

1. Advisory Role Allows the President to seek Supreme Court’s opinion on Sikkim Merger Case (1975): Clarified legality
Prevents Conflicts complex legal or constitutional questions, helping avoid disputes of merging Sikkim with India.
between branches.
2. Supports Helps maintain balance by ensuring the executive consults Keshavananda Bharati (1973): Helped
Separation of Powers judiciary on important matters, preventing unilateral decisions. define limits on constitutional
amendments.
3. Encourages Dialogue Promotes cooperation rather than confrontation among Advisory opinions on questions referred by
Between Branches legislature, executive, and judiciary. the President on federal disputes.
4. Provides Authorita- Offers the government expert legal advice to act within Opinion on appointment of judges or state
tive Legal Guidance constitutional limits, even though opinions are not binding. emergencies.
5. Prevents Early judicial input reduces chances of constitutional conflicts Reference on Presidential powers during
Constitutional Crises escalating into crises. Emergency (1975).
6. Limits and Advisory opinions are non-binding; the President may choose not Occasional reluctance of executive to refer
Challenges Exist to seek advice, limiting the tool’s effectiveness. controversial issues.
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Five Landmark Advisory Opinions Under Article 143 That Shaped
India’s Legal and Political Landscape
2
Article 143 allows the President to ask the Supreme Court for its advice on important legal or
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constitutional questions. Though these opinions are advisory, they have often clarified complex
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issues and influenced Indian governance deeply. Below are five key cases where Article 143
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advisory opinions played a pivotal role.

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Case Significance of Advisory Opinion Impact on Indian Polity or Governance

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1. Kerala Education Examined if the Kerala government’s Education Bill Balanced state legislative power with minority rights,
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Bill, 1957, In re (1959) violated fundamental rights or religious freedoms influencing education policy and minority protections.
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under the Constitution.

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2. Berubari Union Advised on whether a portion of Indian territory Affirmed Parliament’s power to amend the
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Case, In re (1960) could be ceded to Pakistan under a treaty, and the Constitution for ceding territory, clarifying India’s
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procedure required. sovereignty and treaty powers.

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3. Sea Customs Act, Clarified interpretation of customs law related to Helped unify tax law application and ensured clarity in
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S. 20(2), In re (1964) import duties and exemptions under constitutional law. customs regulations.
4. Powers, Privileges Defined the extent of legislative privileges and Strengthened legislative autonomy while balancing
and Immunities of State immunities granted to state legislatures and their judicial oversight.
Legislatures, In re (1965) members.
5. Presidential Addressed questions regarding the conduct and Reinforced the legitimacy and transparency of
Poll, In re (1974) validity of the Presidential election process under the Presidential elections.
Constitution.

Comparision of Constitutions 3. U
 nited Kingdom: Although it does not have a written
India is among the few democracies where the executive can formally constitution, the UK’s judicial system allows opinions from the
consult the judiciary. In contrast, other countries follow diverse models: Law Lords (now the Supreme Court) via declaratory judgments in
1. Canada: The Supreme Court of Canada has an advisory jurisdiction matters of significant legal uncertainty.
under the Supreme Court Act (s. 53), and opinions are regularly 4. A
 ustralia: The High Court cannot provide advisory opinions due to
sought on constitutional and legal questions. For instance, the constitutional constraints (Section 76).
2014 reference on Senate reform and the 1998 Quebec secession 5. F
 rance: The Conseil Constitutional reviews laws pre-promulgation,
reference have had long-lasting legal and political consequences. effectively offering binding advisory review on constitutional
2. United States: The U.S. Constitution maintains a strict compliance.
separation of powers. Article III does not allow the Supreme Court
to issue advisory opinions.

Thus, India’s mechanism is more aligned with Canada’s model, blending judicial authority
with executive consultative processes. India’s model is more flexible than the U.S., yet more
limited in scope and enforceability compared to France and Canada.

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Way Forward 4. C
 larify Whether Opinions are Binding or Not: A constitutional
1. S
 et Clear Rules for Advisory References: The Supreme Court amendment or Supreme Court ruling should define the legal status
should codify guidelines on what kinds of questions are allowed, of advisory opinions (e.g., Berubari Case, 1960, saw the govt selec-
how soon they must be answered, and in what form. Canada’s mod- tively use the Court’s opinion).
el ensures precise questions, public hearings, and fixed timelines. 5. B
 uild Accountability through Reporting: The SC should publish
2. Keep it Focused on Legal and Constitutional Issues: The refer- data on Article 143 cases how many came in, how many were
ence power should only be used for constitutional interpretation- answered, and whether the government acted on them within its
not political or vague issues (e.g., Ram Janmabhoomi case, 1993, Annual Report.
which blurred legal lines and judicial neutrality). 6. C
 onsult States on Federal Matters: If a reference affects State
3. Make the Process More Transparent and Inclusive: Allow public powers, a formal consultation mechanism should be built in. This
experts, think tanks, and civil society to submit inputs—like in the aligns with the Punchhi Commission (2010) and would improve
Right to Privacy and Section 377 hearings where diverse voices Centre-State trust.
strengthened the judgment.

Back2Basics
Presidential Reference under Article 143 Significance of Article 143
Article 143 lets the President ask the Supreme Court for advice on 1. C
 larifies Constitutional Doubts: Helps resolve legal ambiguities
important legal or factual questions that affect the public. This idea (e.g., 2025 reference on Articles 200 & 201 clarifies timelines for
comes from a similar power given to the British Governor-General gubernatorial assent).
back in 1935. 2. P rotects Federal Balance: Offers a peaceful way to handle Cen-
Under this article, the President can seek the Court’s opinion on tre-State tensions (e.g., Cauvery Water Dispute, 1992).
any big public issue (Article 143(1)) or on cases already before other 3. E nsures Executive Accountability: Keeps actions within consti-
courts, especially involving treaties (Article 143(2)). Such questions tutional limits (e.g., Kerala Education Bill, 1958 clarified Rights vs.
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are heard by a bench of at least five Supreme Court judges. Directive Principles).
While the Court’s advice isn’t binding, it carries great weight and 4. E nables Judicial Innovation: Allows creative interpretation (e.g.,
helps settle major constitutional questions peacefully. As Justice V.R. Third Judges Case, 1998 led to Collegium system).

2
Krishna Iyer said, these references create a “solemn judicial discus- 5. R esolves Legal Grey Areas: Settles vital legal questions (e.g.,
sion on national issues.”
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Berubari Case, 1960—territory cession needs constitutional
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Some famous examples where Article 143 opinions shaped India amendment).
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include: 6. R educes Future Litigation: Prevents disputes from escalating to

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• Delhi Laws Act (1951): Set limits on delegated law-making powers. court (e.g., 70,000+ pending SC cases in 2023).
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• Kerala Education Bill (1958): Balanced Fundamental Rights and

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policy goals. Challenges with Article 143

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• Berubari Case (1960): Said giving away Indian territory needs a 1. V

 ague or Political References: Questions may be too broad or
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constitutional amendment. sensitive (e.g., Ram Janmabhoomi, 1993—Court declined to opine).

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• Presidential Poll Case (1974): Upheld election validity even with 2. N ot Legally Binding: Opinions can be ignored (e.g., Berubari Case,
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electoral vacancies. 1960—initially overlooked by govt).

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• Third Judges Case (1998): Strengthened the system of appointing 3. P ossible Political Misuse: Used to delay tough decisions (e.g.,
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judges through the collegium. during politically sensitive times).

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• Keshav Singh Case (1965): Balanced court review with legislative 4. L ack of Public Input: No space for civil society participation.
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privileges. 5. A dds to SC Workload: Non-binding references divert attention

(e.g., 80,000+ pending cases in 2024).
6. C an Strain Federal Relations: Opposition states may view it as
Centre overreach (e.g., 2025 reference on Governors’ powers).

Smash Mains: Mock Drop

[QUESTION] “Article 143 reflects the Indian Constitution’s commitment to mature constitutional
statesmanship.”Discuss the significance of the Supreme Court’s advisory jurisdiction under Article 143
in maintaining constitutional balance, with suitable examples. (15 Marks, 250 Words)

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BURNING ISSUE #12

India-UK
Will the FTA Unlock a New Era of
Trade, or Expose India’s Vulnerabilities?
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PYQs &
Note4Students
2 Microthemes
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Article unpacks India–UK FTA promises, pitfalls, and strategic trade choices. In past papers
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UPSC frames broad, open‑ended questions that go beyond facts, like the 2016 FDI poser, [UPSC 2016, GS-3] Justify the need for
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so expect it to ask “critically examine” type queries linking Trade Boost, Balanced Strategy, FDI for the development of the Indian
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or Farmer Protests to jobs, geopolitics and Atmanirbhar Bharat. Many aspirants trip because economy. Why there is gap between
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they memorise tariff cuts but skip the flip side non‑tariff barriers in Friction Points or farmer MOUs signed and actual FDIs? Suggest
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fears under Concerns of Indian Farmers, so answers sound one‑sided. This article fixes remedial steps to be taken for increasing
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that gap by weaving both winners and worriers into each section, giving ready connectors actual FDIs in India.
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such as (Indian apparel now gets zero duty access to UK) and (UK’s planned carbon border
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tax could hurt Indian metal exports) that help you build multi‑dimensional arguments. The
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Microthemes: FDI
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standout feature is its “mock drop” finish the Smash Mains Mock which converts the whole
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discussion into an answerable mains‑style prompt, letting you test yourself instantly rather
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than stockpiling notes.

FTA
“A saree stitched in Surat, a diamond
polished in Mumbai, an IT consultant flying
to London all now crossing borders with
fewer hurdles than ever before.”
t h at ’ s t h e p r o m i s e held by the new India-UK Free Trade Agreement, hailed as a his-
toric leap for both nations. As duties fall and market doors open, sectors like textiles, gems,
and services stand to benefit massively.

But behind the headlines lies a more complex reality of farmers fearing cheaper imports,
industries facing global competition, and negotiators walking a tightrope between growth
and protectionism.

So, can this FTA truly turn India into a global trade powerhouse? Or will it repeat some of
the pitfalls seen in India’s earlier trade deals? And most importantly, how should India pre-
pare itself to fully leverage this new opportunity?

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Key Benefits of the India-UK Free Trade Agreement (FTA)

The India-UK FTA brings several direct and indirect benefits, making it a win-win for both
countries and unlocking new opportunities.

Benefit Description Example

Enhanced India gains zero-duty access to UK markets for Indian processed foods earlier faced 10–12% tariffs now
Market Access industrial and agricultural goods; UK exporters get duty-free in the UK. Tariffs on British whiskey reduced from
reduced tariffs in India. 150% to 40% over 10 years.
Boost to Key Labour-intensive Indian sectors like textiles, apparel, toys, Indian apparel now gets zero-tariff access to UK. Tariffs on
Domestic Sectors and footwear benefit; UK gains in automobiles and spirits. British cars slashed from 100% to 10%.
Job Creation & Trade expansion leads to employment generation and India’s textile sector, employing 45+ million people, can
Economic Growth investment in both countries. boost jobs through increased exports.
Diversification of India reduces dependency on US/EU; UK diversifies India currently holds just 1.8% share in UK imports FTA
Trade Partners beyond EU post-Brexit. targets major increase.
Foundation for Sets a model for India’s trade negotiations with other Learnings from tariff cuts and ESG compliance can aid
Future FTAs major economies like the EU and US. future deals with EU/US.

Key Indian Beneficiaries of the India-UK FTA

Following are the sectors that expect to gain directly from the new trade agreement.
• Engineering Export Sector: Expects exports to double due to tariff elimination. EEPC projects
$7.55 billion by 2029-30.
• Textile & Apparel Industry: Gains edge over Bangladesh/Vietnam with zero-duty access.
• Gems & Jewellery Sector: Duty-free exports boost margins on gold and diamond products.
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• IT & Professional Services: Easier professional mobility and recognition of qualifications.
• Indian Employers in the U.K.: Save on social security costs for Indian talent on temporary duty.

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Effect How It Helps India Example

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More Markets, FTAs cut tariffs, making Indian goods cheaper and India-UAE CEPA gives duty-free access to 90% of
More Exports more competitive abroad. exports exports rose 12% in first year.
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FDI Flow Boost FTAs offer predictability and stability, attracting After India-Australia ECTA, FDI from Australia jumped
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investors to India. 25% in 2024.

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Made in India, Competition from FTAs pushes Indian firms to up India-ASEAN FTA helped textile exports grow 15%
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Sharpened their game innovate or perish. firms became more export-ready.

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IT, Health Get Services FTAs open up foreign job markets for Indian India-UK FTA gives better access to UK jobs in IT and
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Global Stage professionals. healthcare.

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Farm to Foreign Plate Agriculture FTAs create new demand abroad, India-Mauritius CECPA lowered tariffs on tea and
boosting rural incomes. sugar agri exports rose.
Tech Comes Home FTAs allow tech transfer in green energy, India-Australia ECTA brings clean tech know-how,
manufacturing, and digital infra. aiding India’s energy transition.
SMEs Go Global FTAs help small businesses join global supply chains India-Singapore CECA boosted market access for
and grow. Indian IT and engineering SMEs.
Rules Made Simple FTAs align standards, making it easier to do business India-EFTA TEPA (2024) harmonizes product rules
across borders. smoother trade with European partners.

India–UK FTA: Why It Matters

Theme Punchy Insight
Trade Boost Aims to double $60B trade by 2030 — big leap for exports.
Post-Brexit Diplomacy Cements India’s role in UK’s “Global Britain” gameplan.
Opening Guarded Sectors India reduces auto tariffs — a bold shift in trade policy.
Export Push UK drops tariffs on Indian gems, textiles, footwear, engineering — boosts jobs in labour-heavy sectors.
Services & Mobility 3-year social security waiver makes Indian professionals more competitive in UK.
Balanced Strategy India safeguards dairy, apples, and other agri-products — shows how to say yes and no smartly.
Model FTA Sets template for future deals with EU, US — growth with guardrails.

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India–UK FTA: The Friction Points

Issue What’s the Catch?
Limited Tariff Gains Many Indian exports already had low UK tariffs not a huge bump.
Mobility Limits India wanted more visas; UK gave just ~100 new ones.
Carbon Tax Risk UK’s planned carbon border tax could hurt India’s metal exports.
Legal Services Tussle UK wanted entry, India said no lawyers still protected.
Student Visa Drop India gave up demand for post-study UK work visas.
Farmer Protests Indian farm groups fear cheaper UK goods could crush MSMEs and small producers.

Concerns of Indian Farmers Regarding the FTA •L

 ack of Safeguards: No quotas or countervailing duties an-
While industry celebrates, farmers have voiced legitimate concerns nounced. Eg: Sudden import surges could hurt local markets.
about import competition. •H
 igh Production Costs in India: Indian farmers face higher input
• Threat from Cheaper Agri-Imports: U.K. lamb, salmon, and dairy costs which makes their products less competitive.
may undercut Indian produce. Eg: Lower-cost U.K. lamb hits local •A
 bsence of Adjustment Mechanisms: No phased liberalization
meat producers. or protection clauses to give farmers adjustment time.
• Low-Income Farming Risk: Indian small-scale farmers can’t
compete with subsidised imports. Eg: Marginal farmers vulnerable
to price crashes.

Strategic Implications of the FTA on India’s Future Way Forward

Trade Policy Targeted reforms and long-term strategies are needed to make Indian
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The India-UK FTA could serve as a template and test case for future textiles globally competitive, sustainable, and future-ready.
negotiations. • Reform Tax Structure & Boost Incentives: Rationalize the GST struc-
• Template for Future FTAs: May influence India’s trade talks with EU and ture to eliminate the inverted duty issue and offer production-linked

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U.S. Eg: Liberalisation on 85% of U.K. imports could raise similar asks. incentives (PLI) for MMF textiles to enhance global competitiveness.
• Sensitive Sector Precedents: Agriculture and alcohol tariff cuts
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• I nvest in R&D and Modern Manufacturing: Encourage investment
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may open the door for more. Eg: U.S. bourbon or EU wine export- in high-performance MMF fabric production, innovation, and com-
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ers may demand similar access. pliance infrastructure to meet international standards in technical
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• Manufacturing Sector Pressure: Greater market openness textiles and sustainability.

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requires stronger industrial policies. Eg: Indian manufacturing, •D  evelop Global Design Ecosystem: Build strong global collabora-
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already weak globally, may face exposure. tions with design houses and brands to integrate India into high-end
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• Model for Services Negotiations: The services component may global supply chains.
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guide India’s future demands in professional mobility. •E  xpand Export Promotion Councils’ Role: Strengthen market
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• Balancing Atmanirbhar Bharat Goals: India must ensure that intelligence, branding, and global promotion efforts through institu-
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opening trade does not contradict its domestic self-reliance agenda. tional support.
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•E  nhance Logistics & Supply Chain Efficiency: Improve port, road,

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and air connectivity to reduce lead times and ensure timely deliveries
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to global clients.
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Back2Basics
DOMINATE Free Trade Agreements
PRELIMS
What is a Free Trade Agreement (FTA)?
•D  efinition: An FTA is a treaty between two or more
countries to reduce or eliminate tariffs, quotas, and
trade barriers to facilitate easier flow of goods and
services.
• Scope: Modern FTAs often go beyond goods trade to
include services, investments, intellectual property,
and even labor mobility.
• Objective: Promote international trade, economic
growth, and closer economic ties between partner
countries.
• Types of FTAs:
- Bilateral: Between two countries (e.g., In-
dia-UAE CEPA).
- Multilateral/Regional: Among multiple coun-
tries (e.g., India-ASEAN FTA, SAFTA).
• Difference from Customs Union: Unlike FTAs, Cus-
toms Unions have a common external tariff policy for
all members (e.g., EU Customs Union).

