9" Physics 1. Physical Quantities and Measurements Chapter 1; Physical Quantities and Measurements Science: The field of observation and experimentation to understand about the world around us is known as science. 1.1 Physical and Non-Physical Quantities Physical Quantities: Quantities that can be measured directly or indirectly using tools and instruments (e.g., length of an object using a ruler, time duration using a clock, temperature using a thermometer). Importance: The foundation of physics rests upon physical quantities through which the laws and principles of physics are expressed. Non-Physical Quantities: Quantities that cannot be measured using (Q: Isa non-physical quantity has tools and instruments (¢.g., love, affection, fear, wisdom, beauty). dimensions? Measurement: They can be measured/described qualitatively or egos ee Ene ee compared using pre-determined criteria, indices, or survey techniques, | cannot be measured using physical Importance: Non-physical quantities mostly help to understand and __ | itstuments or expressed in tems of analyze human behavior, emotions, and social interactions. ‘Table 1.1 Feature Physical Quantity ‘Non-Physical Quantity Measurement Yes No. Instrument used Rulers, clocks, thermometers, etc. | None Numerical value and unit | Yes No. Examples 1. Length 2. Time 1. Love 2. Beauty 1.2 Base and Derived Physical Quantities Base Quantities: Arbitrarily selected quantities that play a key role (e.g., length, mass, time). They are fundamental and cannot be derived from others. “Or” Such quantity, which can be expressed independently without the reference of any other quantity. Derived Quantities: Quantities described in terms of one or more base quantities (e.g., speed depends on distance and time; density depends on mass and volume). “Or” A quantity which is expressed with reference to base quantities. ‘Measurement: A measurement is a process of comparison of an unknown quantity with a widely accepted standard quantity. > A measurement consists of two parts, a number and a unit, A measurement without unit is meaningless. Q: Why do we need a standard unit for measurements? ‘As In the early days people used to measure length using hand or arm, foot or steps. This ‘measurement may result in confusion as the measurement of different people may differ from each other because of different sizes of their hands, arms or steps. To avoid such confusion, there is a need of a standard so that measurement by any person may result the same, Unit: In early times, people measured length using body parts like hands or steps, which varied from person to person. To avoid confusion, a standard of measurement was introduced, called a unit. Prepared By Faisal Dogar 034787376309" Physics 1. Physical Quantities and Measurements 1.3 International System of Units (SI) The international committee on weights and measures in 1961 recommended the use of a system consisted of seven base units known as international system of units, abbreviated as SI. This system is in use all over the world. Importance/Significance: Use of SI measurements helps all scientists to share and compare their observations and res Table 1.2: SI Base Units: Table 1.3: Examples of Derived Units: Physical Quantity | Unit Sr. | Physical No. | Quantity Unit Symbol Length metre Area square metre | m* Mass kilogram Volume cubic metre Time second Speed “Temperature Kelvin metre per second Electric current | ampere Force newton Intensity of fight _ | candela Pressure pascal ‘Amount of mole Electric charge | coulomb substance 7._| Plane angle radian Base Units: Cannot be derived from one another or resolved into anything more basic. Derived Units: Units of quantities like speed, area, volume, force, pressure, and electric charge, expressed in terms of base units, “or Units which can be derived from base units. + Example: Area =length x breadth = metre x metre = square metre = m? + Speed = Distance/Time = metre/second = m s* SI Prefixes: The SI is a decimal system. Prefixes are used to write units by powers of 10. Prefixes are the words or symbols added before SLunit such as milli, centi, kilo, mega, giga. Examples: 1 5000 mm = = I. 50000 cm MM. 3000 g = 8g = 3kg IV. 2000 us = 2000 x 10-°s = 2x 10-°s = 2ms 1.4 Scientific Notation Scientific notation is a short way of representing