INTRODUCTION

Non-ruminants animals include animal that posses single stomach, there by making their

digestive system a simple type as against the ruminants complex stomach that comprises of 4

chamber stomach. Non- ruminants animal are also refer to as monogastric. They include rabbit,

swine, and poultry. Animals such as rabbit, donkeys, horses and camel, exhibit some features of

ruminants by consuming large quantity of forage, herboring bacteria for fermentation and by

producing vitamin B in the caecum. These animals are often refers to as pseudo-ruminats. Due

to the simple nature of their digestive tract and because of the absence of large population of

micro-organisms in their stomach, non-ruminants animals are given feed that are relatively low

in fibre materials.

Non-ruminants animals are good source of meat and eggs. They convert cheap feeding stuff in to

a product at short intervals, making them good source of income to the farmer, for this reason

non-ruminants animals have been reared in large scales in farm enterprise.

Poultry production covers all aspect of economical rearing of poultry birds, for making maximun

returns (profit).

Poultry

INTRODUCTION

Poultry is the term used to describe group of birds kept for meat and egg (e.g chicken) or reared

or hunted for a useful purpose (e.g pheasants). Birds are feathered animals. The group of birds

called poultry include the following: Domestic chicken (fowls), Turkey, Guinea fowls, Duck and

Geese (also called water fowls), Quails, Pheasants, Ostriches,

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Pigeons and Doves. The Poultry industry is an emerging agri-business and has established its

position as the fastest growing segment in the agricultural sector in Nigeria. With increased

acceptance of chicken, egg and meat, the demand for these products is ever increasing. The

Nigerian poultry industry is estimated at ₦80 billion ($600 million) and is comprised of

approximately 165 million birds, which produced 650,000 MT of eggs and 290,000 MT of

poultry meat in 2013. From a market size perspective, Nigeria’s egg production is the largest in

Africa (South Africa is the next largest at 540,000 MT of eggs) and it has the 2nd largest chicken

population after South Africa’s 200 million birds.

Poultry sector has tremendous employment potential and would go a long way in reducing

unemployment in Nigeria.

History of Poultry Production in Nigeria

The poultry sub-sector is the most commercialised (capitalised) of all the sub-sectors of the

Nigerian agriculture. The types of poultry that are commonly reared in Nigeria are chickens,

ducks, guinea fowls, turkeys, pigeons and more recently ostriches. Those that are of commercial

or economic importance given the trade in poultry, however, are chicken, guinea fowls and

turkeys, amongst which the chickens predominate. The Poultry industry in Nigeria can be

divided into three main sections: small, medium and large-scale production with 25% being

provided by commercial farms, 15% semi-commercial and 60% from backyard. Each of these

systems is associated with features of scale, stock, husbandry and productivity.

Since the onset of the poultry industry in 1956, commercial production in Nigeria has passed

through various stages of development- each with its peculiar problems. In the late 1950s, the

major problem was convincing the general population that keeping poultry and egg were

essential for dietary and economic reasons because sociological attachments of people from egg

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and broiler production. During the 1960s, the problem shifted away from sociological beliefs to

management and disease. Through government intervention and encouragement, poultry

production became a hobby, farmers are becoming financially rewarded. Proper management of

larger enterprise therefore became a problem along with outbreaks of diseases unknown to

producers. The 1970 decade presented problems of production, management, disease and

marketing. Despite these problems, the rapid expansion of poultry industry is a sign that poultry

production has a

promising future in this country.

The two major events that have been recorded in the industry has been the ban on importation of

frozen poultry product in 2003 which deepened the market for poultry product and Avian

Influenza of 2007 which affected the industry negatively. The ban has not only created jobs in

the industry but also encouraged investment in poultry production. There are few, if any social or

religious stigmas attached to the use of poultry meat and egg in human diet. Hence demand is

high for live birds and eggs either for consumption or as a gift during festivities.

Prospects and Problems of Poultry Production in Nigeria

The livestock industry sub-sector is an important component of the Nigerian Agricultural

Economy; its importance derives from the fact that it is one of the key contributors to national

economy. The industry has the potential of increasing the National Gross Domestic Product

through:

1. Poultry meat production: boiler production for meat and fast food joints.

2. Poultry egg production: layers production for industries and retail egg sellers.

3. Breeding and hatching of chicks, poults, keets, ducklings etc.

4. Poultry equipment manufacturing.

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5. Processing and marketing of poultry products.

6. Feed production.

7. Production of drugs and vaccines.

However, some of the highlighted problems still being faced are:

1. Scarcity and high cost of day-old chicks (DOC), poults, ducklings etc. The cost of purchase of

DOC is always very high especially when the festive period is on sight and this eventually affect

the total cost of production.

2. Poor quality of birds available for meat and egg production. This is also a major problem

faced by the poultry industry because our indigenous breeds have not been genetically improved

upon to grow rapidly especially for the meat type to meet the population increase requirement.

Indigenous breeds are also broody in nature

and this limit the numbers of eggs laid.

3. Availability and high cost of poor quality feeds. Feed produced for poultry industry comes

from combinations of various ingredients which are planted especially in the northern part of the

country. Due to the unrest in this part of the country, the production of these crops has reduced

drastically which indirectly increased the total cost of production of the feed. Also there is

competition between man and poultry industry for grain which makes 70% of the ingredient in

formulating feed for poultry, thus

resulting in high cost of the feed.

4. Inadequate managerial and technical know-how. The producers of poultry require regular

training especially in the management and feed formulation to be able to meet the global trend in

production. The use of growth promoter and enzymes usage,

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vaccination, medication and artificial insemination also require adequate knowledge by the

producer.

5. Inadequacy of credit facility to poultry farmers. Farmer require huge collateral to get loans

from bank and government policy in relation to subsidy is not always available to practicing

poultry farmers

6. Poor marketing, distribution and pricing of poultry products.

7. Poor poultry health care services.

8. Unsuitable poultry houses and poor maintenance of houses.

Housing

The main reason to provide housing for birds is to provide protection from the weather. Housing

also provides protection from predators, reduces the spread of pathogens and provides protection

from vandalism. Additionally, housing enables the separation of birds according to age for easy

management. In the case of small flocks, simple structures may be built using locally available

material. For commercial production, turkeys are raised under intensive conditions similar to

those of broiler chickens.

Environmental factors to be considered in building a poultry house

1-Open-sided poultry houses are suitable for tropical climates where the weather is hot.

2-The open sides should be covered with boards, tarpaulins or mats that can easily be rolled

away during hot weather and covered during cold weather.

3-In hot climates, the long axis of the house should run from east to west and the sides should

face north-south. This will prevent sunlight from entering the house.

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4-The roof can be made from corrugated metal, tin, flattened oil drums, thatch or tiles. Thatch

roofs will make the house cooler in hot weather. But it should be replaced if infected by tick or

when it get old (after 3 years). The roof made of metals should be painted with white colour to

relflect 70% of the sun’s heat, to avoid very high temperature inside.

5- The dwarf walls should be about 30cm high to enusre maximum ventilation. They can be

made from blocks, wood or zinc.

6- The width of the house should not exceed 8 meters when only natural ventilation is used (i.e

when no fans are installed). Excedding this will prevent proper airflow which will lead to heat

stress. The length depends on the number of chickens and the available building space.

7-The height of the house from the floor to roof should not be less than 2 meters anywhere to

ensure better air quality and easy accessible with out stopping.

8- Impact of legislation i.e codex Almentarious practice, Standard Organization of Nigeria

(SON) etc.

9- Minimal risk i.e health of stock, fire, pulluting the sorroundings etc

10- Harmony with the sorrounding environment.

Important considerations in poultry house construction

1- The dwarf walls should be about 30cm hight to ensure maximum ventilation. They can be

made from blocks, wood or zinc.

2- Large poultry houses should have an entrance room and wash their hands before attending to

the birds. Disinfection take place here.

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3- Place a foot dip in front of the entrance door so that workers can dip their feet in to a

disinfectant solution before entering the pen. E.g phenol.

4- In addition to providing a good environment, the housing should offer protection from

predators and theft as well as exclusion of rodents and birds. These latter to not only carry

disease, but they can consume enough feed to make a significant economic difference.

5- The foundation should be 0.5m depth

6- The floor and walls should be cemented and free from cracks.

Design adequate structure and space for a known number of birds

▪ The width of the house to be 6 meters.

▪ The length of the house to be 22 meters.

▪ The height of the dwarf wall to be 0.5 meters.

▪ The rest of the wall should be made of wire, and not less than 1.5 meters in height.

▪ There should be a ridge space to accommodate proper ventilation.

The recommended space requirement of 3 birds per square meter is provided to accommodate

the total number of 400 laying birds.

Type of house: Poultry houses can be open-sided (rely on natural ventilation) or

environmentally controlled (temperature and ventilation are controlled). Open-sided houses are

cheaper to construct and maintain than environmental houses.

Various equipments and facilities required in an ideal non-ruminants housing

The following equipment may be needed for your poultry farm and their uses;

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 • Feeders

• Drinkers

• Perches

• Nests

• Crates

• Lightening system

• Waste disposal system

• Incubators

• Heaters and brooders

• Egg tray

• Cages and coops

• Brooms

• Shovel

• Brooms

• Wheel barrow e.t.c

Feeds and Feedings in Poultry Production

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Poultry feeding is a major item of cost in poultry production. It is estimated to account for

between 60 to 80 per cent of the total cost of producing eggs and poultry meat. Adequate

nutrition is essential in profitable chicken production enterprises. When chickens are provided

with high quality feed at the required quantity, it promotes body maintenance, growth, improves

egg production, and it gives energy, good health and vigour.Maintenance of the body is the first

consideration in good feeding. Under normal conditions, production follows after the body needs

are supplied. Considerable feed is required to build and maintain the body to the point of

production. Actual production of eggs requires but a comparatively small amount of food in

addition. Profit comes from growth or production of meat or eggs. About three-fourth of the total

feed consumed is used for maintenance when a fowl is in laying condition.

Feedstuff is synonymous with feed, food or fodder although it is broader, covering all materials

included in the diet because of their nutritional properties. It includes natural feeds of animal

origin, synthetic and other pure nutrients which are added in the natural feeds.

Feed is a mixture of feedstuff blended/processed in a form which is acceptable to animals. It is

merely the carrier of nutrient and potential energy in a ration.