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India’s FTA Experience

Over the past three decades, India has signed several Free Trade Agreements with both regional
and bilateral partners. However, the results have been mixed, with some gains in exports but also
rising trade deficits and limited gains in services.

What Happened What It Means Example

India started signing As India opened up its economy, it also began signing free The first FTA was signed with Sri Lanka in 1998.
FTAs in the 1990s trade agreements to boost trade and investment.
Export growth to India’s exports grew by 13.4% for manufactured goods and Exports to ASEAN, Korea, Japan increased but so
FTA partners 10.9% overall from 1993 to 2018. did imports.
Growth not The rise in exports also happened with countries without Export trends were similar for both FTA and non-
solely due to FTAs FTAs, so FTAs can’t take all the credit. FTA partners.
SAFTA performed well India’s trade surplus with SAFTA countries (South Asia) grew Surplus rose from $4B in 2005-06 to $21B in 2018-
massively, meaning India sold more than it bought. 19; biggest gains with Nepal and Bangladesh.
Rising trade India started importing more than exporting from Deficit with ASEAN rose from $8B in 2009-10 to
deficit with some countries like ASEAN, Japan, and South Korea. $22B in 2018-19.
FTA partners
FTAs underused by Many Indian businesses don’t use the FTA benefits due to Only 5–25% of eligible trade goes through the FTA
Indian exporters lack of awareness or complex paperwork. route (very low).
Weak export growth in Sectors where India could earn more (like leather, textiles, In 13 out of 21 sectors under the India-ASEAN FTA,
value-added sectors chemicals) didn’t benefit much from FTAs. trade balance worsened.
FTAs cover only a India’s FTAs account for just about 15% of its total global So even good or bad FTA outcomes don’t drastically
small chunk of trade trade — not enough to shift the big picture. change India’s overall trade.
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Problems in India’s FTAs
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While FTAs are designed to boost trade, India’s actual experience highlights several structural and
negotiating weaknesses that reduce their effectiveness.
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What’s Going Wrong What It Means Example

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Unfair tariff deals India ended up cutting import duties way more than it was India agreed to cut 74–86% of tariffs in FTAs,
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required to, while others didn’t match up. while under WTO it only needed to cut 2%.
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Non-tariff barriers Even though tariffs are removed, Indian goods still face hidden Japan and other partners use strict standards or
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restrictions like tough quality checks or complex import rules abroad. permits that block Indian goods.
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Difficult to Exporters find the paperwork, rules, and benefits too Complex “rules of origin” and low cost savings
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use FTAs complicated or not worth the trouble. make many exporters avoid using FTAs.
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No services India is strong in services (like IT, finance), but many FTAs don’t No MRAs – an Indian doctor or engineer may not
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coverage allow Indian professionals to easily work abroad. be recognized in partner countries.
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India’s own High transport costs, power shortages, and weak infrastructure Exporters can’t meet delivery timelines or pricing
internal issues make Indian products expensive and less competitive. benchmarks.
FTA misuse Some countries route goods through FTA partners to bypass Copper imports falsely routed through Sri Lanka
by others duties unfairly. to claim benefits.
India seen as Policies like Atmanirbhar Bharat and import restrictions make Other countries hesitate to sign or renegotiate
‘protectionist’ India appear closed off to free trade. FTAs with India.
Spaghetti Too many overlapping FTAs cause confusion, conflicting rules, India has separate FTAs with Malaysia and
Bowl Effect and slow down trade. Singapore while also part of India-ASEAN CECA
this creates a tangled mess.
Slow pace of India takes too long to close trade deals compared to others. Vietnam signed an FTA with the EU, but India-EU
FTA talks FTA talks have been dragging since 2007.

Smash Mains: Mock Drop

[QUESTION] The India–UK Free Trade Agreement (FTA) offers significant export opportunities for sectors like textiles,
gems, and services, yet structural inefficiencies and stakeholder concerns may limit its actual benefits. Critically
examine how India can convert such FTAs into engines of inclusive and sustainable growth. (15 Marks, 250 Words)

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BURNING ISSUE #13

Inter-State
Water Disputes
Can Cooperation Over Shared Resources
Ever Prevail Over Conflict?
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PYQs &
Note4Students
2 Microthemes
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Rivers bind India; politics keeps tearing them apart this article explains how. UPSC usually [UPSC 2013, GS-2] Constitutional
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turns water-sharing into broad “why the system fails” essays, just like the 2013 mains question mechanisms to resolve the inter-state
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on structural vs process flaws. Many learners reel off case-law or Cauvery drama but skip water disputes have failed to address
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deeper gaps the paper rewards no permanent tribunal, fuzzy data, Centre-state finger-pointing and solve the problems. Is the failure due
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highlighted in “Fundamental Structural Ambiguities” and “Challenges in Tribunal Function- to structural or process inadequacy or
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ing.” This piece plugs that hole. It shows, step by step, how the current tribunal trail crawls both? Discuss.
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(see “Process of Dispute Resolution”), why awards stall in gazette limbo (example: Cauvery’s
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17-year wait), and where constitutional fuzz under Article 262 lets Supreme Court petitions
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sneak back in. The standout feature? It marries hard scaffolding with human stories farmers Microthemes: Nature of Indian
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worrying over fresh Sutlej flows in “About the Punjab-Haryana Water Dispute” so you can Federalism
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weave policy and people in one answer.

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About the Punjab-Haryana Water Dispute

“Dip your feet in the Sutlej, and feel the The Punjab-Haryana water sharing dispute is not new. It
has deep historical roots that go back to the very formation
cool embrace of history and tradition.” of Haryana as a separate state, and revolves around the
complex sharing of river waters, unfinished projects, and
t h i s b e l i e f d r aw s p e o p l e to the sacred rivers of Punjab and Haryana, political sensitivities that have lasted for decades.
rivers that have nourished these lands for centuries. But while these waters have •T  he dispute dates back to 1966 when Haryana was
sustained generations, they are now at the heart of one of India’s most conten- created from Punjab and was promised a share of river
tious water disputes. waters from the Ravi and Beas rivers.
•T  he Satluj-Yamuna Link (SYL) canal was proposed to
Tensions escalated between Punjab and Haryana after the Bhakra Beas Manage- deliver Haryana’s share but remains incomplete due to
ment Board (BBMB) decided to release an extra 4,500 cusecs of water from the Punjab’s resistance.
Bhakra dam to Haryana, sparking political and legal opposition from Punjab. As •T  he current issue involves Punjab and Haryana over
the two states bicker over water rights, the very rivers they depend on face the the release of additional water from the Bhakra dam,
strain of this ongoing conflict. managed by the Bhakra Beas Management Board
(BBMB).
So, how did we reach this point? Can cooperation over shared resources ever •O  n April 30, 2025, BBMB ordered the release of 8,500
outweigh the political tug-of-war? And most critically, can we find a solution that cusecs of water to Haryana for drinking needs, which
ensures fair access to water while preserving the future of these lifelines? Punjab opposed, claiming Haryana had already with-
drawn 104% of its annual share.
•W  ater levels in the Bhakra, Pong, and Ranjit Sagar
dams are low due to poor snowfall in the Himalayas.
•P  unjab argues that BBMB’s decision is unilateral and
has refused to open the Nangal dam sluice gates.

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Process of Dispute Resolution

Steps Details
Legal Basis Disputes resolved under Inter-State River Water Disputes (IRWD) Act, 1956; supported by Article 262 of the Constitution.
Initial Step A state government formally complains to the Centre, stating a dispute exists or may arise.
Central Government Role Examines the matter and tries to resolve it via negotiation. If it fails, a tribunal is formed.
Tribunal Formation Ad hoc tribunal is set up with a chairperson (Supreme Court judge), judicial members, and technical experts.
Tribunal Proceedings States present technical and legal arguments. Tribunal studies rainfall, usage patterns, crop needs, etc.
Timelines Originally, no time limit. Disputes often take decades. 2019 amendment proposes stricter timelines.
Legal Binding Nature Award becomes binding once notified in the Gazette by the Centre. Awards can’t be challenged in ordinary courts.
Enforcement Mechanism No strict enforcement mechanisms; states delay or defy compliance due to political reasons.
Judicial Oversight Though barred under Article 262, states approach SC under Articles 131 or 136 in practice.
Reform Proposals 2019 Bill proposes permanent tribunal, Dispute Resolution Committee (DRC), and data agency.

Fundamental Structural Ambiguities in resolving • Lack of clarity on legal hierarchy: It’s unclear how tribunal awards
disputes interact with constitutional rights and Supreme Court judgments.
1. Institutional and Procedural Gaps 4. Data and Technical Challenges
• Ad hoc nature of tribunals: Tribunals are formed only after dis- •O  paque data-sharing: No standardized, independent authority
putes reach a crisis stage; there’s no permanent mechanism. to collect and verify hydrological data.
• Absence of strict timelines: Until the 2019 amendment, • Technical weakness: Lack of scientific modelling or agreed methodol-
tribunals had no binding deadlines, leading to long delays (e.g., ogies for calculating water sharing, flows, and drought management.
5. Absence of Preventive and Cooperative Mechanisms
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Cauvery tribunal took 17 years).
• No clear enforcement mechanism: Awards need central notifica- •N  o early conflict resolution systems: There are limited plat-
tion to become binding, and even then, enforcement remains weak. forms for dialogue or mediation before legal escalation.

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• Overlapping forums and lack of finality: Multiple forums (tribunals, •U  nderutilised river boards and inter-state coordination bod-
SC, Centre) operate simultaneously, with unclear jurisdictional limits.
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ies: Mechanisms like river boards (per River Boards Act, 1956)
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2. Federal and Political Tensions

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have rarely been established or made effective.

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• Centre-state friction: States often allege the Centre’s decisions 6. Normative and Equity Framework Gaps
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are politically influenced (e.g., Tamil Nadu vs. Karnataka). •U  nclear role of equity and sustainability: No codified frame-
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• Perceived partiality in dispute resolution: The Centre’s dual work for factoring in historical use, equity among stakeholders, or
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role as a neutral arbiter and political actor creates trust deficits. ecological needs.
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3. Legal and Constitutional Ambiguity • I nconsistent tribunal reasoning: Different tribunals apply
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• Judicial overlap: Article 262 restricts SC’s role once a tribunal is varying standards of equity, population needs, and usage history,
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set up, but states still approach courts via Articles 131 or 136, lacking uniformity.
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causing confusion.
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Challenges in tribunal functioning

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-E  xample: Both Karnataka and Tamil Nadu moved the Su-

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1. Delays and Lack of Time-Bound Resolution preme Court after the Cauvery award, despite an existing
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• Slow constitution of tribunals: The Centre often takes years tribunal.

to constitute a tribunal even after a dispute is formally raised by 5. Lack of Uniform Standards and Precedents
states. •E
 ach tribunal applies different criteria some focus on historical
• Prolonged proceedings: Tribunals frequently take over a decade usage, others on economic needs or ecological flows.
to deliver awards. •T
 his lack of standard methodology leads to inconsistency and
- Example: The Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal was perceived unfairness.
constituted in 1990 and gave its final award only in 2007 a -E  xample: The Krishna tribunal gave weightage to catch-
gap of 17 years. ment area and utilization, while Cauvery focused more on
2. Non-Binding Nature and Delayed Notification of Awards crop water needs.
• Tribunal awards do not become binding until notified by the 6. Political Interference and Erosion of Trust
central government, creating room for political delay. •P
 erception that tribunal processes are politically influenced,
- Example: Cauvery award remained unimplemented for years especially when the Centre delays action or notification.
due to notification delays and legal-political wrangling. •S
 tates lose faith in tribunal neutrality if the ruling party at the
3. Enforcement Challenges Centre is seen favoring a particular state.
• No institutional mechanism for enforcement: Even after 7. Absence of Permanent Institutional Framework
notification, compliance depends on political will and Centre’s •E
 ach dispute leads to an ad hoc tribunal with fresh staffing, rules,
intervention. and procedures.
• States refuse compliance in politically sensitive times or if the •N
 o continuity or institutional memory is maintained.
award is seen as unfavorable. 8. Technical and Data Disputes
- Example: Karnataka’s reluctance to release Cauvery wa- •L
 ack of transparent, real-time, and credible hydrological data
ters post-tribunal award led to recurring standoffs. hampers tribunal assessment.
4. Jurisdictional Ambiguity and Judicial Overlap •S
 tates often dispute each other’s data; no independent river
• Though Article 262 bars SC intervention once a tribunal is set up, basin authority exists to validate claims.
states still approach courts under Article 131 or 136. -E  xample: In Mahanadi dispute, Odisha and Chhattisgarh
- This leads to parallel litigation and confusion over final had conflicting data on water usage and flow patterns.
authority.

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Way Forward 5. A
 dopt Global Norms
1. T ime-Bound Tribunal Process Incorporate international principles like the Berlin Rules and
Amend the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act to set fixed time- Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) for fair and
lines for tribunal awards and their publication in the Gazette. sustainable sharing.
2. E stablish a Permanent Tribunal 6. U
 se Technology for Transparency
Create a standing tribunal with multiple expert benches to handle Deploy real-time water monitoring and forecasting systems to
disputes continuously and reduce delays. promote data sharing and reduce mistrust.
3. Set Up River Basin Authorities 7. E
 nsure Award Implementation
Form inter-state basin organizations for key rivers to manage planning, Appoint independent monitoring bodies, with Supreme Court
usage, and dispute prevention jointly. oversight if needed, to ensure timely compliance.
4. Strengthen Centre-State Coordination 8. B
 uild Public Trust and Awareness
Use platforms like the Inter-State Council and NITI Aayog for political Promote civil society participation, media engagement, and trans-
dialogue and consensus building. parent communication to foster cooperative federalism.

Back2Basics
Global principles in resolving inter-state river water disputes
Norm / Rule / Convention Key Principle / Guideline Relevance to India / Examples
Helsinki Rules (1966) Equitable and reasonable use of Though non-binding, this principle supports fair sharing
watercourses; Obligation not to cause in Indian disputes like Krishna and Cauvery
appreciable harm to other states
UN Convention on the Law of the Reinforces principles of equitable use, Reflects the need for basin-level cooperation in India’s
Non-Navigational Uses of Inter- prior notification, and cooperation inter-state river basins (e.g., Mahanadi)
national Watercourses (1997) between riparian states
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Berlin Rules (2004) Expands Helsinki Rules to include Calls for river management in India to consider ecological
environmental sustainability, public flows and inclusive planning (e.g., Western Ghats rivers)

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Integrated Water Promotes coordinated development and Emphasizes basin-level institutions like river basin
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Resources Management (IWRM) management of water, land, and related authorities, which India lacks formally
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resources across sectors

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Principle of Prior States must inform and consult co-basin Could reduce friction as seen in Polavaram (Andhra–
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Notification and Consultation states before undertaking major projects Odisha–Telangana) and Mahanadi (Chhattisgarh–Odisha)
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disputes
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No Significant Harm Principle A state should not cause significant harm Applicable to disputes involving upstream usage
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to others through its water use impacting downstream states (e.g., Yamuna, Cauvery)
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Obligation to Cooperate Countries (or states) must cooperate in This is lacking in many Indian disputes marked by
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good faith to manage shared resources political one-upmanship

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Constitutional Provisions on • Water as a Union Subject (Article 246): • Doctrine of Equitable Distribution:
Water Resources Under the Constitution, water resources This principle, implied in Indian water law,
The legal framework that governs water and their management primarily fall under suggests that water should be distributed
sharing and disputes in India is grounded in the Union List (List I) of the Seventh fairly among states. However, the execu-
the Constitution. Schedule. However, states are given juris- tion of this principle often faces challeng-
diction over “water” under the Concurrent es, particularly in the context of regional
• Article 262 of the Indian Constitution: List, which leads to potential conflicts differences and political dynamics, as seen
This article provides a specific mecha- when inter-state water disputes arise. in the Punjab-Haryana dispute.
nism for the resolution of inter-state river
water disputes. It empowers Parliament to • Inter-State Water Disputes Act, •T
 he Role of Parliament: Parliament
enact laws to adjudicate such disputes, 1956: The Act provides a detailed legal holds the authority to resolve issues of
barring the jurisdiction of the courts. It framework for resolving inter-state water inter-state water disputes by passing
has been the basis for the creation of the disputes. It stipulates that if states cannot legislation. For example, the Cauvery Water
Inter-State Water Disputes Act, 1956. resolve a dispute by negotiation, a Water Disputes Tribunal was created under a
Disputes Tribunal is to be constituted. Parliamentary law, although delays in such
This process is critical in managing decisions have often exacerbated tensions
conflicts like the one between Punjab and between states.
Haryana.