very large or small numbers using powers of 10, with one non-zero digit before the decimal Quick Quiz (a) Write the unit of charge in terms ‘of base units ampere and second. Answer: From the formula 1= Q/ tuwe get Q=1 xt So, the unit of charge is ampere second (A's). (b) Express the unit of pressure "pascal" in some other units, Answer: Pascal (Pa) = force / area = Nim’, and since N= kgm/s?, Prefix | Symbol | Powers of Ten 10 10 10 10° 10 103 102 10" 108 10° 10° 102 108 10" ‘Table 1: Prefixes Used with ST atto femto pico) nano, micro milli centi deci kilo mega iga tera peta exal m)o]slolz}~lele [ste |= be |= 034787376309" Physics 1. Phy ical Quantities and Meas urements, number of places moved and use it as the exponent of 10, > Positive exponent for large numbers (decimal moved lef). > Negative exponent for small numbers (decimal moved right). Examples: Distance from Sun to Earth: 138,000,000 km 1.38 x 10® km (decimal moved 8 places left) Diameter of hydrogen atom: 0.000000000052 m 5.2 x 10-™ m (decimal moved 11 places right), Example 1.1: (a) 5.123 x 10m + 3.28 x 10%m = 5.123 x 10*m + 328 x 10'm = (5.123 + 32.8) x 10 m = 37.923 x 10*m ‘Method: Move the decimal point until only one non-zero digit remains on the left. Count the For Your Information: Adgition/subtraction requites the same exponents. Adjust by moving the decimal point ST unit symbols are universal, not abbreviations (eg..s for second, not sec), Symbols do not take plural forms (e.g, 10 m, not 10 ms). Full unit names are lowercase (e.g., metre), except Celsius, Symbols are lowercase (e.g.,m for metre), except those named after scientists (e.g.,N for newton. Prefixes are written close to the unit (eg, mm, not mm), Units are separated by a space (e.g.. N m). ‘Compound prefixes are not allowed (e.g., 7 1H = 7s) [ 3.7923 x 10° m] (b) 2.57 x 10-2 mm ~ 3.43 x 10-8 mm = 2.57 x 10-2mm- 0.343 x 10-2 mm = (2.57 = 0.0343) x 10-2mm = 2.227 x 10-2 x 10-3 m E2227 x 10m Example 1.2: (a) (4 x 10%kg)(6 x 106m) = (4x 6) x 1089 kgm = 24 x 10°kg m E24 x 10 kg (by SAME = Sx 10°? mI? = 3 x 10? m E 3 x 10%m (Quick Quiz: (a)0.00534 m = 5.34 x 107? m (b)2574.32 kg = 2.57432 x 10° kg] (0.45 m = 4.5 x 107! m (d)0.004 kg = 4 x 10-* ky q (e)186,000 s = 186 x 10° 1.5 Length Measuring Instruments Metre Rule: Length is generally measured using a metre rule in the laboratory. The smallest division on a metre seale is 1 mm. Least Count of Metre Rule: The smallest measurement that can be taken with a metre rule is 1 mm, One millimetre is known as least count of the metre rule. Least Count: Least count is the smallest measurement that ¢: instrument. Measurement Using Metre Rule: -an be taken accurately with an Place the zero of the ruler at one edge of the object and read the other edge. Ensure the eye is directly above the ruler to avoid parallax error (caused by reading from an angle), Parallax error: It is due to incorrect position of eye when tal avoided by keeping eye perpendicular to the scale reading, king measurements, Itcan be Prepared By Faisal Dogar 034787376309" Physics 1. Physical Quantities and Measurements Measuring Tape: It can measure | mm to several metres. Its least count is | mm. It is used to ‘measure longer distances. Vernier Callipers Invented by: Vemnier callipers was invented by a French Scientist Pierre Veier in 1631 Definition: It is an instrument used to measure small lengths down to 1/10th of a millimetre. It can be used to measure the thickness, diameter, width or depth of an object. Scales: The two scales on it are: (a) A main scale which has marking of Imm each (b) A Vernier (sliding) scale of length 9 mm and it is divided into 10 equal part. Least Count: The difference between one main scale division (I mm) and one Vernier scale division (0.9 mm) = 0.1 mm. [Least Count = 1 MS div—1 VS div=1 mm_0.9 mm= 0.1 mm How to find least count? ‘The least count is found by dividing the length of one small division on main scale by the total number of divisions on the Vernier scale which is | mm/10 Construction and Parts of Vernier Callipers: There are two Jaws A and B to measure extemal dimension of an abject whereas jaws C and D are used to measure Terran intemal Bboensigi if adboblety A ritiovd Poe. liter strip that projects from behind the main an fee scale known as tail or depth gauge is used ania to