Supplement is a feed/feed mixture used with another feed to improve the nutritive balance of

total ration and it is intended to be fed undiluted as a supplement to other feeds. It could be:

• Offered free choice with other parts of the rations separately available

• Further diluted and mixed to produce a complete feed.

A ration is an allowance of feed given to an animal over a specified period of time, e.g. daily

ration or weekly ration. It should furnish the entire nutrient required in adequate amount.

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Diet connotes a feed which is offered to an animal over a non-specified period of time. It is

formulated for special purposes– experimentation, special physiological conditions (sick,

production); a ration is part of a diet.

Dry matter is made up of inorganic and organic substances. The inorganic matter is composed

of minerals or ash. The organic substances consist of combustible material, such as sugar, starch,

fat, protein and fiber.

Ash is an inorganic constituent present in small quantities in all feeds and in all parts of the

body. It is a non combustible material.

Nitrogen free extract is made up mostly of starches and sugars. It is used by the body for fuel

which furnishes energy and heat.

Protein-energy ratio means the amount of protein in the feed or group of feeds as compared

with the combined carbohydrates and fat. When we say a ration has a protein – energy ratio of 1

to 5, we mean that it contains one part of protein to every five parts of carbohydrates and fat.

Classification of Feed Ingredients

In discussing the many ingredients which may be useful in poultry diets/rations, it seems logical

to group them on the basis of the nutrients which they contain. The classification used here will

be (1) carbohydrates, (2) protein, (3) fats, (4) mineral, (5) vitamin and (6)

water.

1 -Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates which are the major source of energy in poultry diets include:

The grains – maize, guinea corn, millet, wheat and broken rice. Cereal by-products – maize bran

or offal, wheat bran or offal, rice bran or offal and guinea-corn offal. Starch roots and tubers –

cassava flour, cassava chips and sweet potato.The dietary inclusion of 30–60% of these energy

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sources into the poultry diet is recommended with the upper limits mainly for young growing

animals.

2 -Protein

Commonly used, protein feed ingredients for poultry ration formulation and feeding includes the

following:

• Vegetable/plant sources such as groundnut cake, soyabean cake, full-fat soybean, cotton seed

cake and palm kernel cake.

• Animal protein sources such as fishmeal, meat and bone meal, blood meal.

3 -Fats

Considerable quantities of fats are used in poultry feeding, primarily as potent source of energy.

Fats normally contain two to three times as much metabolizable energy per unit of weight as

grains. Major sources available are vegetable oil (palm oil, groundnut oil, soybean oil), hard fat,

soft fat and hydrolyzed animal fat.The usual practical limit for adding fats is 3 to 5 per cent of

the diet, although with special technique pelleted diets may contain as high as 7 or 8 per cent

added fat. Rations very high in fat tend to cake and do not flow readily.

4 -Minerals

Sources of the major minerals for poultry rations include bone meal, limestone, oyster shell, di-

calcium phosphate, de-fluorinated phosphate, common salt and trace mineral premixes.

5 -Vitamins

The vitamins are commercially available in pure form or as vitamin concentrate at relatively low

cost. They can be added to a poultry feed by means of a premix which supplies specified

amounts of each vitamin.Certain ingredients available for poultry feeding are potent sources of

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vitamins. These include yeast, fat solubles, distillers’ solubles, liver meal, alfalfa meal and milk

by-products. All the fat soluble vitamins (A,D, E, and K) are supplied by fats and oils.

6- Water

Some water is available in the feed itself (metabolic water), but the bulk of it must be separately

provided in drinking cans. Cool, clean water should be provided at all times. The water should be

free from the excess salt which might have a laxative effect.

Anti Nutritional Factors

The nutrient potentials of some ingredients are limited by the presence of toxins, notable

examples of which is guinea corn containing tannin, and cotton seed containing gossypol. Diets

containing cotton seed cake therefore require supplementation with ferrous sulphate, apart from

lysine, for balancing amino acids. Groundnut can develop Aspergillus flavus which produces

aflatoxin that damages the liver. Soya beans contain trypsin inhibitor a growth depressant, meals

produced from unprocessed beans should not be fed to poultry of the adverse effects.

Forms of Feeds

The different kinds of chicken feeds are all available as commercially or home manufactured

feeds. Commercial feeds in most cases will comein the form of a dry mixture called mash and

sometimes pellets or crumbles. Whether commercial or home-mixed, feeds must match the

different protein needs of chicks, grower, broiler and layers. It is the protein content which

distinguishes what feed should be given to these different ages and types of chicken. Among the

ways of feeding chickens are:

1. The all mash system: It is the use of a complete ground feed. It is well adapted to use with the

mechanical feeding system.

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a) Wet Mash – Chicken usually eat more wet mash than dry because they enjoy its consistency.

However, wet mashes, particularly in hot weather, go bad very quickly, hence only an amount

which will be consumed within two hours should be fed.

b) Dry mash – when it is well balanced and stored properly, dry mash usually is the best way of

feeding confined chickens. It is commercially sold with these designations:

• Chick mash – contains 20 per cent protein

• Grower mash – contains 16 – 17 per cent protein

• Broiler mash – feed contain 20 – 23 per cent protein

• Layer mash – contains 15 – 17 per cent protein.

2. Pellets or Crumbles: Commercial mixtures in pellet or crumble forms are excellent but

usually cost more than mash. Chickens may produce slightly better with the pelleted/crumble

forms. Pellet and crumble feeds reduce feed waste and the chickens may eat them a little better.

3. Whole Grain: Feed is often used for whole grain, either by itself or mixed with other

nutrients. Sometimes whole grain is scattered in the litter. The whole grain method of feeding is

not recommended. When fed in with other ingredients, the grain is eaten first, resulting in

improper diets; when scattered, much is contaminated or lost.

4. The cafeteria system allows the birds to balance their own rations. Grain is fed in one feeder

and a high (26%) protein supplement is fed in another feeder. Feed is kept in feeders at all times.

Older birds may tend to eat too much grain and not enough protein supplements when this

system is used.

Tips to Achieving a High Feed Efficiency

1. Adequate feeding space should be provided at all times, ensuring that about 75% of the birds

can feed at the same time.

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2. Feeders should be well designed with lips to prevent feed wastage.

3. Feeders should be filled to not more than ½ full capacity.

4. Feeders should be properly hung, ensuring that the level of feeders correspond to the back of

the chicken and activate the feed in the feeders regularly with the hands.

5. To avoid feed contamination and wastage, rat population should be constantly kept low.

6. Attendants should minimize feed spillage during the process of serving feed to reduce

wastage.

7. Do not store feeds for too long or in damp places, otherwise they can become mouldy. If there

is any need to change from one type of feed to another it should be done gradually because

chickens respond adversely to an abrupt switch over from one type of feed to another. This can

be done spanning a period of about four days. The change can be effected by gradually

increasing the quantity of the new feed to be changed to while there is corresponding decrease in

the quantity of the feed currently in.

Important Considerations in Feed Formulation

Among such factors to be considered in making good feed formulation are:

1- Acceptability to the birds: The ration being formulated has to be palatable enough to

stimulate intake by the birds. Any feed refuse by the bird is worthless, since the feed has to be

consumed by birds to serve its purpose.

2- Digestibility: The nutrients in the feed have to be digested and released into the

gastrointestinal tract to be utilized by the animals. For instance, rations with high fiber content

cannot be tolerated by poultry.

3 -Cost: The requirement of the birds can be met through several combinations of feed

ingredients. However, when the costs of these ingredients are considered, there can only be one

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least-cost formulation. The least cost ration should ensure that the requirements of the animal are

met and the desired objectives are achieved.

4- Presence of Anti-nutritional Factors and Toxins: This affects the digestion of some

nutrients by making them unavailable to the birds. e.g. antitrypsin factor in soybean, meal. Some

feed ingredients may also contain toxic substances which may be detrimental to the animal when

given in excessive amounts,

Methods of Formulating Feed: There are several methods of formulating rations; all of them

have the same objectives of providing the required balanced nutrients at the least possible

cost. Some of these methods are:

1- Trial and Error Method: This is the most popular method of formulating rations for poultry.

As the name implies, the formulation is manipulated until the nutrient requirements of the birds

arrived at. Trial-and error method can be done manually on paper or with the aid of a computer

using programme like spreadsheet e.g. Excel, Lotus123, and Quattro pro. This method makes

possible the formulation of a ration that meets all the nutrient requirements of the birds. The

limitation of this method is that; it is laborious and takes more time before one will arrive at a

fairly satisfactory result.

2- Pearson Method: The Pearson square or box method of balancing rations is a simple

procedure that has been used for many years. It is of greatest value when only two ingredients

are to be mixed.

In taking a close look at the square, several numbers are in and around the square. Probably one

of the more important numbers is the number that appears in the middle of the square. This

number represents the nutritional requirement of an animal for a specific nutrient. It may be

crude protein or TDN, amino acids, minerals or vitamins.

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3- Substitution Method: A second method of ration balancing may simply be termed

substitution method. In this method, a ration is estimated, and the nutrient content calculated.

These results are then compared to the nutrient needs of the animal for which the ration is being

balanced. Deficiencies are corrected by changing proportions of feeds in the rations or by

substituting or adding ingredients. Knowledge of animal nutrient requirements, feeds available

and their nutrient composition are still necessary.

4- Linear Programming (LP): This is the common method of Least Cost Feed Formulation.

This method was first developed in 1947 by G.B. Dantzig to solve some U.S. Air Force planning

problems but now it is widely used in all types of fields. This is a method of determining the

least-cost combination of ingredients using a series of mathematical equations

Example 1: Formulate a finishing diet containing 80% TDN on a DM basis. The feeds to be

used are roughage (60% TDN on a DM basis) and a concentrate mix containing 83% TDN on a

DM basis.

Place the percent TDN desired in the combination of the two feeds in the center of a square and

the percent TDN content of each feed at the left corners as shown in the figure below.

Subtract diagonally across the square, the smaller number from the larger without regard for the

sign and record the difference at the right corners.

The parts of each feed can be expressed as a % of the total.

3 part roughage x 100 = 13% Roughage

23 parts Total

20 part concentrate x 100 = 87% Roughage

23 parts Total

Double Pearson's Square Example

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Example 2: Suppose we want a final mix with 16% CP and 72% TDN.

We have corn silage with 9% and 68%, concentrate with 24% and 79%,

and alfalfa hay with 20% and 68% CP and TDN, respectively.