Smash Mains: Mock Drop

[QUESTION] Despite constitutional provisions and legislative mechanisms, inter-state river water disputes in India
remain unresolved for decades. Analyse the structural, political, and legal factors contributing to this failure. Suggest
reforms to ensure time-bound, equitable, and enforceable resolution of such disputes.” (15 Marks, 250 Words)

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BURNING ISSUE #14

Is the U.S.-China
Trade Truce a
Turning Point
or Just a Tactical Pause?
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PYQs &
Note4Students
2 Microthemes
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Trade truce gives a pause, not a solution India needs to stay alert. UPSC usually picks such
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topics to test your ability to connect global power games with India’s strategic interests. For
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example, the 2021 question on how China is a bigger challenge than the Soviet Union isn’t [UPSC 2021, GS-2] “The USA is facing
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about just facts it’s about understanding the larger picture. But here’s where many aspirants an existential threat in the form of a
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go wrong: they focus too much on short-term numbers like “tariff cuts” and ignore deeper, China, that is much more challenging
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long-term issues like tech control, IP rights, or supply chain shifts. This article helps you avoid than the erstwhile Soviet Union.” Explain.
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that trap. It not only explains what the U.S.-China truce is (like how tariffs were reduced but
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only for 90 days), but also shows what’s missing like there’s still no solution on forced tech
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transfers or the undervalued yuan (see section: “Technology Transfer and IP Issues Omitted”). Microthemes: Miscelleneous
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What makes this article really special is how clearly it links these global events to India’s own
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struggles and missed chances (like Vietnam getting Samsung and Foxconn while India got only
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a slice of Apple). And the best part? The article doesn’t stop at analysis it gives a crisp way
forward for India: scale up PLI, fix land and labour laws, strengthen exports, and push FTAs
harder. These are ready-to-use points in your mains answers.

“The trade war is over— Key Terms of the U.S.- 3. G

 lobal Market Reaction: Stock
China Trade Truce markets responded positively, with
at least on paper.” In a significant yet temporary move, the a 2% to 3.8% rise globally, indicat-
U.S. and China have agreed to a short- ing investor relief.
t h at ’ s t h e m e s s a g e m a r k e t s l a p p e d u p when term easing of trade tensions. This truce 4. S
 trategic Shift: Notably, in April,
the U.S. and China announced their 90-day tariff truce. marks a cautious step toward diplomacy the U.S. had excluded China from a
Stocks rallied. Diplomats exhaled. For a moment, it after months of escalating tariff battles. similar 90-day tariff pause, indicat-
looked like the world’s two largest economies had found Below are the key highlights: ing this move as a policy shift and
middle ground. 1. T
 ariff Reductions: The U.S. has possible diplomatic thaw.
temporarily reduced tariffs on 5. L
 imited Sectoral Coverage: The
But behind the smiles and statements lies a fragile truth: Chinese goods from 145% to 30%. truce mainly impacts electronics
Nothing structural has changed.Tariffs are only reduced, China has lowered its tariffs on and consumer goods, leaving
not removed. The core disputes on tech, IP, currency, American goods from 125% to 10%. sectors like energy and tech under
and industrial policy remain unresolved. And the 90-day 2. 9
 0-Day Breather: The rollback is high duties. Example, Semicon-
window? A ticking clock, not a peace treaty. valid for only 90 days, providing a ductor tariffs remain largely intact
short window for both nations to despite broader trade pause.
For India, this fleeting calm isn’t just background noise negotiate long-term solutions.
it’s a strategic curveball. Just as supply chains were
pivoting towards India under the China+1 strategy,
the truce threatens to slow that momentum. So the
question is: Will India step up to fill the vacuum—or be
sidelined as the old power equations return?

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Unresolved Nature of the U.S.-China Trade Deficit 3. P

 ersistent Asymmetry in Trade Flows: The U.S. continues to face
While the truce offers short-term relief, it leaves deeper economic a trade deficit of over $300 billion with China. Example: In 2024,
concerns largely untouched. The fundamental imbalances between U.S. exports to China were $120B, while imports exceeded $450B.
the two economies remain unresolved: 4. C
 urrency Valuation Gaps: The Chinese yuan remains underval-
1. Temporary Nature of Tariff Cuts: The rollback is short-term and ued, indirectly subsidizing exports.Example: Despite truce, yuan
does not address structural imbalances in trade. Example: While policy keeps Chinese exports competitive.
tensions may ease, the core issue of trade imbalance rooted in 5. T
 echnology Transfer and IP Issues Omitted: The truce does not
production and consumption patterns remains. address forced technology transfer or intellectual property theft.
2. Lack of Structural Changes: The agreement does not compel Example: U.S. tech firms still vulnerable under joint venture norms
China to import more U.S. goods or alter its export-driven econo- in China.
my. Example: The U.S. continues to import electronics and machin-
ery, while exports to China remain limited.

WTO and Multilateral Trade Institutions amid Bilateral Truces

Bilateral trade truces between major economies, like the U.S. and China, reflect a growing trend of sidelining
multilateral trade institutions. This shift challenges the foundational principles of global trade governance,
especially the role of the WTO in ensuring equitable dispute resolution and transparent rule-making.

Dimension Description Example

Erosion of Bilateral agreements often circumvent WTO protocols, The U.S.-China tariff rollback was negotiated outside WTO
WTO’s Role undermining its legitimacy as the primary forum for trade structures, bypassing its multilateral mechanism.
dispute resolution.
Appellate Body The dispute resolution arm of the WTO has been Since 2019, the U.S. has blocked appointments to the
Paralysis effectively stalled, leaving trade conflicts unresolved. Appellate Body, crippling over 20 pending trade disputes.
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Rise of Pluri- Countries increasingly prefer smaller, issue-specific Initiatives like IPEF (Indo-Pacific Economic Framework)
lateralism and trade groups or regional agreements over global forums. and CPTPP are gaining traction over WTO-centered
Mini-lateralism negotiations.

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Balancing Act continues to push for WTO reform and protection of WTO highlights its strategic focus on digital sovereignty and
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developing country interests. domestic industry.

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India’s Role in Global Supply Chains in the Backdrop of Shifting

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Geopolitical Trade Relations

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With the U.S.-China trade thaw altering global manufacturing incentives, India’s supply chain
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readiness is being re-evaluated. The table below outlines critical bottlenecks and sectoral
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trends shaping India’s role.

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Point of Analysis Explanation Example

Limited Gains from Despite geopolitical push to diversify from China, Vietnam attracted firms like Samsung and
China+1 Strategy India has not attracted proportionate manufacturing Foxconn, while India saw partial investment
investments. from Apple.
Infrastructure and Poor port connectivity, delays in land acquisition, and India ranks lower than China and Vietnam
Logistic Bottlenecks fragmented logistics limit India’s competitiveness in in the World Bank’s Logistics Performance
global value chains. Index.
Policy Uncertainty and Frequent changes in import-export rules and lack Withdrawal of retrospective tax only
Regulatory Hurdles of single-window clearances discourage long-term happened after years of investor complaints
manufacturing commitments. (e.g., Vodafone case).
Sectoral Successes in India plays a key role in the global pharma supply India supplies 20% of global generic drugs,
Pharmaceuticals chain (especially generics) and IT services but lags in yet imports 70% of APIs from China.
and Services electronics and precision manufacturing.
PLI Scheme: A Step The Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme is Mobile manufacturing saw success (e.g.,
Forward, But Slow Uptake promising but has seen slow uptake and delayed Apple’s iPhone 13 production), but others
disbursals in some sectors. like textiles lag.
Geopolitical Leverage Though global sentiments favor India post-COVID Japan’s incentive scheme for firms to
Undermined by and amid U.S.-China tensions, weak execution affects relocate from China saw low uptake for
Execution Deficits India’s strategic advantage. shifting to India.

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Evolving Impact on India’s Role in the China+1 Strategy 3. C hina’s Manufacturing Advantage: China’s scale, logistics, and
The recent U.S.-China trade truce and domestic challenges may alter supply chains still attract firms.
that trajectory. Here’s how the evolving dynamics are shaping India’s Example: Despite exploring India, Apple continues to manufac-
prospects: ture most of its products in China.
1. Reduced Urgency to Diversify: Easing U.S.-China tensions may 4. Inconsistent FDI Policies in India: India’s frequent changes in FDI
slow down efforts by global firms to move out of China. norms create uncertainty for global investors.
Example: Companies eyeing India or Vietnam might delay or Example: Abrupt restrictions on Chinese investments post-Gal-
cancel relocation plans. wan slowed down VC flows.
2. India’s Missed Opportunities: Due to infrastructure gaps and 5. L imited Plug-and-Play Zones: Unlike Vietnam’s ready SEZs,
policy bottlenecks, India has not attracted significant investment India lacks plug-and-play industrial parks.
Example: Vietnam and Indonesia have gained more in sectors Example: Tamil Nadu’s electronics corridor still faces land and
like electronics and textiles. power issues.

Trade Negotiation Challenges Faced by India 3. R

 educed Strategic Leverage: With a thaw in U.S.-China ties, the
with the U.S. U.S. may show less interest in India as a counterweight.
Despite growing strategic ties, India and the U.S. continue to face Example: If U.S. firms regain confidence in China, India could
friction on the trade front. The recent U.S.-China thaw could further lose negotiating power.
weaken India’s bargaining position in bilateral talks: 4. D
 ata Localisation Disputes: India’s stand on data sovereignty
1. Retaliatory Tariffs: India has responded to U.S. tariffs (e.g., on clashes with U.S. digital trade expectations.
steel and aluminium) with reciprocal duties. Example: U.S. companies resist India’s mandate for local data
Example: India threatened higher tariffs on U.S. almonds and storage.
apples after Section 232 actions. 5. L
 imited Trade Basket Overlap: India’s exports mostly agri and
2. Pending Trade Agreement: Talks on a comprehensive trade deal textiles do not match key U.S. demand sectors like high-tech or
remain stuck due to conflicting priorities. aviation.
Example: Disagreements persist on market access for dairy Example: U.S. imports advanced electronics and pharma;
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and medical devices. India’s strength lies elsewhere.

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Need for Indian States to Reform Labour and 3. L

 ow Formal Employment Share: A major share of India’s work-
Land Laws force remains informal due to rigid hiring rules.
To truly benefit from the China+1 sentiment, India must address Example: Over 85% of manufacturing jobs are in the unorgan-
on-ground bottlenecks. State-level reforms in labour and land policies ised sector.
are critical to building investor confidence: 4. H
 igh Land Acquisition Time: Projects face delays due to proce-
1. To Reduce Reliance on Chinese Imports: Without reforms, India dural hurdles in land allotment.
cannot become a viable alternative for global manufacturing. Example: Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor projects lag due to
2. Labour Market Rigidity Discourages FDI: Outdated state-level slow land handover.
laws create compliance burdens that deter foreign investors. 5. L
 ack of Labour Mobility Across States: Fragmented labour laws
Example: Restrictions on contract labour in Maharashtra vs across states reduce worker mobility and skill utilisation.
relaxed norms in Vietnam. Example: Migrant labour issues during COVID exposed regula-
tory fragmentation.

Steps Taken by Government: 3. N

 eed for Competitive Labour Costs: States with rigid laws lose
To address investor concerns, India has initiated several reforms. How- out to ASEAN nations with cheaper and flexible labour regimes.
ever, timely implementation and state-level coordination remain key: Example: Bihar and UP lag behind Vietnam and Bangladesh in
1. Labour Law Reforms: Aimed at making labour markets more factory floor cost efficiency.
flexible and boosting Ease of Doing Business. 4. U
 nlocking State-Level Reforms: States need to customize
Example: Industrial Relations Code (2020) simplifies hiring/ labour and land laws to attract targeted sectors.
firing rules for companies. Example: Gujarat’s land pooling and fast-track clearances
2. Land and Infrastructure Development: Focus on faster land helped attract defence manufacturing.
acquisition and industrial infrastructure. 5. G
 IS-Enabled Land Banks: Several states have launched digital
Example: The National Industrial Corridor Development Corpora- platforms to list industrial-ready land parcels.
tion (NICDC) is creating industrial zones with better connectivity. Example: Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu use GIS portals to
assist investors in land selection.

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Way Forward for India

1. Deepen Strategic Trade Ties with the U.S.
- India should leverage current U.S. efforts to diversify away from China by expanding
high-tech, pharma, and defense trade partnerships.
2. Strengthen Domestic Manufacturing (PLI 2.0)
- Use the truce period to scale up production under schemes like PLI, especially
in electronics, semiconductors, and green tech, to attract global supply chains.
3. Position as a Trusted Alternative to China
- Emphasize India’s democratic credentials, legal stability, and skilled workforce
to attract companies looking to de-risk China dependence (“China+1” strategy).
4. Push for Regional Trade Integration
- Engage more actively in FTAs (like with the EU, UK, and EFTA) to secure long-
term market access and insulate against future trade realignments.
5. Monitor Truce Sustainability Closely
- Prepare contingency plans in case tensions flare again especially in sensitive
areas like semiconductors, AI, or critical minerals.
6. Build Export Competitiveness
- Invest in logistics, infrastructure, and ease of doing business to make Indian exports
globally competitive amid shifting trade patterns.

Back2Basics
Tariffs and Their Role in Trade Wars Structural vs Tactical Trade Measures
Tariffs are often the first domino in trade disputes. They may look Every trade conflict involves two levels surface deals and deep-rooted
like taxes, but in geopolitics, they’re tools of pressure, punishment, or reforms. Understanding the difference helps decode if a “truce” is real
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protection. or just a pause.
• Definition: Tariffs are taxes on imports, designed to increase the •S  tructural Measures: Long-term reforms like IP protection and
cost of foreign goods. regulatory changes indicate genuine trade transformation.

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• Protectionism: Domestic industries benefit as costlier imports •T  actical Measures: Short-term steps like temporary tariff cuts are
become less competitive.
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• Trade Weapon: Tariffs are deployed to coerce changes in rivals’ • Signal Strength: Structural shifts show seriousness; tactical moves
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trade policies or behaviour. signal negotiation tactics.

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• Retaliation Cycle: Counter-tariffs from affected nations escalate • Political Motives: Tactical actions often stem from immediate
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tensions into a full-blown trade war. political or economic compulsions.

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• Consumer Impact: End-users often face price hikes due to in- •R  esolution vs Delay: Lack of structural change means the trade
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creased import costs. problem is postponed, not solved.

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Impact on India’s Regional Trade Agreements (RCEP, IPEF, etc.)

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India, this is not merely about tariffs it is a test of strategic alignment, trade resilience, and the ability to shape rules in
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a multipolar Indo-Pacific.
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Agreement India’s Position Implication Post U.S.-China Truce Strategic Concerns

RCEP Withdrew in 2019 citing concerns Truce strengthens China’s centrality in May weaken India’s Act East
over China’s dominance and dairy Asia-Pacific trade, leaving India relatively Policy and trade linkages with
sector exposure. isolated. ASEAN.
IPEF (Indo- India joined 3 of 4 pillars (except U.S. re-engagement with China may Diminishes India’s leverage in
Pacific Economic trade). reduce momentum on IPEF’s Indo-Pacific shaping digital, supply chain, and
Framework) tilt. clean economy rules.
ASEAN FTAs India has existing FTAs with ASEAN, ASEAN could deepen ties with China Urgency to renegotiate terms
but underutilized. post-truce, making Indian exports less or enhance Rules of Origin
competitive. enforcement.
Bilateral FTAs Ongoing efforts to diversify trade May gain importance if RCEP/IPEF India must ensure tariff parity and
(UAE, EU, partners. become China-centric again. non-tariff barrier protections.
Australia)
SAARC/ Trade potential remains India must build regional value chains as Strategic need to deepen South
South Asia underexplored due to regional a buffer to over-dependence on global Asian trade resilience amid
tensions. supply chains. shifting global alignments.