measure the depths of a hollow object. Measurement Using Vernier Calliper 1. Read main scale marking just before Vernier scale zero (e.g., 4.3 cm). ft Find Vernier scale division aligned with main scale uit Huu (eg., 4), Main scale Length = Main scale reading + (Least count * Vernier scale reading) =4.3 + 0.01 x 4= 4.34 em, Zero Error in Vernier Callipers: Ifon joining the jaws A and B, the zeros of the main scale and Vernier scale do not exactly coineide with each other then there is an error in the instrument called zero error. It can be of two types; 1. Positive 2. Negative 1. Positive Zero Error Ifthe zero of the Vernier scale is on the right side of the zero of the main scale, the instrument shows slightly more than the actual length. witty Correction: Subtract the zero error from the observed reading. * Main scale TEEPE TP TTT PTT Vernier scale [eeepereepreerprerepreeeytrr (@) Vernier scale 034787376309" Physics 1. Physical Quantities and Measurements 2. Negative Zero Error If the zero of the Vernier scale is on the left side of the zero of the [OTTER TTTTE PTET TETET TT ‘main scale, the instrument shows slightly less than the actual length, Uutturntolaptiee Correetion: Add the zero error to the observed reading. pet) Main scale How to find zero error? riveree To find the zero error, note the number of the division of the Vernier scale which is exactly in front of any division of the main scale. Multiply this number with the least count, The resultant number is the zero error of this instrument. Example: If 3 is the coinciding division, subtract it from ‘Some specific lengths in (m) 10> (10-3=7) Object Length (m) Multiply 7 * least count = zero error = 0.7 mm Football ground 9.1 x 10° Add this to the observed reading Man) 18 x 10° Micrometer Screw Gauge Thickness book page [1.0 x 10~* It is used to measure very small lengths such as diameter ofa wire | Diameter of the pen | 7.0 x 107% or thickness of a metal sheet. Scales: It has two scales: (a) The main scale on the sleeve which has markings of 0.5 mm each. Also known as index line. (b) The circular seale on the thimble which has 50 divisions. Some instruments may have main scale marking of | mm and 100 divisions on the thimble, Pitch: When the thimble makes one complete turn, the spindle moves 0.5 mm (1 scale division) on the main scale which is called pitch of the screw gauge. Least Count: When the thimble makes one complete turn, the spindle moves 0.5 mm (I scale division) on the main scale which is called pitch of the screw gauge. Thus, its least count is: Least Count = Puck of the seven gouge _ Sm ‘Amv tan sete Roof divisions on the circular scale 50 rT crea vale 0.01 mm Structure of Serew Gauge A screw gauge consists of an anvil and a spindle to hold the object. The thimble is rotated to move the spindle, while the sleeve and thimble scale help in measurement. The ratchet U-trame ensures correct pressure by clicking when tight enough. Screw Gauge Zero Error in Screw Gauge: No Zero Error: If the zero of the circular scale coincides with the horizontal line of the main scale, there is no zero error. ‘Zero Error Present: If the zero of the circular scale does not align with the horizontal line when the anvil and spindle are in contact, then the screw gauge has a zero error. Positive Zero Error: If the zero of the circular scale is below the horizontal line, the instrument reads more than the actual thickness. Correction: This error is corrected by subtracting the zero error from the observed reading. 034787376309" Physics - Physical Quantities and Measurements Negative Zero Error: If the zero of the circular scale is above the horizontal line, the instrument reads less than the actual thickness. Correction: This error is corrected by adding the zero error to the observed reading. Measurement Using Screw Gauge: HAM Read main scale marking before thimble (e.g., 6.5 mm), Read circular scale division aligned with main seale (¢.g., 25). f Thickness = Main scale reading + (Circular scale reading * Least count) = 6.5 +25 0.01 = 6.75 mm. Limitations of Measuring Instruments Instrument Range Least Count Measuring Tape Tem to several metres Tam Metre Rule 1mm to lm Imm Vernier Callipers 0.1 mm to 15 em Om Micrometer Screw Gauge 0.01 mm to 2.5 cm 0.01 mm 1.6 Mass Measuring Instruments Physical Balance: Physical