The ration would contain 77.9% Mix 1 and 22.1% Mix 2. Corn Silage was in both squares or

mixes, so there are two calculations needed to determine the total amount of corn silage and only

one calculation each to determine the amounts of Concentrate and Alfalfa Hay. Calculations for

individual ingredients are shown in the table below.

Example 3. Grain mix A is 40% corn and 60% soybean hulls (SBH), whereas grain mix B is

50% dried distillers grains (DDG) and 50% cottonseed hulls (CSH). The energy requirement

being balanced for is 1.44 Mcal/d. The energy contents of the feeds are listed in the table

below.

Feed Energy (Mcal/kg)

Corn 2.01

Soyabean hull 1.37

Dried distiller grains 1.97

Cottonseed hulls 0.48

,,

First, treat grain mixes A and B as the two feeds to use in the Pearson’s

Square. This means you must calculate the amount of energy (Mcal/kg)

available in each mix. These are the steps:

1. Grain mix A

a. 40% corn at 2.01 Mcal/kg, so 2.01 x (40 ÷ 100) = 0.80

Mcal/kg

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b. 60% SBH at 1.37 Mcal/kg, so 1.37 x (60 ÷ 100) = 0.82

Mcal/kg

c. 0.80 + 0.82 = 1.62 Mcal/kg

2. Grain mix B

a. 50% DDG at 1.97 Mcal/kg, so 1.97 x (50 ÷ 100) = 0.98

b. 50% CSH at 0.48 Mcal/kg, so 0.48 x (50 ÷ 100) = 0.24

c. 0.98 + 0.24 = 1.22 Mcal/kg

Second, make sure the energy requirement (1.44 Mcal/d) falls within the

range of the energy content of each grain mix (1.22 to 1.62 Mcal/kg);

Third, set up the Pearson’s Square as in Figure below.

Grain Mix A 0.22 part grain Mix A

(1.62 Mcal/kg)

1.44 Mcal/d

Grain mix B 0.18 parts grain mix B

(1.22 Mcal/kg) 0.4 total parts

Using Pearson's Square to formulate rations with more than two

ingredients.

Pearson’s Square calculations:

1. Subtract across the diagonal:

a. 1.44 – 1.22 = 0.22 parts grain mix A

b. 1.44 - 1.62 = 0.18 parts grain mix B

2. Sum the parts:

a. 0.22 parts grain mix A + 0.18 parts grain mix B = 0.40

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total parts

3. Divide each part by the total to calculate the percent of each feed to include. This step varies

from the first example, because more than two ingredients are being used. Before dividing,

multiply the parts of each grain mix by the proportions of each ingredient in the mix

(this should sum o the total parts). The total ration will be 55% grain mix A (40% corn and 60%

SBH) and 45% grain mix B (50% DDG and 50% CSH).:

a. 0.22 x (40 ÷ 100) = 0.09 parts corn

b. 0.22 x (60 ÷ 100) = 0.13 parts SBH

c. 0.18 x (50 ÷ 100) = 0.09 parts DDG

d. 0.18 x (50 ÷ 100) = 0.09 parts CSH

4. For grain mix A:0.09 parts corn ÷ 0.4 total parts = 0.225

0.13 parts SBH ÷ 0.4 total parts = 0.325

5. For grain mix B: 0.09 parts DDG ÷ 0.4 total parts = 0.225

0.09 parts CSH ÷ 0.4 total parts = 0.225

Finally, go back and check the math as follows:

0.225% corn x 2.01 Mcal/kg = 0.45 Mcal/d

0.325% SBH x 1.37 Mcal/kg = 0.44 Mcal/d

0.225% DDG x 1.97 Mcal/kg = 0.44 Mcal/d

0.225% CSH x 0.48 Mcal/kg = 0.11 Mcal/d

0.45 + 0.44 + 0.44 + 0.11 = 1.44 Mcal/d

Merits of Formulated Rations - Using Computer

1. Least cost minimizes the cost of ration, given a certain set of ingredients and their nutritional

content which is done in real time using a computer.

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2. It is convenient and saves manpower.

3. It allows ‘least cost’ diet formulation using the specific information fed into them.

4. It eliminates human error both in calculation and in speed.

Preparation for the arrival of chicks

A. Buying chicks

Day old chicks should be purchased from a reliable hatchery in order to obtain quality chicks,

which are very healthy and have the genetic production potential. Place your order well in

advance (about six months) and remember to indicate the sex, strain and quantity required. Seek

the advice of your nearest poultry/livestock extension officer on the choice of breed and the

hatchery.

Some poultry keepers might prefer to buy only starter pullets so that they do not have to brood

the birds themselves. Starter pullets at point of lay chicken are not being produced commercially

in this country but it is one form of poultry business that can be very profitable if there is good

co-operation between the pullet rearer and the egg producer. Before buying starter pullets, be

very such that the producer had done a good job of rearing by going through the records and by

physical examination and weighing a sample of the birds to see whether they have attained

recommended weights for the breed or variety at that age.

It is very important to be fully prepared before you collect day old chicks. This will ensure that

they are properly transported and received at the farm. This increases their survival rate during

the brooding period.

Get the brooder house ready about three weeks before the chicks arrive. Work to be done

include:

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1. Making necessary repairs to mend leaking roofs, repairing doors and plastering cracks in the

walls.

2. Removal of old litter from the house already in use sweeping, thoroughly washing and

disinfections of the house using a suitable disinfectant such as Izal, Dettol, Sanities or Milton.

3. Feeding troughs and drinkers already in use should also be thoroughly washed and disinfected.

4. Making sure that all the necessary equipment have been purchased and are in good working

condition.

C. Two Days to Arrival

1. Sweep the house and clean the equipment.

2. Put litter on the floor. If the floor is not cemented, put a layer of dry clean sand before putting

the litter. Put the litter to a depth of about 7.5cm (three inches).

3. Cover the litter material with rough brown paper or old newspapers. This is to prevent the

chicks from eating fibrous materials while learning to eat. The paper may be removed after four

days.

4. Assemble all equipment with the brooder box in the middle and the feeders radiating from the

source of heat should be distributed evenly under the brooder box. The water fountain may be set

between the feeders but near the edge of the hover. The whole arrangement is then enclosed by a

chick guard of cardboard per about 45cm (30 inches) high and about 1.5m (5ft) away from the

brooder box.

Blocks or any other suitable material can also be used. The purpose of the chick guard is to

prevent the chicks from drifting too far away from the source of heat. The guard may be removed

back a little every day and then completely removed after 10 days.

5. Test all equipment to make sure that they are in proper working condition.

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6. If a half-open sided house is to be used, cover the open sides with plastic sheets, thick

cardboard paper, native mats, empty feed bags or any other suitable material.

Brooding Management Practices

Arrival of Chicks

1. About 6 hours before the chicks arrive, fill the drinkers with medicated water, put on the heat

source to warm up the room and place feed in the feeders. Some feed may also be sprinkled on

the used as feeders during the first week.

2. Transport the chicks as fast as possible from the hatchery to the farm with minimum

disturbance and preferably during the cooler part of the day. Ensure that the chicks are

adequately ventilated while in transit, e.g. the chicks should not be up inside the boot of a car

while in transit.

3. Collect all relevant information about the chicks from the hatchery of purpose. Have they been

vaccinated? Are there any special management practices to be observed? What is the anticipated

growth or production potential?

4. As soon as the chicks arrive, count and put them immediately under the hover. Remove all

deformed chicks. Teach the weak chicks to drink if chicks are transported over long distances by

road, the addition of glucose (or sugar if glucose is not available) to the drinking water may help

to increase their survival rate.

5. After putting down the chicks stay and watch them for the next one hour and observe how

comfortable they are. If they spread under the hover, they are comfortable. If they huddle in the

center close to the source of heat they are cold. If the room is too hot, they will move from the

source of heat and be pushing up against the chick guard. The heat supply should then be

adjusted accordingly.

22
6. Chicks have a tendency to crowd around corners of the building especially when frightened or

if they feel cold. Piling can lead to mortality. It is therefore advisable to round off any sharp or

square corners of the house with boards, bricks or jute sacks in order to prevent piling.

Daily Activities

1. During the first week, inspect your flock as early as possible in the morning, as late as possible

in the evenings and occasionally at other times to ensure that the birds are comfortable.

2. Remove any dead birds and dispose properly by burial o ruse of a disposal pit

3. Remove mould or contaminated feed and add fresh supply.

Feeders should only be filled about half to two-thirds capacity in order to minimise feed wastage.

They should also be placed in such a way that no bird has to walk more than 3.05m (10ft) to get

feed or water.

4. Remove waterers and wash properly before refilling with fresh clean water that is fit for

human consumption. Use medicated water throughout the first week. The water should be

changed again in the afternoon, if it becomes dirty or refilled any time it is empty. Waterers may

be raised on blocks to minimize contamination.

5. Remove wet litter and replace with fresh and dry litter materials.

6. When kerosene lanterns are used

a) Fill them up only two-thirds full every morning and evening

b) Remove any accumulated soot.

c) Trim the wick periodically in order to obtain uniform flame.

7. Fill in the records. For small holders a hard covered notebook is adequate but for large units a

number of forms with the appropriate columns is usually kept for each pan.

23
8. All corridors and storage spaces should be swept clean and all equipment not in use should be

neatly packed in such storage spaces.

9. If abnormal signs are observed, such as decreased feed consumption, bloody faeces, descried

activity or droopiness report immediately to your nearest livestock or veterinary officer.

Periodic Activities

1. Cull birds that are deformed, stunted or are manifesting lack of growth and poor productivity.

This cuts down on the cost of feed and also increases the space allowance for the healthy birds.

2. Debeak the birds at three – five weeks old and between 15 – 17 weeks of age by cutting off

about 1/3 of the upper and lower beaks. Electric debeaking at about three weeks of age give a

more permanent debeaking than old scissors debeaking.

3. Deworm at eight weeks and thereafter as necessary depending on the incidence of re-

infestation of the flock by worms.

4. Following the routine vaccination programme recommended for your area.

Broiler Management

Broiler production should be an attractive enterprise for school projects and backyard poultry

producers because of its fast rate of return. Within a school term of ten weeks, broiler can be

raised from day old to market weight. For the beginning poultry farmer it offers the unique

opportunity to acquire basic poultry management skills, which can then be extended to larger

flocks and other forms of livestock farming enterprises. Well managed good quality broilers

should be ready for market by eight weeks at which time they should be averaging 1.7 – 2 kg

each.