Smash Mains: Mock Drop

[QUESTION] The recent U.S.-China trade truce is more of a tactical pause than a structural reset. Critically
analyse its implications for India’s trade strategy and global positioning. (15 Marks, 250 Words)

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BURNING ISSUE #15

Port economy
Can Vizhinjam Transform India
into a Global Maritime Power?
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Note4Students PYQs & Microthemes
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UPSC often frames questions around infrastructure, economic policies, [UPSC 2017, GS-2] ‘China is using its economic
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and global trade dynamics. Questions like “The Gati-Shakti Yojana needs relations and positive trade surplus as tools to develop
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meticulous coordination between the government and the private sector potential military power status in Asia’, In the light of this
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to achieve the goal of connectivity. Discuss.” (UPSC CSE 2022) test an as- statement, discuss its impact on India as her neighbor.
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pirant’s ability to connect policy intent with execution challenges. You may
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make the following mistakes here- memorize schemes but fail to analyze [UPSC 2022, GS-3] The Gati-Shakti Yojana needs
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their impact or focus only on traditional infrastructure topics and overlook meticulous co-ordination between the government and
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emerging issues like shipbuilding clusters and private sector investment. the private sector to achieve the goal of connectivity.
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This article Breaks down Budget provisions and analyzes key challenges. Discuss.
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Most discussions focus only on domestic policy, but this article connects
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India’s challenges with international trends and foreign competition a key Microthemes: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads,
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aspect UPSC loves to test. Airports, Railways Etc

india is building big stuff on its southern coast, and it could Now, just a few hours away in Kochi, another big plan is happening a
seriously change the game when it comes to ships, trade, and jobs. new shipbuilding and repair cluster. Think of this like a workshop city
for ships. India usually sends ships abroad for repairs, but this new
First, let’s talk about Vizhinjam Port near Thiruvananthapuram. It’s setup means we can fix and even build large ships here in India. It’ll be
not just another port this one is special because it’s super close to run by a mix of government and private companies (like Cochin Ship-
the main international sea route where most big ships pass. Right yard and Drydocks World), and it’s expected to create lots of jobs,
now, those ships often stop at ports in other countries like Sri Lanka especially for local youth in Kerala. Imagine factories, training centers,
or Singapore to drop or pick up containers meant for India. But with and small businesses all popping up around it.
Vizhinjam, they can stop directly in India without detouring saving
time and money. So together Vizhinjam Port brings in global shipping traffic, and Ko-
chi’s shipbuilding cluster helps us maintain and build those ships. It’s
Even better? It’s India’s first fully dedicated transshipment port that a one-two punch that could:
means it’s built especially to handle cargo that’s being moved from •C  ut our costs,
one ship to another. And because it has natural deep waters, even •R  educe dependence on foreign ports and services,
the world’s biggest ships can stop here without needing expensive •C  reate thousands of jobs, and
underwater digging (called dredging). That makes it cheaper to run •P  ut India on the global maritime map.
and maintain.

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Evolution of India’s Port Development Policies

India’s maritime sector has undergone major transformations from the colonial era to the modern
port-led development vision. The table below outlines key phases, focus areas, and outcomes
that have shaped the trajectory leading to ports like Vizhinjam and the Kochi cluster.

Phase Time Period Focus Key Policies & Initiatives Key Outcomes
1. Colonial Pre-1947 Extraction for British None (colonial administrative Basic port infrastructure in Kolkata,
Period trade control) Mumbai, Chennai; export of raw materials
2. Post- 1947–1980s Nation-building, Major Port Trusts Act, 1963- Focus on bulk cargo (coal, food grains),
Independence public sector control Establishment of FCI, CWC limited efficiency, port congestion
& State Control
3. Liberal- 1991–2000s Opening ports to National Maritime Policy, 1993- Start of PPP in ports (e.g., Nhava Sheva);
ization Era private sector Introduction of BOT model- Entry private players like DP World, Adani enter
of private terminals
4. Infrastructure 2005–2015 Capacity building National Maritime Development Significant capacity expansion; better
Push and modernization Programme (NMDP), 2005- hinterland connectivity; rise of private
Standardization of PPP model- Port terminals
Rail Connectivity
5. Sagar- 2015–Present Port-led Sagarmala Programme, 2015- Rise of private/non-major ports (e.g.,
mala Era development, Coastal Economic Zones (CEZs)- Mundra); reduced turnaround time; boost
logistics efficiency Skill development, cruise, tourism to Make in India
6. Maritime 2020–2030 Global maritime Maritime India Vision 2030- PM Vizhinjam as transshipment hub; Kochi
India Vision & power, green and Gati Shakti- National Logistics shipbuilding cluster; push for green, digital
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Amrit Kaal smart ports Policy, 2022 ports

Overview of Vizhinjam Port

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•O  wnership Distribution: It is operated by Adani Vizhinjam Port
Vizhinjam is set to become a pivotal node in India’s maritime strategy
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Pvt. Ltd., with a 61.5% stake held by Kerala’s government and 9.6%
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due to its location and operational advantages. by the Central government.

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• Deep-Sea Location: Vizhinjam Port is India’s first deep-sea trans- •O  perational Launch: Commercial operations began in December
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shipment port located near Thiruvananthapuram. 2024, following a trial run in July 2024.
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• PPP Development: Developed under a Public-Private Partnership • I nitial Traffic: The port has handled 285 ships and processed
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(PPP) model, the port cost ₹8,900 crore to build. 5.48 lakh TEUs since its operational launch.
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Key Features of Vizhinjam Port

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•D  eep Natural Draft: Its deep natural draft (up to 24 meters)

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The port boasts strategic, technological, and geographic features that allows it to accommodate Ultra Large Container Vessels (ULCVs).
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set it apart from existing Indian ports. • I nfrastructure Readiness: The current infrastructure includes a
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• Proximity to Trade Routes: Positioned just 10 nautical miles from 3,000-meter breakwater and an 800-meter container berth, with
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a major international shipping route, it provides quick access to full capacity expected by 2028–29 at 6.2 million TEUs annually.
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global trade lanes. •G  reen Port Design: The port is designed as a multi-purpose,
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• Semi-Automated Technology: It is India’s first semi-automated green port, ensuring year-round operations. Positioned 20 kilo-
port, utilizing AI-powered control rooms and the Indigenous Vessel meters from Trivandrum International Airport, it offers seamless
Traffic Management System (VTMS). air-sea connectivity.

Strategic Significance of Vizhinjam Port •N  o Need for Dredging: Natural Deep Draft for Large Vessels:
Vizhinjam strengthens India’s global maritime presence by reducing With a natural draft of nearly 20 metres, it can host Ultra Large
foreign dependency and improving trade efficiency. Container Vessels (ULCVs) without the need for expensive dredg-
• Global Location Advantage: Strategic Global Location: Located ing. Eg: Ports like Colombo or Rotterdam require regular dredging,
close to the international East-West shipping route, making it ideal while Vizhinjam offers cost-effective long-term operations.
for global container traffic. Eg: Ships passing through the Suez • Improved Export Efficiency: Boost to Logistics and Trade Efficien-
Canal–Malacca route can now directly dock at Vizhinjam without cy: Reduces logistics costs, cargo handling time, and dependence
diversion, saving cost and time. on intermediate ports, increasing India’s ease of doing business. Eg:
• First Indian Transshipment Hub: India’s First Dedicated Trans- Indian exporters from hinterland states can now ship directly via
shipment Port: Will handle transshipment of containers that earlier Vizhinjam, avoiding time-consuming rerouting through foreign ports.
went to foreign ports like Colombo (Sri Lanka), Dubai, or Singa- • Economic Growth Engine: Economic Multiplier Effect and
pore. Eg: Around 75% of India’s transshipped cargo is currently Self-Reliance: Encourages Make in India, builds maritime self-re-
handled abroad; Vizhinjam aims to reverse this trend and retain liance, and fuels coastal economy development. Eg: Encourages
revenue domestically. investments in warehousing, ship repair, and allied services around
the port zone—generating local employment and GDP growth.

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Role of Private Sector in Port Infrastructure

Aspect Details Examples
Development of Private players have led the development of non-major ports Mundra Port (Adani), Krishnapatnam Port
Non-Major Ports under state governments through concession agreements or (CVR/Adani), Kattupalli Port (L&T/Adani)
joint ventures.
Public-Private Partner- Private sector develops and operates terminals and cargo berths JNPT’s container terminals (DP World),
ship (PPP) in Major Ports within government-owned major ports under PPP contracts. Ennore’s coal and container terminals
Investment and Private companies bring in capital, automation, better cargo Adani Ports’ digitisation initiatives, DP World’s
Technology Upgradation handling, and logistics integration, improving efficiency and automated container handling at Nhava Sheva
reducing turnaround time.
Boost to Port Capacity Private participation has helped expand port capacity & Hazira Port (energy), Pipavav Port (containers),
and Specialisation specialise in certain cargo types like LNG, containers, or Kamarajar Port (automobile exports)
automobiles.
Competitive Tariff Privately managed ports often operate under market- Mundra and Krishnapatnam are known for
Setting and Efficiency determined tariffs, leading to more competitive pricing and lower dwell times and flexible pricing
faster services.
Inland Connectivity Many private ports have invested in rail/road links and DFC link to Mundra, Adani Logistics parks in
and Logistics Parks logistics hubs, helping develop port-led industrial ecosystems. hinterlands
Role in Maritime Private sector is expected to contribute significantly to port Over ₹1 lakh crore of projected private
India Vision 2030 capacity addition, port modernisation, and doubling port- investment as per the Sagarmala programme
based industrial zones. and MIV 2030
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Establishment of a Shipbuilding and Repair entity, has signed an MoU with Drydocks World to jointly develop
Cluster in Kochi the ship repair cluster in Kochi.

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To boost India’s shipbuilding capability, a strategic maritime cluster is •L
 ocal Economic Development: Economic Growth and Employ-
being developed in Kochi, Kerala.
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• Location Advantage: Strategic Location in Kochi, Kerala: Kochi

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stantial employment, particularly benefiting the local population in

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has been selected for its existing maritime infrastructure and Kerala. It will also contribute to the growth of ancillary industries
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strategic coastal position. The cluster aims to enhance India’s and services. Eg: The establishment of the shipbuilding and repair
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shipbuilding and repair capabilities, reducing reliance on foreign cluster in Kochi is expected to create numerous new employment
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facilities. Eg: The cluster is being developed through a collabo- opportunities, providing Kerala’s local talent and youth with a
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ration between Cochin Shipyard Limited and Drydocks World, platform for growth.
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aiming to create world-class ship repair facilities in Kochi. •M

 aritime Independence: Maritime Sovereignty: Strengthening
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• PPP Model: Public-Private Partnerships Driving Development: indigenous capabilities helps position India as a major player in
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The project leverages public-private partnerships to combine global shipbuilding and repair.
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government support with private sector efficiency and investment. •E

 xport Capability: Export Potential: The cluster could open up
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This approach is expected to bring in advanced technologies and avenues for exporting ship repair services to neighboring maritime
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best practices. Eg: Cochin Shipyard Limited, a government-owned nations.

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Opportunities Created by the Kochi Cluster •L  ocal Ecosystem Development: Strengthening Local Ecosys-
The new facility in Kochi is expected to have wide-reaching benefits tem: Will promote growth in logistics, port-based industries, and
across employment, industry, and international positioning. vocational training.
• Employment Boost: Job Creation and Skill Development: The new • I nternational Revenue: Export and Service Diversification: Poten-
shipbuilding and repair cluster in Kochi is expected to create thou- tial to serve international vessels from Indian shores, increasing
sands of direct and indirect jobs, particularly benefiting the local foreign exchange earnings.
population by providing employment opportunities in shipbuilding, • Innovation Hub: Innovation in Maritime Technology: Opportunity
repair, and ancillary services. to invest in sustainable shipbuilding practices and next-gen marine
• Industrial Growth: Boost to India’s Maritime and Manufacturing equipment.
Sectors: The cluster will significantly enhance India’s shipbuilding
capabilities, reducing dependence on foreign facilities and positioning
India as a key player in global shipbuilding and repair.

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Way Forward
Long-term planning and integration of maritime assets are crucial to fully harness economic and
strategic advantages.
• Hinterland Linkages: Strengthen Port Connectivity and Infrastructure: Enhance hinterland
connectivity to ensure seamless movement of goods between ports and key industrial zones.
Eg: Develop efficient road, rail, and inland waterways to complement the Vizhinjam Port and
Kochi shipbuilding cluster.
• Maritime Training: Focus on Skill Development and Innovation: Invest in specialized maritime
education and training programs to create a skilled workforce. Eg: Collaborate with global institu-
tions to bring advanced shipbuilding technologies and best practices to India, fostering innova-
tion and sustainability in the maritime sector.
• Support Innovation: Encourage Private Sector R&D in Maritime Sector: Support innovation
grants and maritime start-ups focused on AI, green shipping, and smart logistics.
• Community Inclusion: Enhance Coastal Community Involvement: Ensure development mod-
els include coastal population for sustainable employment and economic inclusion.
• Integrated Logistics Zones: Integrate Port-Led Industrial Corridors: Promote development of
port-based SEZs, logistics hubs, and export manufacturing zones.

Back2Basics
Port Classification in India
Ports in India are classified based on ownership, function, cargo handled,
and location. Here’s a simple breakdown:

1. Based on Ownership
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Type Description Examples
Major Ports Managed by the Central Government (Ministry of Mumbai, Chennai, Paradip, Kandla (Deendayal), Visakhapatnam,

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Ports, Shipping & Waterways) under the Major Port Kolkata (with Haldia), etc. (13 in total)
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Non-Major / Managed by State Governments or private operators Dahej (Gujarat), Dighi (Maharashtra), Gopalpur (Odisha), etc.
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Minor Ports under State Maritime Boards (200+ across coastal states)
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2. Based on Function
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Type Description Examples

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Passenger Ports Focus on passenger movement, including cruise tourism Kochi, Mumbai, Chennai
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Naval Ports Used by the Indian Navy and Coast Guard for defence-related operations Karwar, Vishakhapatnam
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3. Based on Cargo Handled

Type Description Examples
Dry Ports (Inland Located inland, handle customs-cleared cargo Tughlakabad (Delhi), Nagpur
Container Depots)
Liquid Ports Handle crude oil, LNG, chemicals Hazira, Mangalore (MRPL), Kochi (Petronet LNG)
Container Ports Specialise in container cargo Jawaharlal Nehru Port (JNPT), Mundra
Bulk Cargo Ports Deal with coal, iron ore, cement, fertilizers, etc. Paradip, Dhamra, Vizag

4. Based on Location
Type Description Examples
West Coast Natural harbours, deeper drafts, trade with Europe, Gulf Kandla, Mumbai, Mormugao, Kochi
Ports
East Coast Ports Mostly artificial, prone to cyclones, trade with ASEAN, Far East Chennai, Paradip, Visakhapatnam, Haldia

Smash Mains: Mock Drop

[QUESTION] Can the development of Vizhinjam Port serve as a strategic pivot in transforming India into
a global maritime power? Critically analyse its potential in comparison with existing port infrastructure
and evolving global trade dynamics. (15 Marks, 250 Words)

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BURNING ISSUE #16

Inclusive
Growth
Does India need a district
led approach ?
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PYQs &
Note4Students
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Article exposes India’s uneven growth and argues for district‑level planning. UPSC
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loves broad GS‑3 questions that mix ideas with proof; the 2017 “inclusive growth” [UPSC 2017, GS-3] What are the salient
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PYQ is the model. Examiners look for theory joined to local numbers. Many aspirants features of ‘inclusive growth’? Has
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falter because they parrot national GDP, ignore district gaps, and reel off generic India been experiencing such a growth
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schemes, so their answers feel airy. This piece fixes that. Under “India’s Growth: process? Analyze and suggest measures
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Booming in Pockets, Missing in Many” it drops hard data (Bengaluru vs Raichur, for inclusive growth.
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Dehradun‑Haridwar‑Udham Singh Nagar at 71% of GSDP). “Impact of Economic Con-

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centration” explains why lopsided growth hurts. “One Nation, Many Realities” and
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“The Debate: Is District‑Led Development the Solution” offer both sides of the policy Microthemes: Inclusive Growth
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fight ideal for the UPSC verb “analyse.” Its special gem is the “Back2Basics: District
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Domestic Product” box, which turns a fuzzy metric into a clear takeaway and gives a
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fresh stat for an eye‑catching intro (top 10% of districts making 50–60% of output).

w h e n w e h e a r t h at India’s Growth: Booming in Pockets, Missing in Many

india’s gdp is growing at a 1. I ndia’s economy is growing, but the gains are unevenly distributed.
healthy pace, it paints a picture A small number of districts are driving most of the growth, while the majority are lagging behind.
of shared prosperity. But dig 2. Just a few districts dominate economic output within states:
a little deeper, and a different - In Uttarakhand, only Dehradun, Haridwar, and Udham Singh Nagar account for 71% of the
story emerges one where just state’s GSDP.
a handful of districts drive the - In Karnataka, Bengaluru alone contributes 38%, while the next district adds just 5.5%.
bulk of our economic engine, - In Maharashtra, Mumbai, Thane, Pune, and Nagpur together make up over 60% of the
while many others remain state’s economy.
stuck in cycles of underdevel- - In Madhya Pradesh, Indore contributes 6.7%, while most other districts stay around 2–3%.
opment. This raises a crucial 3. Across India, the top 10% of districts often produce 50–60% of a state’s total economic output.
question: Are our national pol- This means 90% of districts share the remaining half, highlighting a deep structural imbalance.
icies too uniform for a country 4. P oorer districts struggle to catch up due to lack of infrastructure, investment, and skilled jobs.
as diverse as India? Can the - Compare Bengaluru (Karnataka) with Raichur (Karnataka) the former is a global tech hub,
same economic approach work the latter faces issues of poverty, poor education, and healthcare.
for both Mumbai and Mewat, - In Maharashtra, Pune thrives with industry and IT parks, while Nandurbar remains largely
or Bengaluru and Bastar? dependent on subsistence agriculture and lags on development indicators.