balance is an instrument used to measure the mass of an object by comparing it with known standard mas Mass Weight ‘Mass is the quantity of matter in a body. Weight is the force by which the body is, attracted towards the Earth. Tis measured by Physical balance. It is measured by spring balance. Weighing: The mass of an object is found by comparing it with known standard masses. This process is called weighing, Steps for Measurement by Physical Balance: 1. Level the base using levelling screws so the plumb line aligns with the mark. 2. Raise the pans using the knob and ensure the beam is horizontal by adjusting balancing screws Place the object on the left pan. Place known weights on the right pan using forceps. Adjust weights until the pointer is at zero or oscillates equally. The total of standard weights gives the mass of the object. 1.7 Time Measuring Instruments Stopwateh: The duration of time of an event is measured by a stopwatch. 034787376309" Physics 1. Physical Quantities and Measurements Construction: It contains two needles, one for seconds and other for minutes. The dial is divided usually into 30 big divisions cach being further divided into 10 small Timing Devices Type Use and Accuracy divisions. Least Count: Each small division Atainie-clock Mesauies 10758 represents one tenth (1/10) of a second, | Digital stopwatch Measures minutes/seconds, 20.01 s ‘Thus, onc tenth of a second is the least | Analogue stopwatch | Measures minutes/seconds, 20.1 5 count of this stopwatch. Ticker-tape timer Measures 0,02 8 How to Use? While using, a knob Watch/Clock Measures hours/minutes/seconds present on the top of the device is Pendulum clock Measures hours/minutes/seconds pressed. This results in the starting of _ [Radioactive decay clock | Measures age in years the watch, The same knob is again pushed to stop it. After noting the reading, the same knob is again pressed to bring back the needles to the zero position, Digital Stopwatch: Now-a-days, electronic/digital watches are also available which can measure one hundredth part of a second. 1.8 Volume Measuring Instruments Measuring Cylinder: It is a cylinder made of glass or transparent plastic with a scale divided in cubic centimetres (em? or ce) ot millilitres (mL) marked on it. It is used to find the volume of liquids and non-dissolvable solids. How to Measure Liquid Volume? The level of liquids in the cylinder is marked to find the volume. In order to read the volume correctly, the cylinder must be placed on a horizontal surface and the eye shall be kept in level with meniscus of water surface. Meniscus Reading: The meniseus is the top level of the liquid surface. + Concave Surface: Water in the cylinder curves downward and its surface is called concave surface. The reading is taken corresponding to the bottom edge of the surface + Convex Surface: The mercury in the eylinder curves upward, Its surface is called convex surface and the reading is taken corresponding to the top edge. Displacement Can Method: If the body does not fit into the measuring cylinder, then an overflow can or displacement can of wide opening is used. (eee Steps: opening «Place the can on a horizontal table. J + Fill it with water until it overflows from the side opening, — * Tie the solid body with a thread and gently lower it into the can. + Water displaced by the body overflows into a beaker. Measure the collected water using a measuring cylinder. The volume of displaced water = volume of the solid body. 034787376309" Physics 1. Physical Quantities and Measurements 1.9 Errors in Measurements Measurements are never perfect and contain errors that differ from true values. ‘Types of Errors: Usually, there are three types of experimental errors affecting the ‘measurements. (i) Human Errors (ii) Systematic Errors (iii) Random Errors (@ Human Errors Definition: They occur due to personal performance. The limitation of human perception such as the inability to perfectly estimate the position of the pointer on a scale. Reason: Personal errors can arise due to faulty procedure to read the scale. The correct ‘measurement needs to line up your eye right in front of the level. In timing experiments, the reaction time of an individual to start or stop clock also affects the measured value. How to Reduce: Human error can be reduced