Management Guide for Layers

The following is a summary of management routines for laying hens:

24
1. Provide optimum space per bird. A space requirement of .186m (2sq ft) is adequate at point of

lay

2. Introduce the pullets to layer’s mash preferably after the first eggs have been dropped (a

production level of 2-5% )

3. Inspect birds daily for any signs of disease or abnormal behavior

4. Maintain accurate records of feed consumption, egg production and disease control measures.

A sharp drop in feed consumption is often the first indicator of a pending disease outbreak or

response to a major environmental stress.

5. Under hot weather conditions, provide plenty of cool drinking

water, if possible, use artificial lights in the early mornings (from

about 3:00 am) to stimulate feed consumption during the cooler

times of the day.

6. Always enter the house courteously, rude entrance can create

hysteria

7. Regularly cull unproductive birds. Removal of such hens creates more space for the remaining

birds and saves on the feed cost that would have been expended on them. These birds may also

fetch a better price at the time of culling than if they were left to be older before sale. All layers

should be sold off after about one year of lay unless they are still economically productive

8. At the first signs of disease or any other problem, set up the preventive or corrective measures

promptly

9. Prevent feed wastage.

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN POULTRY

25
1-Sexing:- (chick sexing) is the method of distinguishing the sex of a chicken and other

hatchings, usually by a trained person called a chick sexer or chicken sexer. Chicken sexing is

practiced mostly by large commercial hatcheries to separate female chicks or “pullets” (destined

to lay eggs for commercial sale) from the male or “cockerels” (most of which are either sold or

killed within days of hatching because they are irrelevant to egg production).

2-Caponisation:- Is the process in which a fowl has been surgically or chemically treated so as

to remove the action of male hormones or to increase the action of female hormones.” The

process happens between 6 and 20 weeks of age, when the testes of the male may be surgically

removed while both males and females may be given hormones preparations, usually estrogenic

implants. The advantages of caponization are to produce tender meat, and improve growth rate of

the fowl.

3-Debeaking:- Can be done between 10-16week of age. This is the cutting up of the upper-lower

halves of the beak. Early debeaking is advice, if bad habit such as peking, feather peking, toe

peking and injuries are observed in the flocks. During the laying age debeaking is done if egg

breaking is observed. It is done in the morning or eveining when the ambient tempertaures are

low to minimize bleeding. Vitamin K should be fed to the birds few hours before debeaking is

carry out to accelerate blood clotting.

4-DUBBING

This is the removal of comb, it prevent fungal attacks on the comb which causes the disease

known as farns (Tricophyton megini), dubbing is also done very early in the life of chicks when

the comb has started growing, the comb should be treated well to limit blood loss and possibility

of infection.

26
5-CULLING

Culling is a process that should actually begin at day old. Weak, diseased and unthrify birds

should continuously be culled out during the growing period. In laying flocks culling should

commence soon after the hens attain peak production. The best time to cull is in the evening just

after dark using a flashlight, but culling can also be done during the day.

Poultry processing

Bridging the gap between teeming populations and food production is one of the important tasks

of developing countries. Expensive staple foods and policy constraints on food import are the

major factors worsening the food situation in developing countries. The average Nigerian does

not consume enough protein of animal origin, and animal protein is more efficient than plant

protein in providing the amino acids necessary for tissue development, repair and function (FAO

1994). In view of this the quality of amino acids in live animal must be preserved in the meat for

final consumer. Hence there is the need for proper processing of meat and the processing

methods.

Reasons for Processing

To provide a product with desired texture, flavour and aroma.

Transformation of raw meat to products with longer shelf life.

Increase in volume and improvement of qualities e.g. colour and flavour.

Enhance marketing

Processing Methods

The processing method include slaughtering, bleeding, defeathering, evisceration and packaging.

27
1. Slaughtering

Remove feed from birds at least 2 hours before slaughter so that the intestinal tract clears. The

Birds must still have access to cool, clean drinking water, which will reduce carcass dehydration

and facilitate plucking. Sever the jugular vein by drawing a long, thin, sharp knife across the

throat high on the neck just under the lower bill. Birds killed this way bleed swiftly and

completely.

2. Dressing

1. Scalding

Once they have stopped bleeding, place birds to be wet plucked in a scalding tank at a water

temperature of 60°C for a few minutes — long enough to loosen the feathers without causing

flesh discolouration.

Wet plucking

Several mechanical pluckers are available; all have revolving rubber ‘fingers’ that remove most

of the feathers. The remaining pin feathers must be removed by hand, by grasping them between

the thumb and a dull-edged knife.

Dry plucking

This method of plucking eliminates scalding. Poultry processors prefer it because it produces an

exceptionally attractive carcass. It is, however, much slower than wet plucking and there is more

chance of tearing the skin.

2 Waxing

Waxing carcases to remove the remaining feathers is recommended where many birds are to be

processed, because remaining feathers are removed quickly and a better carcass appearance

results. Waxing carcases to remove remaining feathers is common overseas, and more Australian

28
processors are now using this method. The carcass is covered with molten wax and placed in

cold water to harden the wax; when the wax is peeled off the carcase, any feathers come with it.

The wax can be used again by remelting it and pouring it through a screen to separate the wax

from the feathers. Commercial blended wax can be obtained for this purpose.

3. Evisceration

Eviscerate birds on a stainless steel table. Slit the skin on top of the neck to the shoulder blades

and remove the windpipe and oesophagus. The neck can be nicked with secateurs and turned

back in through the top of the body, or cut through and removed.

Remove the visceral organs from the rear end by slitting from the vent to the end of the

breastbone. Then insert one hand high up into the body cavity. With practice, all organs can be

removed in one operation. Cut through the hock joint to remove the legs. Eviscerated birds

should now be thoroughly washed. Clean and wash giblets, enclose them in sealed packets made

of an approved material, and either stuff them into the body cavity through the rear end of the

carcass, or pack and sell them separately. The carcass must be labelled either ‘with giblets’ or

‘without giblets’. A dressing-out loss of about 23% is normal with most breeds.

Processing Method (Automatic Defeathering Machine)

29
Fig. 1.4: Processing Method (Automatic Defeathering Machine)

Fig. 1.5: Dressed Chicken ready for Packaging

30
Fig. 1.5: Packaging

4. Trussing

The most attractive carcass presentation is to pack birds in a patented clear plastic bag which

shrinks to the contours of the bird’s body. Birds handled in this way require no special trussing.

They are placed in the correct-sized bag, and the mouth of the bag is then held under the nozzle

of a machine which removes air by vacuum. The end of the bag is twisted to prevent entry of

outside air and is sealed with a metal clip. To shrink the bag into the body contours, the carcass

is then placed into a shrink tank filled with water at 93°C for a couple of seconds.Chickens and

turkeys have to be pre-chilled to keep their flesh white. Place birds to be sold as fresh poultry in

ordinary plastic bags, first twisting the wings inwards. The plastic packaging bags can be

preprinted in several colours, with trade name, description and other details.

Marketing of Live Poultry

1. Harvesting and Transport Systems

There are many systems for poultry harvesting. The most common method for small scale

operations is for broilers to be caught by hand and then carried to the transport by one or both

31
legs. This procedure requires great care as it can cause dislocation of the hip - joint, internal

bleeding and even death.

In larger scale operations, herding, sweeping and vacuum systems of harvesting have been

developed. In the first, birds are herded into a mechanical handling system by catchers onto a

conveyor belt. The birds are then blown into a crate. The sweeping system uses a machine fitted

with a central boom and sweeper arms fitted with rotating, foam rubber paddles, which gently

sweep the birds onto an inclined conveyor. The vacuum system relies on gentle suction from the

floor. Crates are then filled by a mechanical device. Some birds are marketed as individuals but

others are contained in crates which are either loose or fixed to the truck or as a module of 4–16

crates carried by fork lift truck to the vehicle.

2 Display and Sales

Poultry products are displayed in several different ways. Whole carcasses are often displayed

unrefrigerated at market in the open hung by their legs or on a stall or shop display, particularly

in the developing world. This is not to be recommended. Refrigerated products are displayed in

shops and other retail units unpackaged or over-wrapped on plastic trays. In some are as meat is

sometimes sold from mobile refrigerated shops. Products are usually exchanged for cash at the

point of sale. However, poultry producers may have contracts with poultry processing

enterprises, local hotels or restaurants where a lump sum payment is made. In developing

countries small scale producers may sell by bartering for other consumable items.

DISEASE IN POULTRY PARASITIC AND NUTRITIONAL

1-DISEASE:- Is defined as any abnormal structural or functional change in the tissue of the

body.OR is defined as any abnormal state of health to an organism.

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2-PARASITIC DISEASE:-A parasitic disease,also known as parasitosis, in an infectious

disease caused or transmitted by a parasite. Many parasites do not cause diseases. They include

both internal (endo) and external (ecto) parasites.

NUTRITIONAL DISEASE:- Is describe as defiencies or excesses of any of the nutrients in the

diet resulting in the condition that cause illness in poultry.

SYMPTOMS OF DISEASES IN POULTRY

➢ Generally, the symptoms of diseases in poultry include:

➢ Somnolence

➢ Anorexia/off feed

➢ Diarrhea (watery, whitish, yellowish, greenish, bloody and adherent to the vent of a

chick)

➢ Labored breathing /gasping

➢ Coughing and hizzing sound

➢ In co-ordination

➢ Paralysis of the legs and wings

➢ Nervous signs i.e circling, back padding, neck twisting (torticollis)

➢ Loss of weight

➢ Lesions of the body of the fowls (head, wings, legs, combs, wattle, eyes, and nose

➢ Drop in egg production

➢ Ruffle feathers

➢ Huddle together in isolated areas

➢ Drop head wings

33
 ➢ Salivation

➢ Cripples

➢ Sudden or progressive number of deaths

POULTRY MEDICATION AND VACCINATION

MEDICATION

Medication for decontaminating poultry yard, controlling bacterial infections, coccidiosis,

internal and external parasites as well as washing and disinfection after culling. Disinfectants

inform of sprays, aerosols, or fumigation should be applied only after the building and equipment

have been throughly clean. After disinfection, foot baths or container to be placed at the entry of

the yard.