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Impact of Economic Concentration: Why It’s a Problem happening within the state. For example, a state may seem to be
1. M
 ass Migration to Cities: growing fast, but that growth might be coming only from one or
When only a few cities drive most of the economic activity, people two districts. The rest could be stagnant or even declining—and
from less developed districts move to urban areas in search of policies often miss this.
work. This puts pressure on housing, leads to the growth of slums, 4. W
 idening Inequality and Social Friction:
increases informal and insecure jobs, and strains basic services When some areas get richer and others don’t, it creates resent-
like water, transport, and healthcare. ment, a sense of being left out, and social tensions. This can lead
2. L
 eft-Behind Districts Stay Stuck: to unrest and even weaken national unity.
Districts without enough economic activity often suffer from poor 5. L
 ost Local Potential:
education, low healthcare access, and little private or public invest- Many districts have untapped economic strengths like handloom
ment. They struggle to attract industries or opportunities, leading in Bhagalpur or spices in Wayanad that get overlooked in cen-
to a cycle of underdevelopment. tralised planning. Economic concentration means we lose out on
3. O
 ne Number Hides Many Realities: the diverse growth potential spread across India.
When we look only at state or national GDP, we miss what’s

One Nation, Many Realities: Rethinking the Economics of Uniformity

Yes, the One-Size-Fits-All Policy Is Failing Diverse Districts
Argument Explanation Example

Regional National schemes often benefit already-developed Under PMGSY (rural roads), states like Maharashtra saw faster
Disparities districts more due to better infrastructure and execution than states like Chhattisgarh due to terrain and
administrative capacity. administrative bottlenecks.
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Resource Policies are framed without accounting for local A blanket push for manufacturing may not work in hill districts like
Mismatch resource endowments and employment patterns. Chamoli, Uttarakhand, better suited for eco-tourism and horticulture.

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In Bastar (Chhattisgarh), tribal welfare requires community-centric
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Needs tribal areas, border regions, desert districts have land and forest rights, not standard MSME loan schemes.
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distinct issues.
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Urban Bias Capital-centric policies draw resources, talent, and Bengaluru dominates Karnataka’s GDP, while districts like Koppal
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jobs into urban zones, widening the urban-rural gap. remain marginal despite the same policy coverage.
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Implementa- Uniform goals with no local customization lead to Skill India Mission had high enrolment in Bihar but poor placement
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tion Gaps poor outcomes in backward areas. outcomes due to lack of local industry.
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No, Uniform Policies Help Create a Common Development Baseline

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Argument Explanation Example

National Uniform policies uphold the idea of equal The Public Distribution System (PDS) ensures food security
Cohesion opportunity and national unity in governance. uniformly across all districts, including remote ones like Kargil.

Administrative Central schemes reduce the cost and complexity PM-KISAN provides direct cash transfers using a common
Efficiency of running 700+ tailored programs. structure, reaching farmers from Punjab to Puducherry.

Baseline Central schemes lay down the basics (roads, electricity, Saubhagya scheme electrified villages across Arunachal
Infrastructure Push internet), creating a launchpad for local growth. Pradesh, Bihar, and Rajasthan using the same rollout blueprint.

Replication of Successful policy pilots can be scaled nationwide Self-Help Group (SHG) model from Andhra Pradesh was
Best Practices without reinventing the wheel for every district. adapted nationally via DAY-NRLM.

Data & Uniformity allows better tracking, comparisons, and The National Health Mission uses common metrics (IMR,
Monitoring Ease accountability through standardized indicators. institutional deliveries) to assess performance across all districts.

The Missing Piece: Why District-Led Development Holds the Key to India’s
Inclusive Growth
India’s economy has been growing fast, but not evenly. The glitter of big cities hides a more uncomfortable truth vast
parts of the country are still waiting for basic infrastructure, decent jobs, and opportunities. While policies often
target states, they miss a more precise and effective level of action: the district. Each district has its own strengths,
struggles, and identity and unless development is designed to work at this local level, the idea of “inclusive growth”
will remain just that: an idea.

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The Debate: Is District-Led Development the Solution India Needs?

Argument For District-Led Development Argument Against / Concerns Example / Illustration
Closer to Ground Realities: District Capacity Challenges: Many districts lack Aspirational Districts Programme saw
administrations understand local needs better trained personnel and strong institutions to quick results in some areas due to
than state or national governments. implement complex programs. better local monitoring.
Taps Local Potential: Each district has unique Risk of Fragmentation: Without coordination, Bastar (Chhattisgarh) has rich forest
resources from crafts to agriculture to tourism district-focused efforts can duplicate work or produce potential but was overlooked
that are often ignored in state-wide plans. miss broader state-level priorities. until targeted interventions began.
Brings Accountability: When development is Data Limitations: Reliable, real-time district- District-level dashboards in Kerala
tracked at the district level, it’s easier to see level economic data is still patchy in many helped track COVID outcomes
what’s working and fix what isn’t. parts of India. effectively, showing what’s possible
with good data.
Reduces Migration Pressure: Creating jobs and Funding & Political Will: Local plans often Youth from districts like Bhojpur (Bihar)
infrastructure in backward districts reduces the depend heavily on higher levels of government migrate en masse for work due to lack
need for people to move to overcrowded cities. for funding and support. of local opportunity.
Encourages Innovation: Local officers often find Uneven Implementation: Success can In Nandurbar (Maharashtra), the
creative solutions suited to their region. depend too much on the motivation of collector turned a tribal district into a
individual officers. vaccination success story.

The district is not just a unit on a map – it’s

where real lives play out. While there are valid
concerns about capacity and coordination,
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empowering districts with data, funding, and
flexibility could make all the difference in cre-

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ating a truly inclusive India. The big picture
starts to make sense only when you zoom in
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district by district.
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Way Forward: Making District-Led

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Development Work
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1. S hift Planning to Districts: Treat districts

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as the main units for economic development

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instead of states.
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2. Regular Data Collection: Conduct annual

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surveys to track district economies with fresh,

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local data.
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3. Sector-Wise Tracking: Measure economic

output in agriculture, manufacturing, services,
and informal sectors at the district level.
4. Map Local Labour: Survey labour force and
informal businesses regularly to understand
employment trends.
5. Real-Time Dashboards: Use live dashboards
to monitor growth, jobs, and productivity in
districts.
6. Custom Growth Plans: Design development
plans tailored to each district’s strengths and
needs.
7. Tie Funding to Performance: Link govern-
ment funds to data quality and planning
effectiveness in districts.

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Back2Basics
District Domestic Product (DDP)
District Domestic Product (DDP) refers to the total value of goods and services produced within
a district over a specific period usually a financial year. Like Gross Domestic Product (GDP) at
the national level or Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) at the state level, DDP reflects the
economic output of a district. It includes contributions from agriculture, manufacturing, services,
and informal sectors operating within district boundaries.

DDP in Indian Policy Circles •T

 he 15th Finance Commission highlighted the need for reliable
In India, DDP has increasingly entered policy conversations, especial- DDP figures.
ly in the context of inclusive growth, balanced regional development, •N
 ITI Aayog has supported district-centric planning under initia-
and the Aspirational Districts Programme. As policymakers recognise tives like the Aspirational Districts Programme.
that national and state-level data often mask regional disparities, •S
 ome states like Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Kerala have begun
district-level data is being promoted to enable targeted planning and publishing district-level economic statistics more systematically,
resource allocation. but standardisation is still a work in progress.

Benefits of DDP Over GDP

Advantage Explanation
Granular Insight DDP helps uncover intra-state disparities hidden by state averages.
Targeted Policy-Making Enables tailored interventions based on local strengths and weaknesses.
Decentralised Planning Empowers local governments with economic data for evidence-based decisions.
Better Monitoring Allows real-time tracking of development in lagging regions.
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Supports Bottom-Up Growth Aligns well with India’s push toward cooperative federalism and district-led models of growth.

Challenges with DDP

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Lack of Direct Measurement Most DDPs are extrapolated from state-level data, not measured directly.
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Inconsistent Methodologies Different states use varied methods, limiting comparability.

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Outdated Base Years Many estimations rely on outdated benchmarks, ignoring recent structural changes in the economy.
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Neglect of Informal Sector Informal, unorganised sectors are often underrepresented, especially in rural districts.
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Limited Many districts lack the infrastructure and trained manpower to conduct reliable economic surveys.
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Administrative Capacity
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Delayed or Missing Data DDP statistics are not regularly updated or publicly available in many states.
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While DDP is not a perfect metric yet, it holds great promise. For a diverse and complex
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economy like India’s, district-level economic tracking is essential to ensure no region is left
behind. Investing in better data systems, standardised methodologies, and institutional
capacity at the district level will be key to unlocking the full potential of DDP.

Smash Mains: Mock Drop

[QUESTION] District-level economic data across various states reveal that a small number of districts
contribute significantly to India’s overall economic output, while large parts of the country remain
economically underdeveloped. Discuss the consequences of this imbalance and propose policy
interventions to promote more balanced and inclusive growth.(15 Marks, 250 Words)

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BURNING ISSUE #17

Rice and wheat

production
Is This Cycle Threatening India’s
Agricultural Future?
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PYQs &
Note4Students
2 Microthemes
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Article tells how rice‑wheat success hides risks and need crop diversity. UPSC frames such
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themes as big‑picture GS 3 questions that ask you to praise past gains and then dissect hidden
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costs, just like the 2020 question on the rice‑wheat “bane.” Many aspirants stumble because
[UPSC 2023, GS-2] What are the major
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they quote only Green‑Revolution glory and ignore hard data on water stress, subsidies, and loss
factors responsible for making rice-
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of pulses, so answers stay half‑baked. This piece fixes that gap: the subhead “Reasons Farmers
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wheat system a success? In spite of this

Prefer Rice and Wheat” breaks down every push factor, while “Government Policy’s Role in
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success how has this system become

Shaping Cropping Patterns” shows how MSP and power subsidies lock farmers in, and “Climate
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bane in India?
Change and Future Cropping Patterns” arms you with forward‑looking angles. Grab examples
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sprinkled throughout (HD‑3385 wheat, Kamala CRISPR rice, Direct‑Seeded Rice in Haryana)
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to prove depth. The standout gem is its “Back to Basics: Understanding Cropping Patterns and
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Agricultural Priorities” box; it turns fuzzy textbook jargon into crisp, exam‑ready lines that can
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Microthemes: Cropping pattern

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open or close any answer. Read the article once, and you will have the map, the numbers, and the
fresh vocabulary to move beyond stock phrases and hit the analytical sweet spot UPSC rewards

“plant r i c e a n d w h e at , and your harvest is almost guaranteed.”

That’s the certainty that shapes the choices of millions of Indian farmers
every season. But while these staples dominate fields and plates, the prom-
ise of food security hides a deeper crisis of shrinking crop diversity, rising
resource stress, and a fragile future for farming.
Across the heartlands of Punjab, Haryana, and Madhya Pradesh, fields
overflow with rice and wheat, backed by government support and decades of
research. Yet, behind this abundance lies a stubborn reliance that sidelines
pulses, millets, and oilseeds crops crucial for nutrition, climate resilience, and
sustainable farming.
Why does this rice-wheat cycle persist despite growing risks? What role do
policies, innovation, and climate change play in locking India into this pat-
tern? And can the country pivot towards a more diverse and secure agricul-
tural future before it’s too late?

The issue in point

Rice and wheat remain the top choices for Indian farmers due to assured govern-
ment support and continuous scientific advancements in breeding technologies.
Other crops lag behind because they lack similar incentives and innovations.

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Reasons Farmers Prefer Rice and Wheat 3. B

 reeding Innovations & Higher Returns: Ongoing improvements
Farmers’ loyalty to rice and wheat is not accidental it is shaped by boost productivity and stress tolerance. The genetically edited
decades of support systems, innovations, and familiarity that reduce rice variety Kamala can yield up to 9 tonnes/hectare and matures
risks and improve returns. faster, saving water and fertilizer costs.
1. Assured Procurement at MSP: The government guarantees 4. G
 overnment Extension Services: Strong support from Krishi
purchases of rice and wheat at Minimum Support Prices (MSP), re- Vigyan Kendras and state agriculture departments helps farmers
ducing farmers’ market risks. For example, Punjab’s rice cultivation access quality seeds and timely guidance.
area increased significantly from 29.8 lakh hectares in 2015-16 to 5. F
 amiliar Cropping Practices: Farmers are well-acquainted with
32.4 lakh hectares in 2024-25, thanks to stable MSP support. the input cycle, harvesting methods, and market systems of rice
2. L ower Yield Risk: Rice and wheat are mostly grown under irriga- and wheat, reducing uncertainty.
tion and benefit from advanced research, leading to more reliable
yields. For instance, the wheat variety HD-3385 (2023) yields
about 6 tonnes/hectare and is disease-resistant.

Key Drivers of Yield Growth in Rice and Wheat

The productivity boom in these crops is a direct result of targeted
scientific efforts and efficient farming methods.
1. Genetic Improvements: Continuous breeding advancements
have produced high-yield, stress-resistant varieties like HD-3385
wheat.
2. Improved Farming Practices: Techniques like early sowing, fer-
tiliser-responsive seeds, and Direct-Seeded Rice (DSR) enhance
yields and save water and labour.
3. P ublic Research Support: Government institutions back rice and
wheat research, exemplified by the CRISPR-edited Kamala rice,
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which matures earlier and requires fewer inputs.
4. P recision Agriculture Tools: Use of drones, remote sensing, and
soil health monitoring is improving input efficiency and boosting

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yields.
5. G overnment Schemes: Programs like NFSM (National Food Se-
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curity Mission) and PM-AASHA provide funding and input access

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to farmers.
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Government Policy’s Role in Shaping Cropping

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Patterns
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Policies have played a central role in reinforcing the rice-wheat

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monoculture, often at the cost of crop diversity and sustainability.

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1. MSP and Procurement Assurance: Guaranteed MSP encourag-

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es farmers to grow rice and wheat, leading to expansion of these

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crops (e.g., Punjab and Madhya Pradesh), while crops like cotton
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have declined.
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2. R esearch and Input Bias: Rice and wheat receive more scientific
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attention and subsidy access than pulses, oilseeds, or cotton.

3. I rrigation Infrastructure: Government investments in canals,
tubewells, and power subsidies favor water-intensive crops like
rice and wheat.
4. P ower and Fertilizer Subsidies: These heavily benefit rice-wheat
growing belts, encouraging their continuous cultivation.
5. PDS-Driven Cropping Choices: Government procurement for
PDS focuses on rice and wheat, limiting farmers’ incentive to
diversify.

Recent Innovations in Rice Varieties

Rice breeding has witnessed rapid innovation in recent decades,
improving its adaptability, nutritional value, and sustainability.
1. Semi-Dwarf High-Yield Varieties: Such as IR-8 (1966), which
increased yields and reduced crop duration compared to traditional
varieties.
2. G ene Editing (CRISPR-Cas): Precision tools like CRISPR, used in
Kamala rice (2024), increase grain number, improve maturity time,
and raise yields.
3. A biotic Stress Tolerance: Varieties like Pusa DST Rice 1 show
tolerance to drought and salinity, helping farmers in climate-vul-
nerable zones.
4. A erobic Rice Varieties: Developed to grow under non-flooded
conditions, these reduce water consumption significantly.
5. Biofortified Rice: New lines enriched with iron, zinc, and other
micronutrients are being deployed under public nutrition programs.

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Role of Private Sector in Crop Diversification and R&D

While public institutions have traditionally focused on staples like rice and wheat,
the private sector is increasingly instrumental in pushing the frontiers of crop
innovation, diversification, and commercialization—particularly in under-supported
crops like vegetables, oilseeds, and pulses.

Parameter Insights Examples

Seed Innovation and IPR Private firms invest in R&D for high-yield, pest-resistant hybrids Rasi Seeds in hybrid cotton; Syngenta’s
due to patent protection under India’s Plant Variety Protection sunflower hybrids; Bayer’s maize hybrids.
and Farmers Rights Act.
Market-Driven Crop- Firms incentivize farmers to grow demand-linked crops via PepsiCo’s contract farming for potatoes in
ping Decisions buyback agreements and contract farming models. Punjab; Nestlé sourcing maize for baby food
processing.
Extension Through Startups provide real-time agri-advisories using AI, IoT, and DeHaat’s platform offers customized input-
AgriTech remote sensing, reducing reliance on public extension for non- output solutions for vegetables and pulses.
rice-wheat crops.
Processing & Export Private sector builds value chains—cold chains, warehousing, ITC’s e-Choupal network supports soybean,
Infrastructure and logistics—for perishable, high-value crops that lack tobacco, and spices aggregation.
government MSP backing.
Investment in Corporates target niche crops like herbs, millets, and exotic Urban farms in Maharashtra supplying
Niche Crops vegetables for urban markets and exports, catalyzing farm-level lettuce, kale; millet exports by TATA Soulfull
diversification. brand.

Climate Change and Future Cropping Patterns

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Climate variability is no longer a distant concern—it’s already influencing cropping
zones, water availability, and input use. Adaptive cropping strategies and climate-re-

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silient varieties are critical for long-term food security.
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Aspect Insights Examples

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Shifting Agro- Traditional zones are becoming unsuitable due Punjab’s wheat faces heat stress; North Bihar is
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Climatic Zones to increased temperature, erratic rainfall, and soil emerging as an alternative wheat region.
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degradation.
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Stress- Research focus has shifted to develop varieties tolerant Pusa DST Rice 1 (drought-tolerant); Swarna-Sub1 rice
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Tolerant Varieties to drought, salinity, heat, and submergence. (flood-tolerant); Climate-Resilient Bajra.
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Crop Calendar Early sowing, shorter maturity varieties, and altered irrigation Wheat sowing advanced by 10–15 days in NW India
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Re-alignment cycles are being adopted to reduce climate exposure. under ICAR-NICRA project.
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Water-Efficient Technologies like drip, sprinkler, and DSR are promoted Haryana and Punjab promote Direct Seeded Rice;
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Systems to adapt to declining groundwater and erratic monsoons. Maharashtra expands micro-irrigation in cotton zones.
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Agroecological ICAR and IMD promote climate-based zoning for National Agricultural Drought Assessment and
Zoning for Planning crops to guide long-term planning, insurance, and Monitoring System (NADAMS) and Agro-Eco Sub-
diversification. Regions (AESRs).