by ensuring proper training, techniques and procedure to handle the instruments and avoiding environmental distraction or disturbance for proper focusing. The best way is to use automated or digital instruments to reduce the impact of human errors. (ii Systematic Errors Definition: They refer to an effect that influences all measurements of particular measurements equally. It produces a consistence difference in reading Reason: It occurs due to some definite rule. It may occur due to zero ertor of instrument, poor calibration of instrument or incorrect marking. How to Reduce: The effect of this kind of error can be reduced by comparing the instrument with another which is known to be more accurate. Thus, a correction factor can be applied. (ii) Random Errors Definition: It is said to occur when repeated measurements of a quantity give different values under the same conditions. Reason: It is due to some unknown causes which are unpredictable. The experimenter has little orno control over it, Random error arise due to sudden fluctuation or variation in the environmental conditions. For example, changes in temperature, pressure, humidity, voltage, ete. How to Reduce: The effect of random errors can be reduced using several or multiple readings and then taking their average or mean value. Quick Quiz Statement ‘Type of Error ‘Your eye level may move a bit while reading the meniscus. Personal Error ‘Air current may cause the balance to fluctuate. Random Error The balance may not be properly calibrated. Systematic Error ‘Some of the liquid may have evaporated while itis being measured. | Random Error 1.10 Uncertainity in a Measurement Definition: There is no such thing as a perfect measurement. Every measurement, except counting, has some uncertainty due to the instrument used. 034787376309" Physics - Physical Quantities and Measurements Reason: Its reason is the type of instrument being used. Each instrument is calibrated to a certain smallest division (least count), which limits the accuracy of measurement. For example: Ifa line ends between 10.3 em and 10.4 em on a metre rule, the maximum uncertainty is +0.05 cm. This equals half the least count (0.1 em +2). How to Reduce Uncertainty Uncertainty in small measurements (like diameter ofa wire or short time intervals) can be reduced by taking multiple readings and then finding their average. For example: The time of one pendulum oscillation is found by taking time for 30 oscillations and calculating the mean. 1.11 Significant Figures Definition: Significant figures are the accurately known digits and the first doubtful digit in a ‘measurement. Example: Measuring a rod’s length with a ruler (least count | mm): + If length is between 4.6 em and 4.7 em, one student estimates 4.6 em, another 4.7 cm. Digit 4 is certain; 6 or 7 is doubtfal. Rules for Significant Figures: 1, All non-zero digits (1 to 9) are >» Example: In 0.0034 m, the number always significant. of significant figures is 2. > Example: In 123.45 m, the number 4, Trailing zeros (zeros on the right ofa of significant figures is 5. decimal point) are significant. 2. Zeros between non-zero digits are > Example: In 2.40 mm, the number significant. of significant figures is 3. > Example: In $.06 m, the number of 5. Insscientific notation, all digits significant figures is 3. before the exponent are significant. 3. Leading zeros (zeros on the left of > Example: In 3.50 x 10m, the the first non-zero digit) are not number of significant figures is 3. significant. uick Quid 12510 m = 3 significant figures, (b) 12.5 em — 3, (c) 0.125 m— 3. (d) 0.000125 km — 3. 1.12 Precision and Accuracy Precision: Precision of a measurement refers to how close together a group of measurements actually are to each other (smaller least count = more precise). Accuracy: Accuracy of a measurement refers how close the measured value is to some accepted or true value. Praca nat accurate ecarata nat pre ‘ecaraie and pecie Faisal Dogar 034787376309" Physics - Physical Quantities and Measurements Aclassic illustration is helpful to distinguish the two concepts. Consider a target or bullseye hit by arrows in. 1. To be precise, arrows must hit near each other (Fig. a) 2. To be accurate, arrows must hit near the bullseye (Fig. b). 