The antibiotics acceptable for used in conventional poultry unit include:

-Bacterial

-Chlortetracycline

-Oxytetracycline

-Tylosin etc

A number of coccidiostats drugs are available for use in controlling coccidiosis in poultry. They

include:

-Amprolium

-Nicarbazin

34
-Sulfamethoxine

Several types of parasites (internal and external) infest poultry. The product for the control of

worms in poultry include the following:

-Piperazine for internal parasites

-And dusting powser applied topically against external parasites in poultry

EPIZOOTIC

An epizootic(from Greek: epi-upon + zoo animal) is a disease event in a non-human animal

population analogous to an epidemic in humans. An epizootic may be restricted to a specific

locale ( an “out break”), general (an :epizootic”), or wide spread.

DEWORMING

Dewormers are either placed orally in the beak,dropped on the skin, injected under the skin, or

added to the feed or water. Piperazine has a witdrawal period of 14 days for meat, but there is no

safe period established for eggs. Hygromycin-B is approved for laying hens, the withdrawal time

is three days for meat

VACCINES

Vaccine is can be defined as an antigenic substance prepare from the causative agent of a disease

or synthetic subtitute, used to provide active acquired immunity to a particular or several

diseases.

Vaccines can also be defined as dead or alive attenuated micro-organisms introduced in to an

organism to boost it immune system. Vaccines are preparation that weaken diseases.

35
TEPES OF VACCINES

Whole virus vaccines , either live or killed, constitute the vast majority of vaccines in use at

present. However,recent advantages in molecular biology had provided alternative methods for

producing vaccines.

1-Live whole virus vaccines

2-Killed whole virus vaccines

3-Sub unit vaccines:-purified or recombinant viral antigen

4-Recombinant virus vaccines:- Is a vaccine produced through recombinant DNA Technique.

This involve inserting the DNA encoding antigen (such as virus/ bacteria surface protein) that

stimulates immune response in to bacterial or mammalian cells, expressing the antigen in these

cells, and then purifying them.

5-Anti-dote type antibodies:-Is a substance which can counteract a form of poisoning.

6-DNA Vaccines:- It is a techinique for protection against disease by injection with genetically

engineering DNA, So that cell directly produce antigen, producing a protective immunological

response.

Vaccination is a must for any poultry farm that wants to succees- whether commercial or small

scale/ backyard. It must be done in a timely manner (depending on the vaccine and type of

animal) to prevent and control disease transmission in free areas.

NECESSARY VACCINATION REQUIRED TO POULTRY

VIRAL DISEASES

36
-New castle disease:Three types of vaccines must be given to the birds to effectively control the

disease. They include:

i- NCDV Intra ocular (I/O). A drop of vaccine on each eye of the chicks after hatching.

ii- NCDV Lasota: Given in drinking water at two weeks’s old

iii-NCDV Kamorov: Given to the birds intra-muscular when the chicks are six (6) weeks old.

GUMBORO DISEASE VACCINE

I-First dose in drinking water when the chicks are 2 weeks old

II- Second dose in drinking water when the chicks are four (4)weeks old

-Fowl pox vaccine:-when birds are 6 weeks old at wing web

-Marek disease vaccine:-when birds are 1 week old

BACTERIAL DISEASES

-Fowl typhoid vaccine

-Fowl cholera vaccines

VACCINATION PROGRAMME

Table: A Suggested Vaccination Programme for Poultry

37
Age Vaccination Required

1 day old 1. 1st dose of Newcastle disease vaccine

0 – 2 weeks 2. A dose of mark’s disease vaccine

3 – 5 weeks 3. 1st dose of Gomboro disease vaccine

4. 2nd dose of Gomboro disease vaccine

(vaccine usually given 3 weeks after

the first dose

6 – 8 weeks 5. A dose of fowl pox vaccine

6. 2nd does of Newcastle disease vaccine

16 – 18 weeks 7. 3rd does of Newcastle disease vaccine

8. 3rd dose of Gomoboro disease vaccine

for breeder flocks

VACCINATION SCHEDULE FOR POULTRY FLUCK

LAYER SCHEDULE TYPE OF VACCINE ROUTE DOSE

DAY OLD NCDV Type B lasota I/O Hactheries

1st WEEK Marek diseases vaccine WATER 1st DOSE

2nd WEEK GUMBORO vaccine WATER 1st DOSE

3rd WEEK NCDV Lasota WATER 1st DOSE

4th WEEK GUMBORO WATER 2nd DOSE

6th WEEK FOWL POX WING WEB DOUBLE

6th WEEK NCDV KOMOROV I/M 2nd DOSE

38
12th WEEK MILE DOSE NCDV Lasota WATER BOOSTER

BROILER SCHEDULE TYPE OF VACCINE ROUTE DOSE

1st WEEK GUNBORO WATER 1st DOSE

2nd WEKK NCDV Lasota WATER 1nd DOSE

3rd WEEK GUMBORO WATER 2nd DOSE

4th WEEK NCDV Lasota WATER 2nd DOSE

5th WEEK FOWL POX WING WEB DOUBLE

6th WEEK KOMOROV OIL BASE I/M 3rd DOSE

RABBIT PROODUCTION

Rabbit are used for meat, for vocational projects, as laboratory animals, as teaching tool, as

animal research model and for pets. Because of their use in a wide range of enterprises, it is

necessary to have a good knowledge of the different aspect of their management and nutrition.

The domestic rabbit descended from wild rabbit found in the Mediterranean countries and was

introduced in to England in the late 11th and early 12th century. The different breeds of modern

domestic rabbit have evolved as far back as the 18th century. In early 1960, united state

department of Agriculture (USDA) was involved in introducing more rabbit to western states of

Nigeria. Rabbit can be quickly grown and are a cheap source of protein. They can be reared for

consumption or commercial undertaking.

Advantages of Keeping Rabbits

39
1) They have fairly small body size which makes it relatively possible to be raised in a

confinement. There is a low cost of production in other words starting requires modest

production compared to other farm animals.

2) Rabbit meat is of high quality animal protein which can be relied upon where other protein

sources are absent.

3) Rabbit are efficient feed converters to high quality protein, they uses local forages and food

wastes that are of no direct value to humans.

4) Rabbit production can be use to minimize the protein intake inbalance in Nigeria.

5) There is excellent product acceptance with respect to social and religious traditions in other

words it is not restricted by any strong taboos or particular beliefs that prevent the eating of

rabbit meat or its promotion as food.

6) Curative and preventive drugs are available for most rabbit diseases.

7) Rabbit is a small body size animal and convenient for ‘one meal size’ with no need for

storage.

8) Rabbit also gives useful by-product like the fur which is useful for making

cardigans.

9) It is an attractive animal for handicapped children who enjoy being involve in its care and

management.

10) Rabbit is a suitable animal for learning basic skills for animal husbandry ; it responds to

careful handling but can withstand the sometimes rough handling of the beginner. It also lend

itself to simple recordkeeping e.g. of weekly live weight gain and reproduction and so can

introduce the idea of management recording to new students of animal production.

Disadvantages of rabbit keeping

40
1) Rabbits are highly vulnerable to prey like how persistent a dog can be when trying to break

into a rabbit hutch. This constitutes a challenge to the farmer.

2) Rabbit production is not easy it takes a great deal of skill, a lot of hard work and a lot of food.

Problems or Constrains of rabbit production in Nigeria

Most people are not ready for rabbit production that demand daily care and attention and many

don’t see the reasons for keeping the rabbits anyway. Most people are not aware of the skills

needed in rabbit production. Unavailability of improved parent stock that are adaptable to our

local conditions

Guidelines on promoting rabbit production

Two methods of promoting rabbits include formation of rabbit clubs or groups and organizing

competitions, some of the suggestions is to study the people and the situation; for instance, are

the people ready for rabbit that demand daily care and attention or they rather go for another

animal? consult with village leaders to get their approval and explain your plans for a meeting

with interested people. Encourage an open discussion and agree on the objectives of the club and

the reasons for keeping the rabbits. Don’t talk about rabbits all the time, consider inviting

extension officer or other suitable organization to act as an adviser. Don’t be disappointed if a

club fails; think why it didn’t succeed and in a few months try again, perhaps with other people

in a different village.

Competitions are a useful method of encouraging good rabbit husbandry. People always like to

be the best; the best hutch builder, the best rabbit keeper the best rabbit skinner and cleaner, the

owner of the best rabbit e.t.c.

Nutrient requirement of rabbits

41
The domestic rabbit will eat most type of green vegetables, grain, tuber and root. Therefore, the

ration may consist almost entirely of ingredients from plant sources. Kitchen wastes such as

uncooked vegetables, cereals and remain of meals can be fed to rabbits provided certain rules are

followed:

-The waste must be fed when fresh and unsoured.

-It must be removed after a few hours if it is not eaten.

-It should represent less than half of the rabbit’s daily ration.

1- Water

Water should be supplied ad.libitum. Rabbits have high requirements for water in relation to

their body. Water is necessary for maintenance, production and lactation because dry matter

intake is related to water intake. Any restriction in water intake causes a decline in dry matter

consumption. However, if feeding is restricted, water intake may increase water should be clear,

fresh and free from biological and chemical contaminants.

2- Protein

The quality and quantity of protein are not critical in rabbit as in poultry because rabbit can adapt

to poor and low protein situation but production will not be optimum. With high and good

protein quality, however, optimum production can be achieved. Crude protein is an approximate

measure of the total amount of amino-acids. For rabbits the recommended crude protein level in

the dry matter of the ration is over 18% for newly weaned rabbits;

• 16-18% for rabbits from12 to 24 weeks;

• 15-17% for a breeding doe.

• 12-14% for all other stocks.

3- Energy

42
The energy requirement of rabbit are made from fibrous components of the feeds. Energy

requirement is between 2390 and 2500kcal of digestive energy. This energy can be supplied

from fats grains, maize, cereal bran and fibrous feeds.

4- Fats

Rabbit can handle up to 20-25% fat in the diet depending on their age. Fat provide energy as well

as supplying essentially fatty acids. Fat also provide palatability and reduce dustiness in feed.

5- Carbohydrates

Grains are the readily available carbohydrates.

6- Fibre

Rabbit eliminate fibre and digest non fibrous component of the feed. Anti peristalsis wave on the

proximal colon in conjunction with normal contraction in the caecum are responsible for the

separation and excretion of fibre. The digestion of cellulose is low.