Nutritional Security vs. Caloric Security: The New Policy Pivot

India’s focus on caloric sufficiency—primarily via rice and wheat—has masked its
ongoing nutritional crisis. A future-ready food policy must recalibrate towards pro-
tein-rich, micronutrient-dense, and biofortified crops.

Aspect Insight Examples

Micronutrient Over half of Indian women and children suffer from NFHS-5: 57% women anaemic; significant zinc,
Deficiencies deficiencies despite adequate calorie intake. protein, iron gaps in diet.
Role of Pulses Pulses provide protein; millets offer iron, calcium, and Tur, moong, ragi integrated into mid-day meals and
and Millets fiber—essential for combating hidden hunger. ICDS in Tamil Nadu and Odisha.
Biofortified Public-sector breeding increasingly includes Zinc-enriched rice in Odisha’s PDS; HarvestPlus-
Varieties micronutrient targets in rice, wheat, and maize. promoted iron pearl millet in Rajasthan.
Policy Shifts There is a push to expand MSP and procurement to include MSP declared for 14 kharif crops including jowar,
in Procurement nutri-cereals and pulses, linking them to welfare schemes. bajra, tur, urad under PM-AASHA.
Consumer Public health and food security campaigns now ‘Eat Right India’ by FSSAI; International Year of
Awareness Campaigns emphasize nutrient diversity, not just calories. Millets 2023 declared by FAO with India as key
driver.

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Way Forward 3. D
 isincentivize Water-Intensive Crops: Offer financial incentives
A resilient and diverse agriculture sector requires policy and research for growing low water-use crops in stressed agro-climatic zones.
shifts that move beyond rice and wheat. 4. S
 ubsidy Reform: Redirect input subsidies to support cli-
1. Diversify MSP and R&D: Expand assured procurement and mate-smart, region-specific farming systems.
research to pulses, oilseeds, and millets to reduce dependence on 5. M
 arket & Awareness Push for Alternatives: Boost marketing
rice and wheat. infrastructure and consumer demand for nutri-cereals and pro-
2. P romote Sustainable Practices: Encourage water-saving tech tein-rich crops.
(e.g., DSR), crop rotation, and climate-resilient varieties.

Back2Basics
Understanding Cropping Patterns and Agricultural Priorities
Before evaluating India’s overdependence on rice and wheat, it is vital to decode the fundamental
ideas that shape farmers’ choices and national food strategies. This section offers conceptual clarity
on cropping patterns, their determinants, and the structural logic behind crop dominance.

Defining Cropping Patterns •A  groforestry Integration: Some cropping systems combine trees
Cropping pattern is not just a list of crops grown it’s a systemic reflection and crops, improving biodiversity and microclimates.
of land use, climatic adaptation, and agricultural priorities over time. • Livestock Linkage: In many regions, crop choices are influenced by
• Definition: A cropping pattern refers to the proportion and se- the presence of cattle fodder needs shape the cropping system.
quence in which different crops are cultivated on a given land area • Sustainability Criteria: A cropping system is evaluated not just by yield,
across seasons or years. but by soil health retention, pest load reduction, and climate adaptability.
• Static vs. Dynamic: While some regions follow fixed annual
patterns, others shift crop choices in response to changing prices, Historical Legacy of Crop Prioritization
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weather, or pest risks. Current patterns are deeply rooted in historical policy interventions
• Mono vs. Mixed Systems: Monoculture involves growing a single and global market forces.
crop repeatedly, while intercropping or crop rotation includes multi- •G
 reen Revolution Bias: The 1960s-70s push for food security

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ple species to balance nutrients and risks. drove high-yield wheat and rice adoption, setting a precedent for
• Temporal Variation: Cropping intensity (number of crops grown in
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•C
 olonial Disruption: Earlier cropping systems were more diverse
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a year) varies single, double, or triple cropping depending on water,

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labour, and technology. colonial emphasis on cash crops like indigo and opium disrupted
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• Data Source: National agencies like the Directorate of Economics food crop cycles.
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and Statistics (DES) compile cropping pattern data for policy use •P
 rocurement Culture: The institutional apparatus for grain pro-
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and regional comparisons. curement began as a famine-avoidance measure and evolved into a
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long-term structural feature.

Structural Factors Shaping Cropping Decisions
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•S
 tate Formation Influence: Newly formed states like Punjab and
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Farmers’ crop choices are not purely based on tradition or habit. They are Haryana were incentivized to become national grain suppliers,
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shaped by intersecting structural, ecological, and institutional factors. institutionalizing rice-wheat dominance.
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• Agro-Ecology: Climate zones, soil pH, and topography limit what is •E

 xport Orientation: The liberalization era added new incentives to
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feasible to grow and harvest profitably. grow globally tradable crops, affecting what farmers prioritized in
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• Asset Access: Ownership of irrigation facilities, credit access, and market-linked regions.
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landholding size determine whether a farmer can take crop risks.

• Labour Requirements: Some crops are labour-intensive (like sug- Agricultural Zoning and Regional Prioritization
arcane), which may not be feasible in areas with labour shortages Geographic targeting is key to understanding where certain crops thrive
or high wage rates. or fail and why national cropping strategies cannot be one-size-fits-all.
• Input Cycles: Crops have distinct sowing, fertilization, and harvesting •A  gro-Ecological Zoning (AEZ): Classifies regions by climate, soil,
schedules mismatches can prevent efficient multiple cropping. and terrain to recommend crop types; ICAR uses this to guide long-
• Tenancy and Leasing: Tenant farmers often grow short-duration term policy.
or low-input crops to minimize investment under uncertain land •C  rop Suitability Maps: These use GIS and remote sensing to
arrangements. match soil-climate profiles with ideal crops and their input needs.
•R  ainfed vs. Irrigated Zones: India has both rain-dependent
Cropping Patterns vs. Cropping Systems regions and irrigation-fed belts these distinctions are central to
These two terms are often confused but refer to different agricultural sustainable crop planning.
frameworks. •Z  one-Specific Diseases: Crop selection must factor in pest
• Pattern: Cropping pattern is about what crops are grown and in and disease patterns that vary by region (e.g., blast in rice, rust in
what proportion. wheat).
• System: A cropping system considers the entire management approach • I nput Supply Chains: The physical availability of seeds, fertilizers,
rotation, fallow periods, inputs, residue use, and sustainability. and pesticide dealers often aligns with zonal cropping patterns.

Smash Mains: Mock Drop

[QUESTION] The rice-wheat cropping pattern has ensured food security but at the cost of ecological
sustainability and crop diversity.” Critically examine the structural, policy, and technological
factors behind this dominance. Suggest a multipronged strategy to promote climate-resilient and
nutritionally balanced cropping systems in India. (15 Marks, 250 Words)

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BURNING ISSUE #18

Digital Diplomacy
in Action
How Can India and Africa Grow
Together?

Note4Students PYQs &

Microthemes
Article shows India’s digital handshakes reshaping Africa’s own tech future. UPSC usually
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frames these themes as broad GS‑2 questions that demand you trace India’s soft‑power
tools and then weigh their limits, just as the 2021 PYQ asked you to “examine India’s influence [UPSC 2021, GS-2] “If the last few
in Africa”; it likes verbs such as analyse, assess, and evaluate. Aspirants often falter by listing decades were of Asia’s growth story, the

2
summits and lines of credit but missing fresh angles like digital public infrastructure, or by next few are expected to be of Africa’s.”
ignoring hard challenges under “Cracks in the Code” such as the rural gender gap in mobile use.
-0 In the light of this statement, examine
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This piece plugs those gaps: the subhead “India and Africa: Rewiring the Global Digital Order” India’s influence in Africa in recent years.
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gives ready examples of sovereign‑friendly tech diplomacy ([MOSIP rollout in Ethiopia]), while
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“India’s Digital Diplomacy: A New Pillar of Foreign Policy” arms you with policy language and
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programmes ([e‑VidyaBharati tele‑education, UPI adoption in Mauritius]) that can lift answers Microthemes: Groupings beyond
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from generic to specific. Its standout gem is the “Back2Basics: India‑Africa Digital Compact” South Asia
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box, which turns abstract cooperation into three crisp takeaways open‑source ethos, skill
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transfer, and shared Global‑South leadership perfect for an eye‑catching intro or conclusion.
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t h e a f r i c a n u n i o n wa n t s India and Africa: Rewiring the Global Digital Order from the Global South
ln
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to use digital technology to boost India’s growing digital partnership with Africa is not merely transactional—it reflects a deeper, strategic
n

development across the continent shift. By offering affordable, scalable, and sovereign-friendly digital models, India is helping Africa leap-
ba

by 2030. This shift is also shaping frog traditional barriers. In doing so, it’s quietly challenging the global digital status quo, long dominated
how India engages with Africa. by Western big-tech and donor-driven ecosystems.
Earlier, India focused on govern-
ment-led support like training and Dimension India’s Role Examples
infrastructure through low-interest
loans. Now, it’s also working with 1. Digital Public India shares its open-source digital Collaboration on MOSIP (Modular Open
social enterprises that bring afford- Infrastructure stack (like Aadhaar and UPI models) to Source Identity Platform) in Morocco
able, impactful tech solutions. This build foundational digital identity and and Ethiopia; discussions on UPI-like
newer approach is more inclusive payment systems in Africa. systems.
and adaptable, using digital tools 2. Tech-Led India supports telemedicine, e-learning, PAN-Africa e-Network Project
and collaboration to build stron- Development and e-governance platforms tailored to connected 53 African countries with
ger, long-term ties with African Diplomacy African needs. Indian hospitals and universities.
countries.
3. Affordable India exports frugal, high-impact Solar-powered ed-tech solutions, low-
But as this digital partnership
Innovation technologies through public-private- cost diagnostic devices, and vernacular
deepens, some thought-provok-
social partnerships. content platforms for rural Africa.
ing questions arise: Could India’s
grassroots-driven digital model 4. Skill De- India invests in digital skilling and Thousands of African professionals
become Africa’s blueprint for leap- velopment & capacity-building through ITEC and trained under the Indian Technical and
frogging traditional development Human Capital other training programs. Economic Cooperation (ITEC) program.
hurdles? As Africa goes digital, 5. South-South India positions itself as a partner, not a India-Africa Forum Summits
will tech collaboration with India Solidarity patron—emphasizing co-creation over highlight mutual respect and shared
empower local innovation—or risk conditional aid. development goals.
creating new dependencies? Might
this growing alliance between two 6. Challenging India promotes digital sovereignty and Advocacy for inclusive global digital
Global South giants quietly rewrite Western Digital open-source alternatives to Western governance in G20 and BRICS; Digital
the rules of global digital power? Dominance big-tech platforms. Public Infrastructure being positioned
as a global public good.

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India’s Digital Diplomacy: A New Pillar of Foreign Policy

India’s foreign policy is undergoing a quiet digital revolution. From exporting open digital
platforms to shaping global tech norms, India is increasingly leveraging digital tools to
build influence, foster development, and promote digital sovereignty. This digital-first
approach is becoming a cornerstone of India’s global engagement strategy particularly
with the Global South.

Dimension India’s Role Examples

1. Exporting Digital India positions its digital stack built on identity, UPI, Aadhaar-like identity systems, and DigiLocker
Public Infrastructure payments, and data empowerment as a model for being adapted in countries like Sri Lanka, Mauritius, and
inclusive digital growth. the Philippines.

2. Tech for India uses digital platforms as a form of soft power to e-VidyaBharati (tele-education) and e-ArogyaBharati
Development assist developing nations with governance, education, (telemedicine) for African countries.
Partnerships and healthcare.

3. Capacity Building India trains officials, students, and professionals from ITEC programs, NASSCOM partnerships, and India
& Digital Skilling partner countries in IT and digital governance. Stack training modules offered to over 160 countries.

4. Digital India champions open-source, low-cost digital solutions MOSIP adopted by Morocco, Philippines, and
Sovereignty that give countries more control over their data and Togo; global talks on data privacy and open digital
Advocacy tech ecosystems. governance.

5. Strategic Allianc- India builds coalitions around cyber norms, digital trade, Participation in Quad tech group, G20 Digital Economy
es on Tech Norms and ethical AI to ensure a multipolar digital order. Working Group, and Global Partnership on AI (GPAI).
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6. Positioning as a India frames itself as a knowledge partner offering scalable, G20 presidency pitch: “Digital Public Infrastructure as a
Global Digital Mentor inclusive digital solutions to fellow developing countries. Global Public Good” adopted in the Leaders’ Declaration.

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India’s digital diplomacy is no longer just about tech transfers—it’s about reshaping global digital
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rules from a position of trust, inclusivity, and innovation. As the world seeks alternatives to digital
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hegemony, India’s model offers a compelling, democratic blueprint.

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Cracks in the Code: Challenges in India’s Digital Diplomacy

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While India’s digital diplomacy has gained momentum, it faces several roadblocks that
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could limit its global impact. From infrastructure gaps at home to strategic trust issues
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abroad, India’s ambition to become a digital mentor to the Global South is challenged
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by a mix of internal weaknesses and external complexities. Addressing these is key to

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sustaining its digital leadership.

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Challenge Why It Matters Examples

ba

1. Digital A large section of India’s population still lacks access to Only around 43% of rural households have internet
Divide at Home quality internet, digital literacy, or basic digital tools— access (NFHS-5), raising concerns when India
limiting the credibility of its global digital leadership. promotes inclusive tech abroad.

2. Fragmented India’s success stories like UPI and Aadhaar are often state- Rollout of digital services varies drastically across
Implementation led but lack consistent implementation across all regions Indian states—making global replication challenging
and services. without uniform governance.

3. Lack of Follow-up Many digital aid and training programs are launched with PAN-Africa e-Network saw initial success but later
Mechanisms enthusiasm but suffer from weak monitoring and long-term faced sustainability issues due to lack of follow-up
support. funding and local ownership.

4. Geopolitical Despite promoting digital sovereignty, India still struggles to Some African and ASEAN countries are cautious,
Trust Deficit be seen as a fully neutral tech partner in a multipolar world. comparing India’s outreach with China’s large-scale
infrastructure backing.

5. Limited Private Indian tech diplomacy often overlooks partnerships with its Few Indian startups are part of foreign development
Sector Integration own start-up and tech ecosystem, missing out on agility and missions, even though they offer scalable, low-cost
innovation. digital solutions.

6. Regulatory India’s evolving data, privacy, and cybersecurity laws create Delays and back-and-forth on the Data Protection
Uncertainty uncertainty for partner nations considering Indian tech Bill have made other countries hesitant to adopt
models. similar legal frameworks.

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What is the significance of India-Africa Digital 3. Capacity Building and Knowledge Transfer: The compact em-
Compact? phasizes co-development and skill-building rather than one-sided
1. Promoting Digital Inclusion: India is sharing its proven Digital technology transfer. Initiatives like the IIT Madras campus in Zan-
Public Infrastructure (DPI) models—such as Aadhaar (digital ID), zibar and technical collaborations for national digital ID systems
UPI (digital payments), and DIKSHA (digital education)—to help Af- foster local talent and innovation.
rican nations leapfrog traditional development barriers and expand 4. Addressing Socio-Economic Gaps: By focusing on digital finan-
access to essential services. This approach is designed to make cial inclusion, healthcare, education, and governance, the compact
digital tools affordable, adaptable, and accessible, particularly for aims to tackle persistent challenges such as rural-urban divides,
underserved populations. gender gaps in digital access, and weak infrastructure.
2. Open-Source and Public Good Approach: Unlike proprietary or 5. M
 utual Growth and Global South Leadership: The partnership
surveillance-heavy models from other countries, India’s digital solu- boosts economic growth for both regions, reinforces India’s leader-
tions are open-source and promoted as digital public goods. This ship in the Global South, and supports Africa’s voice on the world
ensures that African nations can adopt and adapt these technolo- stage. It is rooted in mutual respect and long-term partnerships,
gies without restrictive licensing or geopolitical strings attached. offering a model for equitable, resilient development.