3. Consistently hitting near the centre of the bullseye indicates both precision and accuracy (Fig. c). Factors Influencing Precision and Accuracy Precision is determined by the instrument used for measurement, while accuracy depends on how well the instrument is calibrated. Accuracy relies on intact fractional uncertainty, isa relative measurement, and requires more precise instruments for smaller physical quantities. The accuracy of measurement is reflected by the number of significant figures, with a larger number indicating higher accuracy. 1.13 Rounding off the digits Round to the nearest value based on significant figures. Rules: + If the last digit is more than 5, the retained digit is increased by one 1 + If the last digit is less than 5, it is retained as such. + Ifthe last digit is 5: © Odd number before 5: Increase by 1. o Even number before 5: Retain as is. Examples: i, 2.512 * 10° mto 2 significant figures: 2.5 * 10° m ii, 3.4567 * 10'kg to 3 significant figures: 3.46 * 10° kg ji, 4.45 « 10? m to 2 significant figures: 4.4 = 10? m (even number before 5) iv. 4.55% 10? mto 2 significant figures: 4.6 * 10? m (odd number before 5) Exercise Solution [Al Multiple Choice Questions Statement a b c a 1. Instrument suitable for | metre rule [measuring | Vernier micrometre measuring thickness of a few tape Callipers serew gauge sheets of cardboard 1.2. One femtometre equals | 10m 10m 10m 10m 13. Light yearisaunit of | light time distance speed 14, Non-physical quantity | distance | density colour ‘temperature 034787376309" Physics 1. Physical Quantities and Measurements 1.5. Precaution when using a | check zero | look below | take multiple | align eye with measuring cylinder error meniscus —_| readings meniscus 1.6, Unit for daily water mnillilitne | tre Kilogram cubic metre consumption 17. Displacement can Tiquid mass | solid mass | Tiquid volume | solid volume measures LB, Difference between 202em | 2.0em 2em 2.021 em 12.321 em and 10.3 cm 1.9. Correct Vernier Callipers [34cm [3.475em | 3.47em reading 1.10. Thickness of a book 610m | 1x10 12x10 m sheet TAT. Vernier constant ifmain [0.5mm | 0.1mm 0.05 mm scale division = 0.5 mm [BL Short Answer Questions 1.1. Can a non-physical quantity be measured? If yes, then how? ‘Yes, we can measure non-physical quantities by using some pre-determined criteria, indices or through survey techniques. 1.2, What is measurement? Name its two parts. ‘A measurement is a process of comparison of an unknown quantity with a widely accepted standard quantity. © Its wo parts are a number and a unit, 1.3. Why do we need a standard unit for measurements? In the early days people used to measure length using hand or arm, foot or steps. This. ‘measurement may result in confusion as the measurement of different people may differ from each other because of different sizes of their hands, arms or steps. To avoid such confusion, there is a need ofa standard so that measurement by any person may result the same. 1.4, Write the name of 3 base quantities and 3 derived quantities. = Base: Length, Mass, Time. = Derived: Speed, Area, Volume. 1.5. Which SI unit will you use to express the height of your desk? Metre (1). 1.6, Write the name and symbols of all SI base units. Metre (m), Kilogram (kg), Second (s), Ampere (A), Kelvin (K), Candela (cd), Mole (mol). 034787376309" Physics - Physical Quantities and Measurements 1.7. Why prefix is used? Name three sub-multiples and three multiple prefixes with their symbols, Prefixes are used to express very large or very small value conveniently. Sub-multiples: These are prefixes that represent negative powers of 10, such as milli (m, 107), micro (11, 107°), nano (n, 10°). Multiples: These are prefixes that represent positive powers of 10, such as kilo (k, 10°), mega (M, 10°), giga (G, 10°). 1.8, What is meant by: (a) 5 pm: 5 picometres (5«107? m). (b) 15 ns: 15 nanoseconds (15*10™ s). (c) 6 um: 6 micrometres (6* 10° m). (d) 5 fs: 5 femtoseconds (5*10"'5 s). 1.9. (a) Purpose of Vernier Calipers? (b) Two main parts? (c) How is least count found? (d) Zero error? (a) It is an instrument used to measure small lengths down to 1/10th of a millimetre. It can be used to measure the thickness, diameter, width or depth of an object. (b) Main scale, Vernier scale. (c) Usually, the least count is found by dividing the length of one small division on main scale by the total number of divisions on the Vernier scale which is again | mm/10= 0.1 mm. (d) If on joining the jaws A and B, the zeros of the main scale and Vernier scale do not exactly coincide with each other then there is an error in the instrument called zero error. 