7- Minerals

Calcium is the bone constituent which is involve in blood clothing controlling excitability of

nerve and muscles and in maintenance of acid base equilibrium. Phosphorus is a component of

cellular constituent such as adenosine tri phosphate (ATP) and deoxy ribonucleic acid (DNA),

ribonucleic acid (RNA) and phospholipids. Phosphorus is also a component of the bone. Calcium

absorption is experience by its level in the feed. Dietary phosphorus and vitamin D factors have

not been critically studied in rabbit. Calcium level in the serum (sera) of rabbit is higher than

what is obtained in other species, this is because other species maintained a regulated constant

level of calcium through a process called homeostasis, since this homeostasis is absent in the

rabbit dietary calcium level is directly reflected in the blood unregulated.

8- Vitamins

43
Vitamins are chemicals that are required in very small amounts to speed up chemical reactions

within the rabbits body. The most important vitamins are the vitamins A and D, and the B

vitamins choline and thiamin.

Caecotrophy

One aspect of rabbit nutrition that is particularly interesting, it is sometimes called refection.

Caecotrophy is the eating of faecal –like pellets produced in the caecum.

Types of faeces produced

The rabbit produces two kinds of faeces viz:

-hard faeces

-soft faeces or caecotropus

The rabbit has a specialized mechanism that retain ingestion in the proximal colon and caecum

for microbial utilization of nutrient and also to allow the formation of the two types of faeces.

The faeces suitable for consumption are the soft faeces. It originates from the caecum

(cecotropus) while the other which the rabbit don’t eat is called the hard faeces.

Mating

On forage based systems, does are normally ready for mating at about 8- 10 months. At this age

their growth will be slowing and they will be able to direct a larger portion of available food to

reproduction. The weight at mating varies according to breed. Effort should be mad to determine

the optimum weight for mating for any breed in question. The same applies to bucks as to does,

but bucks can usually be used for mating from 6-8 months, depending on the condition. The ratio

of does to bucks should not exceed. 10:1. However, for safety, it may be sensible to have two

bucks for more than six does and three for more than twelve. Experience has shown that early

morning or evening mating is best. It is advisable to avoid the hottest periods of the day.

44
For mating, the doe should be taken to the buck’s hutch if it is done the other way round the doe

may attack the buck and cause injury. If the doe is ready to be mate she will stand still within a

few seconds, stretch out and slightly raise her hind quarters so as to allow the buck to mount and

mate, as in fig.3.4 successful mating is signaled by the buck thrusting forward and literally

falling off the doe. This is very easy to see. If the buck slides backwards off the doe and does not

fall, then mating has not taken place. Once mating has taken place the doe is removed from the

buck’s hutch. The doe may be returned after an hour or so for a second mating. This is good

practice for new keepers to follow.

Pregnancy

Pregnant does will often accept the buck during pregnancy, so refusal to mate cannot be used to

confirm pregnancy. The first real confirmation of pregnancy can be obtained at about 14 days

after mating. The doe should be relax and sitting naturally. If fingers are then gently run along

the abdomen, between the back legs small bead-like lumps can be felt if the doe is pregnant as

45
shown above fig.3.3 these are developing foetues. Inexperienced keepers should practice

detecting pregnancy in does that are 20 days pregnant, at5 which stage the fetuses are easy to

identify.

By around 28 days the mammary gland will have developed significantly and this can be

regarded as final confirmation of pregnancy. At around 29 days the doe will begin to remove fur

from her abdomen to make a nest. Pregnancy or gestation is the time from fertilization to the

time of kindling or parturition which take 31 or 32 days. On the average, pregnancy period last

30 days in the common commercial breed. During this period the doe should be well fed and

protected from stresses such as dogs and general noise.

Gestation period- this is the time from fertilization to the time of kindling or parturition which

take 31 or 32 days. On the average, pregnancy period last 30 days in the common commercial

breed. About 4-5 days before kindling a nesting box should be brought in with some wood

shaving of fine straw placed on the floor of the box. It will soon be found that the doe begins to

remove hair from her abdomen and sides and place them in the box to prepare a warm cushion

for the young ones soon to be born. The young ones of rabbit are born naked and blind. Their

mother uses the hairs in the box to cover them to keep warm.

Kindling

The doe usually kindles or gives birth, at night. Once kindling has finished the doe will pluck

more fur from her abdomen and cover the young rabbits. It is best to leave her undisturbed for 2-

3 days after kindling unless there are obvious problems. It is a good practice to have some cotton

wool ready to cover the litter if the doe has not done this properly herself.

Sexing

46
Sexing of rabbit can be done any time as from the moment of weaning. Close to the anal opening

is another orifice (opening) which is the sexual aperture. In both sexes, there is no difference of

external look of this opening, but when the opening is pressed open with the aid of thumb and

forefinger, the difference become quite vivid. In the female, a longitudinal slit will be seen, while

in the male a round opening is observed and the penis can be seen protruding out of this opening.

If sexing is delayed longer, the testes of the male would have developed fully and could be seen

protruding out clearly from the body between the two hind legs. This makes the identification of

the male easy. Any rabbit not having these testes protruding out is female. Another method of

identification of fully grown rabbit is the size of the animal. The doe is usually smaller than the

buck within the same breed and she is a lot more docile than her opposite sex.

Weaning

Weaning is the separation of the doe and the young. It should be done around 6-8 weeks after

kindling. The best method of weaning is to take the doe away from the litter. To do it the other

way round will put too much stress on the litter.

The period after weaning is another critical time for the young rabbits and it is a time for feeding

some concentrates if available. Small amounts of concentrate at this time will have a big effect

on growth rate. As the rabbit grow they may be gradually taken off concentrates but their growth

rate will slow as a result. The litter will soon require extra hutch space. After weaning, the doe

should be allowed time to recover her body condition before re-mating. Weekly weighing is the

only sure method of checking that she is regaining her body reserves. Does can usually continue

breeding until they are 3 to 4 years old.

RABBIT HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT

47
Rabbit housing (hutches and cages) and equipment differ from country to country. Factors

governing their design include climate, availability and cost of raw materials, scale and system of

production and the expertise of the rabbit keeper. There are, however, some basic requirements

which all hutches an equipment should satisfy and any new or existing hutches and equipment

should be assessed against these requirements.

Housing Requirements

Any rabbit hutch should provide adequate space and protection for the rabbit and also

convenience to the rabbit keeper.

Space

Since the rabbit is going to be in the hutch for life there is need to provide enough space to

minimize restriction of movement. For the rabbit to be able to stretch it self and carry out its

normal activities then horizontal and vertical space are all important. Space is also critical for

good ventilation and temperature regulation within the hutch. These are necessary to maintain

good health and prevent diseases.

Protection

For the farmer to be successful, it is necessary to provide adequate protection to his rabbits. This

protection is against injury within the hutch, from direct sunlight, rain, direct and indirect wind,

sudden noises, predators like dogs, cats, rats, snakes, safari ants and human thieves.

Convenience to the rabbit keeper

For a successful operation on the farm, the house should be designed in such away to assist the

keeper to carry out routine practices like observation, examination, handling, feeding, mating the

rabbits, cleaning and disinfection. Also there should be room for expansion when the number

multiplies.

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Types of housing

Basically there are two types of housing these are

outdoor hutches - this are kept outside all the time

indoor hutches - this are kept inside a house or open shed.

Outdoor hutches and indoor hutches

The requirements of space, protection and ease of management can be achieved through

appropriate design, construction and siting

Typical hutch dimensions for a general purpose hutch are as follows:

• 1 m above the ground approximately;

• height of hutch: 60 cm at the front, 50 cm at the back;

• width: 50-60 cm;

• length: 90-120 cm

Indoor hutches

The hutches within the house can be much simpler than outdoor hutches and simple boxes made

from wired frames can be used. These can be hung in a number of ways. Indoor hutches are

appropriate for the established keeper with good markets to justify the expenses in setting them

up.

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A typical rabbit hutch

Outdoor rabbit hutch

50
A typical outdoor hutch

Type of hutches Advantages Disadvantages

Outdoor Relatively cheap. Appropriate Impossible to met all the

when starting production protection requirements all the

time e.g. in storms Hutches

difficult to clean and keep dry.

Not easy to increase the

number of hutches quickly.

Indoor Good conditions for the Requires a major initial

rabbits and the rabbit keeper. investment, too costly for the

Rabbits are more easily beginner

observed. Individual hutches

51
 are easier to keep clean and

use particularly useful where

many rabbits are kept.

It is easier to protect rabbits

from predators.

Floor methods of housing

This method involves keeping the rabbits on the ground, in a fenced area provided with simple

boxes for shelter. In this system several does are kept in the same area. This method is

particularly suited to very dry areas and or where producers cannot obtain or afford the materials

to build proper hutches. In this method one of the most important requirement is to keep the floor

dry. An alternative method is to make a deep layer of dried straw, rice husks or wood shavings.

Mud or wooden shelters that can be secured at night can be constructed to provide protection

from predators. Rabbits may be allowed to burrow in floor system and may rear their young in

these burrows, but kindling boxes are preferable. Bucks should be kept separate from the does

and young rabbits unless there is plenty of space. To avoid fighting between does provide

enough space at least 1 m2 per doe. For floor methods to be successful, observe strict hygiene

and avoid overcrowding. These methods of rabbit keeping are not widely practiced and need a

lot of management attention to be successful.

Hutch equipment

Hutch equipment consist of four items Some home-made rabbit drinkers and food troughs are

shown below :

• water trough;

• food trough;

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 • roughage rack;

• kindling box

Equipment requirements

For water and food troughs the requirements are:

➢ It should be impossible to tilt over.

➢ It should have adequate size and depth.

➢ It should discourage scratching out of contents.

➢ It must not cause injury to the rabbit.

➢ It should be cheap and can be constructed locally.

➢ Forage racks should be fitted inside the hutch and it should allow the rabbit full access

and not limit food intake.

Kindling boxes should:

provide a secure, draught proof dry container in which the doe can kindle;

prevent the young rabbits leaving until they are at least 2-3 weeks old

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Maintenance of hutches and equipment

Proper maintenance includes the following:

cleaning of hutch and equipment every 2-3 days;

complete cleaning between litters using soap and water and if possible disinfectants. This should

be followed by complete drying and disinfection in direct sunlight;

checking and repairing loose boards, tins or wires which may allow the rabbits to escape or drop

through or predators to enter.

checking for the development o sharp edges in hutches and on equipment which may cause

injury.

RABBIT HEALTH AND DISEASES MANAGEMENT

The healthy rabbit may become unhealthy and diseased if exposed to stress and disease

organism. It is the responsibility of the rabbit keeper to maintain a healthy rabbit that is not

stressed and in whose environment there are as few disease organisms as possible.