What are the challenges to India-Africa Digital 5. R egulatory and Governance Issues: There are concerns about
Compact? the lack of robust digital governance frameworks in Africa. Issues
1. High Cost of Digital Access: Many African countries experience include weak enforcement of data protection, limited stakeholder
prohibitively expensive data and device costs, with mobile data engagement, and insufficient alignment with local legal and human
sometimes exceeding 5% of average monthly income. This restricts rights frameworks, such as the African Charter on Human and
internet use, especially among low-income and rural populations. Peoples’ Rights.
2. Digital Divide and Inequality: There are pronounced gaps in inter- 6. Affordability and Policy Gaps: Even as broadband coverage
net connectivity between rural and urban areas, and a significant expands, the cost remains a barrier. There is a need for policies that
gender gap in digital access and literacy. For example, women in prioritize not just connectivity, but also affordability and equitable
sub-Saharan Africa are 37% less likely than men to use mobile access, including for marginalized groups.
7. S
 ustainable Financing: Bridging the “missing middle” of Africa’s
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internet, deepening socio-economic disparities.
3. Weak Energy and Infrastructure: Reliable electricity is essential digital infrastructure requires significant investment—estimated at
for digital services, but many African regions suffer from inconsis- $100 billion for broadband alone. Many African countries face bud-

2
tent power supplies. This slows the deployment and reliability of get constraints that make such investments challenging without
digital infrastructure and services.
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external support.
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4. Limited Digital Skills and Capacity: Both India and Africa face 8. Local Adaptation and Ownership: While India’s digital models
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02

challenges in digital literacy and skills mismatch. The rapid pace of are open-source and adaptable, successful implementation in
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digital transformation requires robust investments in education and Africa requires meaningful local engagement, adaptation to local
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capacity-building to ensure populations can effectively use new contexts, and building local expertise to ensure long-term sustain-
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technologies. ability.
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Way Forward
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1. M
 ake Digital Access Affordable
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Expand low-cost internet and provide subsidies

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for digital devices, especially targeting rural and

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underserved communities, so more people can get

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online.
ba

2. Build Reliable Energy and Connectivity

Invest in renewable energy and stronger digital
infrastructure to ensure steady power and internet
access, overcoming current electricity and network
challenges.
3. Share Open-Source Tech That Fits Local Needs
Continue offering India’s proven digital platforms
(like Aadhaar and UPI) as open-source tools that
African countries can adapt and scale in ways that
work for them.
4. Focus on Training and Skill Building
Deepen cooperation through joint research, train-
ing programs, and academic partnerships to devel-
op local digital talent and improve digital literacy.
5. Encourage Partnerships Between Governments
and Tech Innovators
Bring together governments, startups, and
tech companies from both regions to co-create
solutions, boost investment, and speed up digital
adoption.
6. Promote Inclusive Policies and Respect Local
Priorities
Design digital initiatives that close gender and so-
cial gaps, involve African partners in decision-mak-
ing, and ensure fair, sustainable benefits for all
communities.

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Back2Basics
India-Africa Digital Compact
India and Africa are teaming up to boost digital inclusion by sharing India’s proven tools like
Aadhaar (digital IDs), UPI (payments), and DIKSHA (education). These tools are open-source,
low-cost, and designed to be adapted locally—especially useful for Africa’s underserved
communities. Unlike big-tech models from the West or surveillance-heavy ones from China,
India offers digital public goods with no strings attached.

Why It Matters: training, education, and local innovation. Initiatives like IIT Madras
1. P
 romoting Digital Inclusion in Zanzibar reflect this hands-on, long-term approach.
India is sharing its successful digital tools like Aadhaar (ID), UPI 4. T
 argeting Real Gaps
(payments), and DIKSHA (education) to help African countries The compact aims to fix deep-rooted problems like poor access to
deliver essential services to people who have long been left out. healthcare, financial exclusion, digital illiteracy, and gender gaps,
2. Open-Source, No Strings Attached especially in rural and underserved areas.
Unlike some global tech powers, India offers its digital systems 5. S
 hared Growth and Leadership
as public goods open-source, low-cost, and free from political or It supports economic growth in both regions and strengthens their
commercial conditions. voice in global digital policy discussions, setting an example of
3. Focus on Skills and Co-Development South-South collaboration rooted in equality.
The partnership is not just about handing over tech—it includes

What’s Holding It Back: 5. R egulatory and Governance Gaps

1. H
 igh Cost of Access Many African countries lack strong laws around data protection and
Internet and devices are still too expensive in many African coun- digital rights, raising concerns about privacy and accountability.
tries, often costing more than 5% of a person’s monthly income. 6. A ffordability and Policy Shortfalls
2. Digital Inequality
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Even where internet exists, many people can’t afford it. There’s a
There’s a wide gap between urban and rural areas, and women in need for better policies that make digital access truly equitable.
particular have far less access to mobile internet and digital tools. 7. L
 ack of Funding

2
3. Weak Infrastructure Building Africa’s digital backbone needs huge investment over
Poor electricity supply and limited internet infrastructure make it
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$100 billion for broadband alone but many governments don’t have
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hard to roll out and maintain digital systems in many regions. the money or support yet.
02

4. S hortage of Skills 8. N eed for Local Ownership

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Both India and Africa need more investment in digital education India’s tools are adaptable, but success depends on African
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and training to keep up with rapidly changing technology. countries taking charge shaping these tools to fit local needs and
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building in-house expertise for the long run.

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Smash Mains: Mock Drop

ya
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[QUESTION] “India’s growing digital partnerships with Africa reflect a shift from aid-based
nsa

engagement to capacity-building diplomacy. Critically examine how digital diplomacy can become
ba

the cornerstone of a deeper, mutually beneficial India–Africa partnership. (15 Marks, 250 Words)

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BURNING ISSUES
Telegram Group

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BURNING ISSUE #19

A new vision for

North East
Infrastructure vs Ecological
Sensitivity ?
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Note4Students
2
-0 PYQs &
07

Microthemes
5-

Article shows Northeast shifting from neglected hinterland to strategic green growth bridge.
02

UPSC loves to turn this theme into GS‑3 questions that start with a concept like “carrying
-2
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capacity” and then make you marry it to a real region, just as the 2019 PYQ asked you to first
l.c

define the term and then apply it; expect verbs such as “explain” and “critically assess” followed
[UPSC 2019, GS-3] Define the concept
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by a demand for on‑ground examples. Many aspirants stumble because they either stop at
gm

of carrying capacity of an ecosystem as

textbook ecology without linking to development, or they gush about infrastructure but forget
@

relevant to an en vironment. Explain how

ecological limits, so their answers look lopsided. The piece fixes that blind spot: under “Balancing
18

understanding this concept is vital while

Infrastructure Development with Ecological Sensitivity in the North East” it walks you through
ya

planning for sustainable development of

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precise trade‑offs, citing the 2021 Sikkim landslide and 160 Brahmaputra hydropower plans,
a region.
ln

while “NE: Zone of Untapped Potential” hands you a neat compare‑and‑contrast grid to frame
sa

the region’s carrying‑capacity stress points. “Strategic Integration of the Northeast” then shows
n
ba

how projects like the Sela Tunnel or the India–Myanmar–Thailand Highway can be justified only if
Microthemes: Ecosystem carrying
they respect fragile ecosystems exactly the synthesis UPSC rewards. The article’s superpower
capacity and SDG
is its “Back2Basics: North East – Significance, Initiatives and Challenges” box, a one‑stop map
of facts and schemes (₹38,856‑crore green‑energy MoUs, Champhai Solar Park, PM‑DevINE)
that you can sprinkle across answers to prove both depth and currency.

o n c e s e e n a s i n d i a ’ s r e m o t e h i n t e r l a n d , the Northeast
is now rewriting its story not as a periphery, but as a strategic, eco-
logical, and digital frontier. With its eight vibrant states the “Ashta-
lakshmi” the region shares over 5,400 km of international borders,
holds immense biodiversity, and boasts rich renewable resources.
And the winds of change are real. From insurgency to infrastructure,
from isolation to innovation the Northeast is finding its place at the
heart of India’s growth vision.

Backed by investments of over ₹1.5 lakh crore and empowered

by the Act East Policy, the region is fast becoming a vital bridge to
ASEAN. Yet, as NITI Aayog’s SDG Index (2021–22) shows, while
progress is visible, development remains uneven. The Economic
Survey 2024–25 puts it plainly: this is a zone of untapped potential
and the time to unlock it is now.

In such a scenario, some pertinent questions that come up are - Can

India balance infrastructure development with ecological sensitivity
in this fragile region? How can strategic integration of the Northeast
redefine India’s foreign and economic policy in the Indo-Pacific era?

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About ‘Rising Northeast’ Investor Summit

The ‘Rising Northeast’ Investor Summit, organized by the Ministry
of DoNER, is India’s big push to rebrand the Northeast from a
remote outpost to a high-potential investment and strategic hub.
It’s not just about showcasing the region it’s about inviting the
nation (and the world) to be part of its transformation story.
Here’s what makes it big:
1. Massive Infrastructure Push: The Ministry of Road Transport
and Highways is putting its money where its mouth is 10% of
its entire budget is going to the region. This translates to nearly
5,000 km of highways and over $5 billion in investment.
2. G reen Growth with MoUs
In a show of climate-smart development, ₹38,856 crore worth
of MoUs have been signed for renewable energy projects sig-
nalling a shift from insurgency zones to green energy hubs.
3. D igital First Northeast: A whopping ₹1.5 lakh crore has gone
into digital and physical connectivity, including BharatNet and
the Digital Northeast Vision. Today, 90% of the region has 4G
access, and 80% of rural homes are fiber-connected.
4. S killing for Tomorrow: Over 2,000 youth have been trained
under skill schemes like Suryamitra and Jal Urjamitra, making
sure local communities aren’t left behind as investment flows in.
5. S trategic Gateway to ASEAN: With 5,484 km of international
borders, the Northeast isn’t just a frontier it’s India’s bridge to
Southeast Asia, aligning perfectly with the Act East Policy.
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NE: Zone of Untapped Potential
2
India’s Northeast, once seen as distant and fragile, is now stepping into the spotlight as
both a strategic bridge and a growth engine. With rich resources, cultural depth, and rising
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07
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connectivity, the region is no longer a forgotten corner it’s becoming central to India’s future.
02

Yet, the promise remains only partially fulfilled. The following reasons hold it back:
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Area of Potential What Exists What Holds It Back

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1. Geography & Borders 5 countries; gateway to ASEAN; key to Act East Remoteness; dependency on Siliguri Corridor;
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Connectivity Policy challenging terrain

ya
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2. Natural Rich in hydropower, solar, forests, biodiversity, organic Environmental concerns; lack of investment; poor
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Resources farming, tourism potential logistics

3. Human Capital Young population; high literacy; cultural diversity; Brain drain; lack of local jobs and industries; low
emerging skill-training programs industrial base

4. Infrastructure ₹1.5 lakh crore invested; 4G access in 90% areas; Last-mile gaps; patchy inter-state transport; slow
BharatNet rollout; highway expansion logistics development

5. Security & Peace accords signed; insurgency reduced; investment Lingering ethnic tensions; fragile inter-group trust;
Governance summits like ‘Rising Northeast’ perception of instability

6. Strategic & Central to India’s Indo-Pacific, BIMSTEC, and Act East Under-leveraged in foreign policy; weak economic
Political Relevance Policy; shares 5,484 km international borders diplomacy with neighbors

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Balancing Infrastructure Development with Ecological Sensitivity

in the North East
India’s North East is a region of immense ecological, cultural, and strategic significance. Home to
more than 200 tribes, four global biodiversity hotspots, and vast hydrological resources, it is also
one of the country’s least connected regions. In recent years, national priorities such as Act East
Policy, border security, and economic integration have driven a surge in infrastructure development
roads, tunnels, railways, dams, and border trade corridors.
Yet, this progress comes with a warning: can we build without breaking what is already fragile?

Challenge Explanation Example

Ecological Disruption Road and dam construction often leads to The 2021 landslide in Sikkim was partly attributed to
deforestation, loss of wildlife corridors, and increased road cutting for border infrastructure.
vulnerability to disasters.
Lack of Cumulative Projects are cleared in isolation, ignoring the broader Over 160 hydropower projects are planned across the
Impact Assessment impact on connected ecosystems. Brahmaputra basin, with little basin-level planning.
Neglect of Local Many projects bypass community consultation, The protests in Dibang Valley (Arunachal) against large
Consent and undermining tribal autonomy and causing unrest. dams reflect tensions between state-led projects and
Customary Rights indigenous rights.
Poor Environmental Impact Assessments are often poorly Reports show that many EIAs for Northeast road
Regulatory Oversight implemented, with limited local language access and projects fail to account for landslide risk or wildlife
tokenistic public hearings. movement.
Strategic vs. Sus- Border and defence infrastructure often bypass The Char Dham-style road expansion to Indo-China
tainable Trade-Off standard clearances under “strategic” exemption. borders in Arunachal has raised ecological concerns.
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Climate Change Glacial retreat, extreme rainfall, and warmer winters Flash floods in Assam and glacial lake outbursts in
Vulnerability are already stressing ecosystems, which are further Sikkim have increased in frequency and intensity.
strained by unregulated development.

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Strategic Integration of the Northeast: A Gamechanger for

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India’s Indo-Pacific Policy

02
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Lever in the Northeast How It Recasts India’s Indo-Pacific Policy Example / Project
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Land Bridge to Turns Northeast into a logistics and trade corridor India–Myanmar–Thailand Trilateral Highway (expected
@

Southeast Asia connecting India to ASEAN overland. Enhances completion: 2025); Kaladan Multimodal Transit Project
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connectivity under Act East. linking Mizoram to Sittwe port in Myanmar.

ya
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Gateway for Offers a cost-effective manufacturing base for Assam’s Bamboo Industrial Park, MSME electronics
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Indo-Pacific “China+1” supply chains; links landlocked NE to Bay cluster near Guwahati; Japanese investment in Manipur’s
Manufacturing of Bengal export markets. logistics centres for Indo-Myanmar trade.

Energy Hub & Exports clean energy to neighbouring countries; Arunachal’s 2,880 MW Dibang Hydropower Project;
Green Corridor anchors India’s climate leadership in the region. Tripura–Bangladesh grid connectivity; Meghalaya’s
pumped storage project in planning stage.

Secure Hinterland Strengthens eastern defence posture; dual-use Sela Tunnel in Arunachal Pradesh (strategic all-weather
for Maritime Strategy infrastructure improves military mobility and maritime access to Tawang); airstrip upgrades in Pasighat and
preparedness. Tezpur for drone ops.

Soft Power & Uses shared culture and heritage to build people-to- India-ASEAN Youth Summit in Guwahati; Northeast
Cultural people links in the Indo-Pacific; counters hard-power Buddhist Circuit linking Sarnath–Tawang–Myanmar; Tai-
Diplomacy Node narratives. Ahom and Naga textile exchanges with Thailand and Laos.

BBIN & BIMSTEC Makes NE a live demo for regional cooperation Phulbari–Banglabandha ICP (India–Bangladesh)
Integration Model without Chinese footprint; shows India can deliver functional; BBIN motor vehicle agreement being piloted
inclusive growth corridors. via Bhutan-bound trucks from Assam.

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Way Forward: A Strategic Northeast for a Rising India 3. S

 ecure Through Dialogue
To unlock the full potential of the Northeast and align it with India’s Institutionalise peace accords, continue inter-state border set-
Indo-Pacific aspirations, a multi-pronged, inclusive, and ecological tlements, and enhance integrated border management to ensure
development model is essential. The following six action pillars can stability and investor confidence.
shape the path ahead: 4. G
 reen the Growth Model
1. Connect to Compete Make climate resilience non-negotiable. Invest in renewable ener-
Prioritise timely completion of strategic corridors and logistics gy, disaster-proof infrastructure, and community-led conservation
infrastructure to integrate the Northeast with ASEAN and BIM- to balance development with ecology.
STEC trade routes. Projects like the Trans-Arunachal Highway 5. E
 mpower Through Skills and Tech
and Kaladan Multimodal Transit must be accelerated with border Align skilling with local industries handloom, tourism, logistic and
market linkages. scale digital infrastructure to enable telemedicine, smart gover-
2. B uild and Back Local Industry nance, and e-commerce even in remote districts.
Develop SEZs, agro-processing hubs, and bamboo-based value 6. B
 rand the Northeast Globally
chains tailored to the region’s strength. Single-window investment Position the region as India’s cultural and eco-tourism frontier.
facilitation and credit access for MSMEs should be expanded. Promote festivals, living traditions, and heritage circuits as instru-
ments of soft power and sustainable livelihoods.