1.10, State least count and length from figure. Least count: 0.1 mm. Length: 2.6 + (0.1 mm = 4) = 2.6+0.4 mm = 3.0 mm, 1.11. Correct reading (A, B, C) and why? Reading B (60 cm) is correct. The eye must align vertically to avoid parallax error. [G Constructed Response Questions 1.1. In what unit will you express each of the following? (a) Thickness of a five-rupee coin: mm. (b) Length of a book: em (c) Length of football field: m (d) Distance between cities: km (e) Mass of five-rupee coin: g (f) Mass of school bag: kg (g) Duration of class period: min (h) Volume of petrol: L (i) Time to boil milk: min 1.2. Why might a standard system of measurement be helpful to a tailor? A standard system ensures that all measurements are uniform and comparable, A tailor using standard units (for example, centimeters or inches) can cut cloth accurately so that garments fit correctly and consistently. 034787376309" Physics 1. Physical Quantities and Measurements 1.4. Measure pencil diameter using metre scale. Although a metre scale has a larger least count (typically 1 mm), the pencil’s diameter ean be measured by aligning the pencil carefully along the scale and then estimating the fractional part of the smallest division to achieve a more precise reading 1.5, Measure pencil if metre scale’s end is worn. ‘The pencil should be placed on the intact portion of the scale (.e., where the markings are clear) so that the measurement starts from a well-defined point rather than the worn-out end. 1.6. Why place object close to metre scale? Placing the object close to the scale minimizes parallax error and ensures that the observer's line of sight is perpendicular to the scale, thereby increasing the accuracy of the measurement. 1.7. Why standard unit is needed? A standard unit is needed so that measurements are consistent and clear. It helps everyone, from scientists to engineers, share and understand measurements without any confusion. 1.8. Natural time standards. Day-night cycle, lunar phases, pendulum oscillations. 1.9. Meniscus hard to locate in wide vessel? Ina wider vessel, the curvature (meniscus) of the liquid is less pronounced, making it difficult to determine the exact level for an accurate reading. 1.10. Instruments for measuring: (i) Internal diameter of test tube: Vernier Calli (ii) Depth of beaker: Tail of Vernier Callipers. Comprehensive Questions Similarities between Vernier Callipers and Micrometre Screw Gauge 1. Both measure small lengths with precision. 2. Both havea main scale and a sliding scale (Vernier/cireular). 3. Both require zero-error correction. Differences: Vernier Callipers Micrometre Screw Gauge Least count = 0.1 mm Least count = 0.01 mm Measures up to 15 cm ‘Measures up to 2.5 em Uses jaws for extemal/internal dimensions | Uses spindle and anvil for thickness IE) Numerical Problems Numerical 1; Number of Seconds in a Day, Week, and Month Problem Statement: Calculate the number of seconds in (a) a day, (b) a week, and (c) a month (assume 30 days). Solution: 1. Fora day: There are 24 hours in a day. Each hour has 60 minutes and each minute has 60 seconds. Faisal Dogar 03478737630ical Quantities and Measurements So, seconds in a day = 24 * 60 x 60 4 « 3600 = 86,400 seconds This can be written as 86.4 kilo seconds (ks) of in scientific notation as 8.64 * 10" s. 2. For a week: ‘Aweek has 7 days. Seconds in a week = 7 x (seconds in a day) * 86,400 = 604,800 seconds This equals 604.8 ks or 6.048 x 10° s in scientific notation, 3. For a month (30 days): Seconds in a month = 30 * 86,400 592,000 seconds, This equals 2.592 mega seconds (Ms) or 2.592 * 10°. ‘Numerical 3: Addition/Subtraction in Scientific Notation Problem Statement: (a) Calculate 4 « 10*kg + 3 « 10% kg (b) Calculate 5.4 x 10 m—3.2 x 10m Solution: (a) Addition: 1. Write both numbers with the same power of 10. 4x 10" kg is already in 10~ form. 3 x 10 kg can be rewritten as 0.3 x 10“ kg. 2. Now add: 4.0 « 10 kg + 0.3 x 10 kg = (4.0 + 0.3) « 10 kg = 4.3 * 10 kg, () Subtraction: 1. Write both numbers with the same power of 10. 