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Signs of a healthy rabbit

To understand the diseased rabbit you should know a healthy one very well through the signs of

a healthy rabbit and this include:

❖ Normal eating and drinking.

❖ Self –grooming.

❖ Alertness, interest and curiosity.

❖ Shiny, smooth, lean fur, specially on the front paws and around the anus.

❖ A normal temperature of 37ºC-39.5ºC.

❖ Normal silent breathing; 40-65 breath per minute.

❖ Clear bright eyes without discharge.

❖ Clear nostrils without discharge.

❖ Normal caecotrophy, no soft faeces on the hutch floor.

❖ Gaining weight or, if an adult maintaining its weight.

Conditions that make a rabbit susceptible to disease include

➢ Insufficient water.

➢ Insufficient food.

➢ Toxic or poisonous food.

➢ An unbalanced diet deficient in energy, protein, minerals or vitamins.

➢ High fibre-only foods that can cause the rabbit to ‘blow-up’ like a ball;

➢ Sour dirty foods that cause diarrhoea.

➢ Dirty hutches and badly ventilated hutches that promote an increase in the number of

disease organisms.

Stress

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Stress is any challenge to any system of the rabbit system for example its temperature control

system, its digestive system, its normal behaviour pattern. Pregnancy, giving birth, lactation,

weaning and mating are all periods of natural and unavoidable stress.

How to minimize major stresses

• Correct hutch design-windproof and waterproof;

• Correct placement of the hutch;

• Routine management steps to avoid heat stress;

• Avoidance of overcrowding in hutches;

• Exclusion of dogs, snakes and noisy visitors;

• An adequate well balanced diet;

• Overall good management, particularly ensuring clean dry floors and sufficient bedding.

Preventive measures for common diseases

➢ Cleanness is very important in rabbit keeping.

➢ Waterers, feeders Should be washed and dry in the sun every few days. Wash and

disinfect cages when they become empty, separate any sick animal from the healthy ones.

Internal parasites

Coccidiosis

Caused by a protozoan called coccidia. Affects both liver and intestine. Occur in overcrowded

and dirty condition. Rabbit have swollen stomach and diarrhea leading to dehydration, lack of

appetite and dullness. Coccidia are commonly found in the intestine without causing any obvious

effects, but a period of stress, such as weaning or bad weather may result in them multiplying

rapidly. The ensuing diarrhea dirties all the fur around and below the anus. If action is not taken

flies may lay ther eggs in the matted fur and the resulting maggots can eat away at the flesh of

56
the abbit leaddig invariably to death. Young rabbits are most frequently affected with coccidiosis

just after weaning. The disease can develop very quickly and high mortalities are common. In

older rabbits there may be chronic coccidiosis resulting in dullness and poor growth.

Control: Coccidioststs may be added to the drinking water to prevent coccidiosis occurring or to

cure it as required. Hutch cleanliness is an important preventive measure. Avoid contamination

of feed and water.

External parasites

Ear mange or skin mange

This is caused by external parasites such as mites. This cause a variety of skin and ear

conditions. With ear mange the entire ear may become filled with crusty scabs, without proper

attention it can spread onto and over the face. Rabbits with ear mange may shake their heads a

great deal.

Control: by use of acaricide drops and creams. This are usually expensive. In many cases we

used flowers of sulphur lightly powdered into the ear on a daily basis. Body mange can be cured

by dipping the rabbit in an appropriate acaricide solution as recommended by a veterinarian.

Snuffles

Is a bacterial infection of the respiratory system, similar to a cold in humans. Out breaks are

more common where there is lack of ventilation, over-crowding and a build up of ammonia from

accumulated urine. The signs are sneezing, noisy breathing, a runny nose and wet and mated fur

on the face and inside of the front legs, as a result of the rabbit using its font legs to wipe its nose

and face. Affected rabbits should be isolated from other rabbits. Treatment with antibiotics may

appear to be effective but mortality is usually high and those rabbits that recover are often

affected again if exposed to some new stress.

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Myxomatosis

This is a viral infection and the signs include swelling of the eyes and convulsions. The disease

spreads rapidly and is usually carried from rabbit to rabbit by fleas. There is no treatment and

mortality is very high. It is possible to vaccinate rabbits against myxomatosis if the disease is

reported in the area.

KILLING AND PROCESSING

Rabbits are to be slaughtered regardless of the circumstances that are involve (party, family

reunion, other celebrations e.t.c.). Rabbits that are on forage feeding reach table weight around 6-

7 months of age. Regular weighing is the best way to determine when this point has been

reached.

Requirement for slaughter and processing

✓ A generally clean place away from any obvious source of flies or dogs.

✓ Something from which to hang the rabbit whilst cleaning it e.g. a branch or a specially

placed pole or set of hooks.

✓ A sharp knife

✓ A bowl or source of clean water.

✓ A container for the blood and guts and any thing that is being kept separate from the

meat.

✓ A clean container with cover for the rabbit carcass.

✓ Some string or thin wire

✓ A skin drying frame

✓ A stick the thickness of a pencil smoothly rounded at on end.

Killing procedure

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Rabbit should receive water but no food in the 12- hour period before killing. This will help in

partly emptying the digestive system and will reduce the risk of it breaking during cleaning of

the carcass. If it breaks there is the possibility that the meat will be dirtied by the contents of the

digestive tract. This in turn may lead to food poisoning in the people that consume the meat.

Killing should be carried out as quickly as possible and as efficiently as possible, with the

minimum pain to the rabbit. There are two methods of killing rabbits. Both involve making the

rabbit unconscious and then removing the head to allow bleeding.

Neck breaking

In this method the rabbit’s neck is broken in the same way as that used for killing hens in some

areas. For a right-handed person, both the rabbit’s back legs are held in the right hand. The

rabbit’s neck is then held from above between the first and second fingers- or the thumb and first

finger – of the left hand. The rabbit is stretched over the upper part to the left leg an the rabbit’s

neck is pushed down, whilst at the same time its head is bent back.

With moderate force the neck will suddenly give way indicating that the neck has bee broken by

dislocation. The rabbit should be immediately hung upside-down by its back legs as in fig.7.2 the

head is then removed to allow the blood to drain out of the body. This method requires more

skill, alternatively, the fist step is to make an incision into the side of the neck and the followed

by cutting the jugular vein and allow blood to drain away.

Stunning method

The neck-breaking method requires a little strength. Those without the necessary strength may

prefer to use the stunning method. For a righthanded person, the rabbit should be held upside-

down by its back legs with the left hand. It should be held so that the ears fall forward exposing

59
the back of the head. The point at the base of the ears should then be hit sharply with a good-

sized piece of wood o metal, this will stun the rabbit and make it unconscious.

The rabbit should then be immediately hug p and its head should be cut of to allow bleeding. It

should be noted that this methods of killings has a limitation for the fact that they are not

acceptable by some believes, example Islam advocate the use of a sharp knife in cutting the

throat and the jugular veins as swiftly as possible with minimum pain inflicted to the animal.

Skinning

Skinning is done easily when the rabbit is hanging y its back legs at shoulder height. Cut off the

front legs at their midpoint, and then the tail. Next, cut the skin around each hook below where

the string is tied. Cut from the inside of one hock down, around the anus and tail area and

similarly down the inside of the other leg from the hock. No, using the round stick and with care

gently work the skin downwards and off the body. The stick is used to separate the skin from the

body without cutting it as would occur if a knife were used. Place the skin over the skin drying

frame. It can be cleaned later.

Cleaning

The body is cut open and care is taken not to cut the intestines. The rabbit gut can now be pulled

out. The heart, kidneys and liver can be separated together with other parts required for eating. It

can then be taken down from the hanging position and tidied up, ready for passing to

60
the cook. Once this is done the skin on the drying frame can be scraped clean, taking care not to

cut it in the process.

Rabbit meat

Comparison between the chemical composition of rabbit and some other meats

Meat Dry matter Protein % Fat % Energy

% MJ/kg

Rabbit 20-23 20-22 10-12 7-8

Chicken 20-23 19-21 11-13 7-8

Turkey 38-42 19-21 20-22 10-12

Beef 40-50 15-17 27-29 11-14

Lamb 40-50 14-18 26-30 11-14

Pork 50-55 10-12 42-48 17-20

As shown in table above rabbit meat is especially high in protein and low in fat. Also, the fat in

rabbit meat is mainly unsaturated, which is believed to be a more healthy type of fat than

saturated fat which is common in other meats. Rabbit meat has a lower cholesterol content than

most other meats, which is also believed to b a health promoting characteristic.

Cooking

Rabbit meat is relatively soft meat which needs little cooking. It is ideal for cooking in a dry heat

or frying. It can be used in stews but it should not be overcooked as it may disintegrate. It is ideal

for people who have digestive upsets and for those with few teeth. Smoking can be used to

preserve rabbit meat in the same way that it is used to preserve other meats.

MARKETING OF RABBIT

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Marketing of live Rabbit

In Nigeria, and as it is common with all developing countries, nearly all poultry birds destined

for the market are sold as live bird directly to consumer, urban suppliers, who supply organized

institution, retailers and middle man who speculate and sell to individual consumers. This form

of sell may not be unconnected to the traditional and religious culture of the demand for the

product.

Rabbit of various ages and sizes are brought live to the market, housed in wire or zinc cages,

from bend stick or tied together in groups by legs and display for the prospective buyers to see.

Prices are fix only by the bargaining powers of the buyers and sellers. Buyers will normally take

the bird with their hands, casually visually on observing vent for dirrhoea, under the skin for ecto

parasite, lightly tapping their back to see how alert they are and to listen to the sound they make

as a response. Observations are made on the nose, eyes, and mouth are made for discharge, when

satisfied, they sample body weight and this will enable them to start price bargaining until

acceptable price is arrive at.

Marketing of Rabbit meat

In modern and organize market in city and big town Rabbit meat is sold in cold stores and

largely as whole dressed and package as meat cut, the meat is weighed fresh and weight is

written on the package before refrigeration. Customers pay for dressed Rabbit according to cost

per unit weight as written on the level often butchers, dealing on rabbit source from local

scavengers hold or at public joint. At some meat joint, barbecured (roasted over fire) whole

chicken is heated on wire marshes or staked on sticks round and fire to which salts and spices are

added to produced great taste.

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At some food joint, restaurant, bukkataria and bar, fried or machine roasted rabbit meat or meat

cut are served on special request with other food or served in soups as what is popularly known

as Rabbit paper soup.