Back2Basics
North East -Significance,Initiatives And Challenges
Significance of the North East for India
1. G eo-strategic Gateway
With 5,400+ km of international borders, the region links India to ASEAN and
BIMSTEC, boosting Act East and regional trade. (India–Myanmar–Thailand
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Highway; Sittwe Port, Myanmar)
2. R enewable Energy Powerhouse
Home to 40% of India’s hydropower potential and vast solar-wind-biomass

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reserves, it’s key to green growth. (Champhai Solar Park & 20 MW Solar Project,
Mizoram)
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3. Cultural Capital
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Diverse ethnicities and rich traditions amplify India’s soft power & cultural diploma-
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cy. (Hornbill Festival, Nagaland; Ziro Festival, Arunachal)

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4. B iodiversity Hotspot
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One of India’s richest ecozones with endemic wildlife and fragile ecosystems.
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(Kaziranga National Park – one-horned rhino; Loktak Lake, Manipur)

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5. O rganic & Agri Hub

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Ideal for organic farming, horticulture, and food security through native crops.
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(Sikkim – fully organic state; Assam – tea plantations)

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6. H uman Capital Engine

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High literacy, English fluency, and tech-savvy youth position it for skilling and
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digital innovation. (IIT Guwahati alumni; 5G telemedicine in Arunachal)

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7. T ourism & Wellness Zone

Eco-tourism, Ayurveda, and indigenous culture attract global travellers. (Living
Root Bridges, Meghalaya; Loktak Lake, Manipur)
8. I ndustrial & Connectivity Lift-Off
Improved logistics, digital networks, and niche sectors like bamboo and
semiconductors are emerging. (First semiconductor plant in Assam; Kaladan
Multimodal Project)

Initiatives for the North East: Grouped by Key •N

 orth East Industrial Development Scheme (NEIDS) 2017:
Focus Areas Incentives for setting up industries, logistics hubs, and MSMEs.
1. Connectivity & Infrastructure •B
 amboo Technology Parks: Promoting sustainable bam-
• PM-DevINE (Prime Minister’s Development Initiative for North boo-based industries (e.g., Assam, Tripura).
East Region): ₹6,600 crore scheme launched in 2022 for infra- •M
 ega Food Parks & Cold Chains: Agro-processing clusters in
structure, health, agri-tech, and youth skilling. Assam and Meghalaya.
• North East Special Infrastructure Development Scheme •D
 igital North East Vision 2022: Digital literacy, connectivity,
(NESIDS): For roads, power, water supply in backward areas. BPO promotion in the region.
• Bharatmala & Sagarmala Projects: Enhancing highway and •N
 ational Logistics Policy (2022): Emphasis on multimodal logis-
port-based connectivity in the Northeast. tics in Northeast corridors.
• India–Myanmar–Thailand Trilateral Highway: Key link under Act
East Policy. 3. Power & Renewable Energy
• Kaladan Multimodal Transit Project: Connecting Mizoram to •N
 orth Eastern Region Power System Improvement Project
Sittwe Port in Myanmar. (NERPSIP): Strengthening transmission in all 8 states.
• Udan 5.0 (Regional Air Connectivity): Inclusion of remote air- •H
 ydropower projects: Dibang, Subansiri Lower (Arunachal), and
strips (e.g. Pasighat, Tezpur, Dibrugarh). Loktak downstream (Manipur).
•G
 reen Energy Corridors: Linking solar parks and hydro assets to
2. Economic Development & Industrial Growth national grid.

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4. Social Development & Health •S

 wadesh Darshan: Northeast Circuit: Tourism infrastructure in
• Aspirational Districts Programme: Focused development in lag- destinations like Tawang, Kaziranga.
ging districts (e.g., Dhalai in Tripura, Hailakandi in Assam). •H
 ornbill Festival Support: Funding and promotion through Ministry
• Eklavya Model Residential Schools: Tribal youth education in of Culture and DoNER.
remote areas. •N
 orth East Film Festival: Promoting regional cinema and talent.
• Ayushman Bharat & 5G Telemedicine Pilots: Health coverage and •A
 ct East Policy Cultural Wing: Building cross-border ethnic, lin-
digital access to remote communities. guistic and religious links.

5. Education & Skilling 7. Governance, Peace & Border Management

• Ishan Uday & Ishan Vikas Schemes: Scholarships and exposure •M HA’s Special Infrastructure Scheme: For policing, border posts,
programs for NE students. and intelligence in disturbed areas.
• Skill India in NE: Sector-specific training (e.g., tourism, food pro- •R eduction in AFSPA Coverage: Gradual withdrawal from parts of
cessing, logistics). Assam, Manipur, and Nagaland (2022–24).
• NERIST & IIT Guwahati Expansion: Strengthening regional techni- •B ru Refugee Rehabilitation Agreement: Settlement of displaced
cal education ecosystem. communities in Tripura (2020).
•B order Area Development Programme (BADP): Targeted develop-
6. Culture, Tourism & Soft Power ment in strategic villages near China, Myanmar, Bangladesh.

Challenges Faced by the North East 5. C

 limate & Environmental Risks
1. I nfrastructure Gaps Floods, quakes, and landslides damage infrastructure and ecosys-
Roads, rail, health, and education infrastructure lag behind. (Low tems. (2022 Assam floods – major displacement and crop loss)
road density in Arunachal; poor rail access in Nagaland interiors) 6. G
 overnance & Coordination Deficits
2. S ecurity & Insurgency Legacy Overlapping jurisdictions slow project execution. (Kaladan Project
Old conflicts and border tensions deter investment and stability. – delays due to bureaucratic hurdles)
(ULFA remnants in Assam; Nagaland–Myanmar skirmishes) 7. R
 esource Underuse
3. W eak Industrial Base
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Huge untapped hydro, solar, and minerals remain underexploited.
Lack of industries fuels unemployment and outmigration. (Youth (Only 7% of 129 GW hydro potential harnessed)
exodus from Manipur due to job scarcity) 8. F
 inancial & Skill Exclusion

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4. C onnectivity Barriers Low credit access and poor skilling limit local enterprise. (Low
Difficult terrain delays transport and market integration. (Highway
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MSME loan coverage; high literacy, but skills mismatch)
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delays in Arunachal interiors)

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Smash Mains: Mock Drop

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[QUESTION] With reference to India’s Northeast, analyse how the untapped potential be
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realised in ecologically fragile regions. (15 Marks, 250 Words)

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BURNING ISSUE #20

Maternal Health
in India
Progress or Persistence ?
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PYQs &
Note4Students
2 Microthemes
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Mothers are surviving births, yet hidden illnesses still stalk India’s women. UPSC usually
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turns such “population and health” themes into big GS 1 questions that ask “why” and
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“how,” much like the 2014 sex‑ratio poser that mixed prosperity with social bias; examiners
[UPSC 2014, GS-1] Why do some of the
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expect you to go beyond numbers and trace deep causes and policy gaps. Many aspirants
most prosperous regions of India have an
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slip because they quote the falling MMR but ignore the silent crisis of anaemia or the uneven
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adverse sex ratio for women? Give your

state data under “The Maternal Health Paradox: Falling MMR vs Rising Hidden Burdens”
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arguments.
(Kerala MMR 19 vs Assam 195, anaemia 57%). They also forget to link welfare design flaws
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shown in “Disconnect Between Policy Success and Ground Realities” (institutional births 88.6%
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yet only 60% full ANC) and thus miss the continuity‑of‑care angle UPSC loves. This article
Microthemes: Population and
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rescues them by stitching both sides together: it pairs success metrics with unseen gaps, offers
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associated issues
ready references like PMSMA coverage figures, and serves real solutions in “Way Forward”
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that move from delivery counts to healthy‑mother outcomes. Its standout gem is the
“Back2Basics: Assessment of Maternal Health Governance” table, which condenses every key
scheme JSY cash support, LaQshya audits, Anaemia Mukt Bharat into exam‑ready one‑liners you
can drop as evidence. Read it once, and you have concept, critique, case studies, and policy toolkit
all in one place.

i n d i a ’ s m at e r n a l h e a lt h s t o ry
today is one of striking contrast. On one
hand, the country has made significant
progress its Maternal Mortality Ratio
(MMR) dropped from 97 (2018–20) to 93
(2019–21), marking a steady improve-
ment and moving closer to global targets.
Yet, beneath this success lies a persistent
crisis: over 57% of women of reproductive
age suffer from undiagnosed anaemia
(NFHS-5), a silent epidemic threatening
both mothers and newborns.

This paradox a falling MMR but a rising

burden of hidden illness raises urgent
questions: Is India’s maternal health prog-
ress truly inclusive and sustainable? Can
policy success coexist with widespread
nutritional and diagnostic gaps?

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The Maternal Health Paradox: Falling MMR vs Rising Hidden Burdens

Reason Explanation Substantiation
Success of Institu- Increased access to hospitals and trained personnel has Institutional deliveries rose to 88.6% (NFHS-5),
tional Deliveries reduced deaths during childbirth. contributing to MMR decline.
Persisting Undernu- Nutritional deficiencies are chronic and underdiagnosed, 57% of women suffer from undiagnosed anaemia
trition & Anaemia especially in rural and poor women. (NFHS-5); over 30% are underweight during pregnancy.
Health System Fo- Focus remains on childbirth; less attention is paid to pre- Many women don’t receive full 4 antenatal checkups
cused on Delivery, Not and postnatal nutrition, diagnostics, and mental health. or follow-ups after delivery.
Continuum of Care
Uneven National MMR averages hide wide interstate disparities. MMR: Kerala (19), Assam (195) – Sample Registration
State Performance States like Kerala and Tamil Nadu show high performance, System, 2021.
while others lag.
Fragmented Data Many cases of maternal morbidity (e.g., anaemia, hypertension, Lack of routine haemoglobin testing in rural PHCs;
and Underdetection infections) remain unreported or poorly diagnosed. poor data on postpartum complications.
Program Schemes like PMSMA, Janani Suraksha Yojana often face Less than 30% of pregnant women covered under
Implementation Gaps manpower, funding, and awareness issues at the last mile. PMSMA (as per MoHFW 2022) in some districts.

This paradox shows that while India has moved the needle on survival, it is still
struggling to ensure health, nutrition, and dignity for all mothers.

Disconnect Between Policy Success and Ground Realities

in India’s Welfare Schemes
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Broad Issue Specific Causes Example / Evidence

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1. Design– a. Output-focused approach over outcome-based Institutional births at 88.6% (NFHS-5), yet 57% of women
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Delivery Gap evaluation. remain anaemic.
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b. One-time delivery models with poor continuity of care. Only ~60% of pregnant women receive full ANC (NFHS-5).
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c. Uniform scheme design, poor contextualisation for MGNREGA assets fail in flood-prone or tribal areas due to
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diverse regions. inappropriate planning.

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2. Targeting and a. Outdated or flawed databases cause exclusion SECC 2011 errors impact PDS and PM-KISAN targeting;
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Access Issues and inclusion errors. genuine poor left out.

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b. Digital divide restricts access to benefits. Aadhaar-linked DBT failures in Jharkhand and Rajasthan
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disrupt MNREGA and pensions.

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c. Socio-cultural barriers inhibit scheme utilisation. Low hospital births among women in conservative rural belts
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despite full subsidies under JSY.

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3. Governance & a. Lack of convergence among departments handling POSHAN Abhiyaan implementation suffers from poor
Coordination Gaps linked services. coordination between WCD, Health, and Rural Development.
b. Weak monitoring, auditing, and grievance redressal CAG flagged irregularities in PMAY: ghost beneficiaries,
mechanisms. duplicate payments, incomplete houses.
c. Populist policies prioritised over structural reforms. Continuation of free ration (PMGKAY) while funding for
anganwadis or school meals remains limited.

Local-level best practices cies digitally, and provide counselling. Localised incentives and
Case Studies Where the Maternal Health Paradox Doesn’t Exist cultural adaptation ASHAs speaking tribal languages and accom-
Several Indian states and districts have bridged the gap between panying women have driven uptake.
access and quality in maternal health. 3. K
 erala’s Kudumbashree model leverages women’s self-help groups
1. Tamil Nadu, with an MMR of just 54, has built a robust system to deliver ANC, mental health counselling, and 100% immunisation.
through 99% institutional deliveries, the 108 ambulance network, Community-led monitoring in tribal areas via mobile vans has made
HMIS-based risk tracking, and nutrition kits under the Dr. Muthu- care both inclusive and accountable.
lakshmi Reddy scheme. Its RCH programme ensures seamless 4. C
 hhattisgarh’s Janani Shishu Suraksha Yatra (JSSY) and Mitanin
care across ANC, delivery, and postnatal phases. model raised institutional deliveries from 40% to 80%. Mitanins
2. In Odisha’s tribal Malkangiri district, maternal mortality has halved. provide doorstep ANC, track danger signs, ensure nutrition, and
ASHAs are trained to test haemoglobin, track high-risk pregnan- refer mental health cases.

These models show that when delivery systems are community-driven, context-specific, and
continuous not just coverage-focused India can overcome both mortality and morbidity
challenges in maternal health.

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Way Forward 3. C
 lose the quality loop in facilities.
1. S
 hift the metric: from “delivery counts” to “healthy mothers.” Kayakalp-style audits for labour rooms and post-natal wards;
Track haemoglobin, BMI and mental-health scores alongside insti- e-partographs and mandatory second-opinions for C-sections.
tutional-delivery data. 4. U
 niversalise mental-health screening.
2. L
 ocalise nutrition action. Integrate PHQ-9 or EPDS tools into PMSMA; train ASHAs to
Mandatory point-of-care anaemia testing at every ANC visit; identify red flags.
millet-based THR (take-home rations); women-led farmer-producer 5. D
 ata convergence & accountability.
co-operatives for iron-rich crops. Link Poshan Tracker, HMIS and civil-registration data to a single
dashboard; empower panchayat-level social audits.

Back2Basics
Assessment Of Maternal Health Governance
What’s Driving India’s Decline in Maternal Mortality?
Driver Key Action & Outcome
Incentivized Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) offers cash support for safe births over 1 crore women benefited annually, with
Institutional Deliveries spending touching ₹1,814 crore in FY 2023–24.
Zero-Cost Maternal Care Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram (JSSK) covers delivery, transport, diagnostics, and drugs 1.36 crore
women accessed services (Apr–Dec 2024).
High-Risk PMSMA & e-PMSMA enable monthly ANC and digital tracking 78.27 lakh high-risk cases identified till Dec
Pregnancy Tracking 2024.
Improved Clinical Quality LaQshya & SUMAN ensure respectful, high-standard care 1,110 labour rooms, 808 maternity OTs certified;
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47,700+ facilities covered under SUMAN.
Emergency & Over 400 Obstetric ICUs/HDUs and 650 MCH Wings with 42,000+ beds set up nationwide.
Critical Care Access
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Trained Human Resources Nationwide training of doctors and nurses 2,518 EmOC doctors, 2,683 LSAS-trained, and 3.3 lakh SBAs deployed.
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Real-Time Surveillance MPCDSR & RCH Portal institutionalize digital maternal death reviews, replacing manual reporting for quicker response.
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Key Maternal Health Programmes Under the National Health Mission (NHM)
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Programme / Policy Objective & Key Features

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National Health Policy 2017 Targeted MMR <100 by 2020 — achieved with MMR now at 93 (SRS 2019–21).
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SDG Target 3.1 Reduce MMR to ≤70 by 2030 — India on track.

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JSY (2005) Cash incentive for institutional deliveries — targeting SC/ST/BPL women.
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PMMVY 2.0 (2022) ₹5,000 maternity benefit for first child; extra for second girl child — promoting positive gender norms.
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JSSK (2011) Free delivery (including C-section), transport, diagnostics, medicines, and diet in public hospitals.
SUMAN (2019) Assures free, dignified, quality maternity care with zero denial.
PMSMA (2016) Free ANC on 9th of each month; e-PMSMA tracks high-risk pregnancies 5.9 crore+ women examined by March 2025.
LaQshya (2017) Quality assurance in delivery rooms and OTs to reduce maternal and neonatal complications.
Anaemia Mukt Bharat (AMB) Holistic anaemia reduction via testing, treatment, food fortification, and mass communication.

Infrastructure & Systems Strengthening

Initiative Impact
Comprehensive Abortion Care (CAC) Training + safe abortion access integrated into RMNCAH+N services.
Delivery Points & FRUs Upgraded with equipment, drugs, trained staff, and referral linkages.
MCH Wings Specialized maternal-child units built in high-caseload facilities.
Obstetric ICUs/HDUs Critical care infrastructure scaled in tertiary centers for obstetric emergencies.

Smash Mains: Mock Drop

[QUESTION] Despite significant improvements in institutional deliveries and a declining Maternal Mortality
Ratio (MMR), India’s maternal health outcomes remain uneven and exclusionary. Critically examine the
disconnect between policy achievements and ground-level realities in maternal health, with a focus on
nutritional and diagnostic gaps. (15 Marks, 250 Words)

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We were the pioneers in UPSC to introduce Mentorship.

How Civilsdaily Does

Mentorship?
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Third Phase Fourth Phse

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First Phase Second phase

(Pre-Prelims) (Post-Prelims)
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Aspirants struggle with Aspirants may

Switching to prelims Intensive preparation for
content overload and experience burnout
mindset. the Mains exam.
basic concepts. and self-doubt.

Mentors help them make Pre-tests and post-

sense of what to read, Mentors provide per- tests to discussions to
Hands-on classes and
how to approach subjects, sonalized support and assess retention and
post-test discussions.
and how to revise motivation. identify strengths and
effectively. weaknesses.

Regular tests are giv- Focus on consolidating

Personalized strategies
en to anchor marks to notes and knowledge Value enrichment sessions
for improving accuracy
understand performance gained. Introduction and X-factor notes are
and tackling difficult
through personalized to more complex and needed to gain an edge.
questions.
feedback. challenging subjects.

Double down on GS and

Answer writing practice Guidance on revising Guidance on online re-
Optional answer writing.
begins in the first few material and reflecting sources and study mate-
Frequent practice and
weeks. it in answers. rials
continuous feedback.

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Key aspects of Civilsdaily’s Mentorship:

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Civilsdaily IAS, Ground Floor, Apsara

BURNING ISSUESArcade, ORN, New
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Here are some of the

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show us gratitude.
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