5.4 «10 mis in 10°§ form, 3.2 « 10 m can be rewritten as 32.0 x 10-°m. 2, Now subtract: 5.4 « 10-°m — 32.0 x 10-* m= (5.4 — 32.0) x 10° m = -26.6 x 10° m, 3. Express in standard scientific notation: ~26.6 * 10° m = -2,66 « 10 m. ‘Numerical 4: Multiplication/Division in Scientific Notation Problem Statement: (a) Calculate (5 * 10* m) x (3 * 10? m) (b) Calculate S282 Solution: (a) Multiplication: 1. Multiply the coefficients: 5 x 3 = 15. 2. Add the exponents: 10* x 10 = 104+ @) = 102. 3. Thus, 15 « 10? m?, 4, Convert 15 * 10° to standard scientific notation: 15 = 1.5 * 10!, so 1.5 * 10! 10?= 1.5% 10° m®, (b) Division: 1. Divide the coefficients: 6 + 2, Subtract the exponents: 108-4 = 10% 034787376309" Physics - Physical Quantities and Measurements 3. Therefore, the result is 2 x 10*kg/m®> = 2x10" kgm. ‘Numerical 5: Calculation with Conversion Problem Statement: Calculate PA2AO40 Solution: Convert 4:0 km to meters: L km = 1000 m, so 4.0 km = 4.0 1000 = 4.0 10! m, Multiply ( 10 kg) by (4.0 x 10° m): Multiply coefficients: 3 x 4.0 = 12.0. Add exponents: 10? x 10° = 107*3 = 10° Result: 12.0 x 10% kgm = 1.2 x 10° kgm (after adjusting to standard form), Divide by (5 * 107 Divide coefficients: 1.2 +5 =0.24. Subtract exponents: 10° 10? = 106? = 108 Result: 0,24 « 10*kg m s*=2.4 * 10° kg ms (after adjusting the coefficient). ‘Numerical Problems Numerical 1.8: Expressing with Correct Prefixes Problem Statement: Write the following quantities using correct prefixes: (a) 5.0 « 10 em, (b) 580 * 10? g, and (c) 45 « 10s. Solution: 1. For (a) 5.0 > 10% em: + Convert cm to meters: | cm = 107 m. *So, 5.0 « 104 cm= 5.0 « 10* x 10 m= 5.0 « 10? m. *Convert meters to kilometers: 1 km = 10° m, *So, 5.0 10? m= 0.5 km. + Final Answer: 0.5 km (kilometers). 2. For (b) 580 x 10° gs Convert g to kg: | g= 10 kg. + So, 580 x 10? g = 580 x 10? x 10> kg = 580 x 10 kg = $8 kg. + Final Answer: 58 kg (no prefix needed as kg is already a standard unit). 3. For (6) 45 * 104 + Convert into seconds using appropriate prefixes. 245 x 10%s=45 x 10s. * The prefix for 10° is milli (m). + Final Answer: 4.5 ms (milliseconds). Numerical 9: Light Year Calculation Problem Statement: Calculate the distance covered by light in one year using a speed of 3.0 % 10* m/s and time = 1 year =3.16 * 10" s. Solution: Use the formula: Distance = Speed x Time. Faisal Dogar 034787376309" Physics ical Quantities and Measurements ‘Substitute the values: Distance = (3.0 x 10* m/s) x (3.16 * 10" s). “Multiply the coefficients: 3.0 x 3.16 = 9.48 (approximately). ‘Add the exponents: 10° x 107= 108*7 = 10". ‘Thus, Distance ~ 9.48 = 10" m, which is commonly rounded to 9.46 * 10" m. Numerical 10; Density Conversion Problem Statement: Express the density of mercury given as 13.6 g/em’ in kg/m’ Solution: Recall the conversion factors: 1 g=0.001 kg (0.01 my = 1 x 10 m* Therefore, | gicm’ = (0.001 kg)/ (1 10° m') = 1000 kim’. Now, convert 13,6 gem? Density = 13.6 * 1000 kg/m? = 13,600 kg/m* In scientific notation, 13,600 kg/m? = 1.36 x 10* kg/m’. For Your Information and Do You Know Notes Kilogram as a Base Unit (Page 10) Do You Know? ‘The kilogram is the only base unit that has a prefix. Negative Exponents in Scientific Notation (Page 11) For Your Information The negative exponents have values less than one. For example, 1 x 107 = 0.01 Parallax Error in Measurements (Page 12) For Your Information Parallax error is due to incorrect position of | eye when taking measurements. It can be avoided by keeping eye perpendicular to the scale reading. Precision of Digital Balances (Page 16) For Your Information ‘The most precise balance is the digital electronic balance. It can measure mass of the order of 0.1 mg. Historical and Non-SI Volume Measurements (Page 18) Do You Know? Ancient Chinese used to estimate the volume of grains by sounding their containing vessels. Despite the use of SI in most countries, the old measure is still in use, such as printers type is measured in point. One point is 1/72 of an inch equivalent to 0.35 mm. Universality of Base Unit Symbols (Page 18) For Your Information The symbol of the base units are universal independent of the language used in the written text. Precision of Electronic Timers (Page 23) Do You Know? An Electronic timer can measure time intervals as short as one-ten thousan (110,000) of a second. 03478737630