SWINE PRODUCTION

The origin of the pig is difficult to understand, it is possible that it is mainly derived from the

European wild boar. Pigs were thought to have been domesticated as early as 200BC. Since then

man has developed the pig as meat animal.

World pig population

The estimated world pig population of 826 million (FAO, 1988) means that there is

approximately one pig for every six people in the world. A comparison of the meat produced by

pig with other domestic species has revealed that more pig meat is produced than any other meat

despite the fact that pigs are numerically fewer than other domestic species.

Taxonomy (Biological Classification)

Below is the taxonomy of the pig:

Kingdom - Animalia

Phylum - Chordata (Animals with back bones)

Class – Mammalia (Warm blooded animals that suckle their young)

Order - Artiodacty (Even toed hoof)

Family - Suidae (non-ruminant or single stomach system)

Genus – Sus (Restricted wild European boars with which domestic pigs

are bred from)

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Specie – Sus Scrofa and sus Vitatus

Advantages of Pig Farming

i. Pigs are highly prolific: They are capable of producing large litters (young ones) after a

relatively short gestation period. They also have a short generation interval and grow fast.

ii. Their productivity in terms of yield of meat per tonne of live weight of breeding female per

year is six times that of cattle.

iii. Their body size makes them more flexible for marketing and consumption compared to cattle.

iv. Pig meat is suitable for processing and some of the processed products have a longer shelf life

than fresh meat, and can thus be distributed to a wider section of the population.

v. Pigs convert feed to meat efficiently. They convert feed to meat twice as efficiently as

ruminants (i.e. they have high feed efficiency).

vi. Pig production provides quick turn-over on investment compared to cattle.

vii. Curative and preventive drugs are available for most swine diseases.

viii. Pigs also give useful by-product like their faeces can be used as a good source of manure.

ix. Pigs can be reared almost anywhere given suitable housing and management although their

management in extreme temperature can be expensive.

x. They produce meat without contributing to the deterioration of the natural grazing land. This

is important considering the steady desertification, soil erosion and loss of productive land in

some areas of the tropics.

Disadvantages of Pig Farming

i. There is poor product acceptance in areas where the Islamic religion prevails. In other words,t

here is strong taboo against the eating of pig product, thereby negatively affecting the market for

64
the products e.g. the Middle East, Pakistan and parts of Africa. Muslims and many Zionist in the

Jewish faith are forbidden to eat pork. Meat from pig is referred to as pork.

ii. While social factors play an important role in their acceptance, pig has historically been

considered an unclean animal,wallowing in filth, an object of dislike and a risk to human health.

iii. The digestive tract of pigs and birds is relatively short compared to other farm animals and

can only utilise high quality concentrate feeds (e.g. staple grains and oilseeds). These are also

use as feed for human making them to be in direct competition with man.

iv. They are raised close to human habitations thereby making their waste product a pollution

problem.

Common Terminologies in Pig Husbandry

Boar: Mature uncastrated male.

Barrow: Mature castrated male before puberty.

Hog: Castrated male.

Stag: Adult male castrated later in life.

Shoat: Swine of both sex weighing 30-80kg.

Gilt: Young female swine before farrowing.

Sow: Adult or mature female after one or two pregnancies.

Barrener: Sterile female.

Farrow: Giving birth to young ones.

Herd: Group of swine.

Litters: Young ones (piglets).

PIG HOUSE AND ITS EQUIPMENT

65
Pigs do better when housed, and their buildings should be of concrete or with stones due to their

rooting nature. Pigs productivity are more when they are housed in a thermally neutral

environment i.e. when the environmental temperature around the pig is consistently between the

pig’s lower critical temperature (LCT) and upper critical temperature (UCT). The pig’s

metabolic heat production is then at minimum, and it

is neither using feed energy to keep warm, nor reducing feed intake to keep cool.

Reasons for Providing Adequate Housing for Pigs

i. Protection from other climatic extremes such as direct sun, wind and rain.

ii. Provision of dry conditions which are hygienic and do not predispose the pig to disease as

they easily get pneumonia.

iii. Allowance for natural behavioural pattern of the pig as far as possible and minimising the

effect f social dominance.

iv. Provision of accessible food and clean water.

v. Providing conditions such that good stockman ship can be practiced.

vi. The animals conserve energy, as they do not have to seek food and shelter.

vii. More piglets will survive if they are born in safe, warm and healthy surroundings.

viii. Housing makes good hygiene maintenance easier and contributes to the health of the pigs.

ix. Feeding routines can be more carefully controlled, especially when they are adjusted for

different categories of pigs.

x. Weaning, heat control and service management can be done at the right time and in the right

way.

xi. Record keeping and management are easier.

xii. Manure can be easily collected and used for fertilizing land.

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General Consideration in Designing a Pig House

Right design of house is of paramount importance so that investment is justified by improved

productivity.

i. The land has to be well drained, non swampy If the land is swampy drainage system should be

constructed and the building foundation should be aid with stones and concrete and well

elevated. In very cold areas, beddings of dry grass or wood shavings could be provided in their

sleeping sties to provide warmth and easy cleaning of the sties, this also helps the pigs look

cleaner.

ii. It should be on the outskirts of the settlement away from public utilities like source of drinking

water to prevent contamination.

iii. Adequate ventilation should be provided by having enough windows on the building to allow

for cross ventilation. These windows may be open or close depending on the need and situation

in the environmental temperature. Most of the breeds of pigs in Nigeria are either exotic or cross

breeds they are tolerant to cold. However, if they are taken to the southern humid or hot northern

parts of Nigeria the paramount consideration is generally to ameliorate the effects of excess heat

by provision of adequate shade and wallows as a means of coolant to prevent heat stress.

Alternatively, pigs should be sprinkled with water when there is excessive heat.

iv. Pigs buildings should be of concrete or with stones due to their rooting nature. They should

be placed in their sites according to their ages and sexes to make for uniform feeding and prevent

indiscriminate mating and high in-breeding. Other important requisites for the pen are as follows:

i. It should not be draughty.

ii. Bright sunshine and rain should not be able to enter.

iii. Temperature inside the pen should not vary too much.

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iv. It should be easy to clean.

v. The floor must be sloping but not slippery.

vi. Work and management should be easy

vii. Provision should be made for storing manure, litter and run-off for later use

viii. In hot areas the best orientation of the building is east-west.

Recommended Space Requirement for Pigs

Class of Swine…………………………..Area

Boars……………………………………9m2

Dry sows (in Stalls)……………………………2 m long x 0.64 m wide

Farrowing accommodation:

pen including crate……………………………..6.2m2

fattening/farrow on (including creep area)……..10m2

Weaners:

Cages (per pig)…………………………………0.2m2 lying area

Yards (per pig)…………………………………0.7-0.9m2

Porkers (pen, including dunging area)…………0.73m2

Baconers (pen including dunging area) ………0.93m2

Heavy pigs:

Trough space (per pig)

Fatteners………………………………………0.2-0.3m2

Maiden gilts, sows ……………………………0.35m2

Equipments in a piggery

The following are tools to work with in a pig farm

68
1) Scalpel blades for incision and castration

2) Syringes and needles

3) Thermometer for taking temperature

4) Antiseptics and Disinfectants for cleaning wounds and disinfecting pen

5) Restraining ropes (snare) used in restraining pigs during farm operations.

6) Tail docking forceps

7) Cotton wool and bandages for dressing and bandaging of wounds

8) Protective clothing like boots, laboratory coats, head wear

9) Teeth clippers for cutting piglets, needle teeth.

10) Feeders and drinkers

11) Muzzle for handling mouth during farm operations

12) Ear notches, ear tags and tag applicator for individual identification.

13) Farrowing crate (60x180cm for smaller type breeds and 65x220cm for larger commercial

breeds).

PENS

1- Multi-purpose pig pens

These are liable to be more appropriate to the tropics and the developing world, as they are

cheaper and more flexible. Removable structures, such as creep barriers and furrowing rails,

provide protection for the piglets and make the pen suitable for furrowing. At weaning, these are

removed, leaving a fattening pen in which the winners can be fattened through to slaughter.

2- Follow-on pens

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If specialised farrowing houses are used, sows can normally be removed into cheaper housing

after 10-14 days when all danger of sow-related piglet deaths is past. Piglets then require a

separate creep area, similar to that provided by a multi-purpose pen. This has the advantage of

allowing the sow to exercise and move around freely.

3- Weaner cages

The combined trauma of weaning from the sow and change in diet makes the young pig very

susceptible to disease, particularly digestive diseases. This can result in fairly heavy mortality of

weaners. The weaner cage was originally designed in Europe with the idea of providing

conditions for the weaner which would help overcome these problems. Weaner cages have since

been adapted for hotter climates and basically consist of a covered solid-floor sleeping and eating

area and a dunging area floored by either wooden slats or metal mesh during cold periods, pigs

can huddle and generate enough heat for their comfort inside the covered kennel section.

Ventilation is provided by the centrally-hinged roof of the kennel. In hot weather, pigs can keep

cool by lying out on the meshed floors, and are protected from the sun by an umbrella roof over

all the cages. As dung and urine falls through the wire mesh or slats, this can be cleaned from

below and there is therefore no need for stockmen to enter the cage with contaminated boots,

brooms or shovels.

Pigs normally remain in the cages for three to four weeks before being transferred to fattening

accommodation. The feed hoppers can be moved to allow additional space as the weaners grow.

4- Weaner pools

The traditional system of housing weaners is to take litters of similar age and move them into

large pens holding up to 50 weaners. After threefour weeks, pigs are batched into groups of equal

sizes for transfer into growing / fatttening pens Ample watering and feed trough space must be

70
provided, and some form of bedding is preferable. Kennel area, which can be insulated by a

ceiling of hay bales or wood, can provide for added warmth.

5- Growing / fattening accommodation

The basic needs for good fattening pens are relatively simple, namely, a dry lying area and a

demarcated dunging area the building should provide shade, some protection and adequate

ventilation. Solid walls are not required between pens, as they will decrease ventilation and flow

within the building. Pens designed to hold 8-10 pigs through to slaughters are the ideal size.

FEEDING AND NUTRITION

Pigs, like humans, can eat everything. This means that their feed can be of both animal and

vegetable origin. Although they accept most foods, this does not mean that the quality of their

food is not important. Pigs will not thrive on grazing and fibrous feed alone. For pigs to be

healthy and produce well, they need to get enough good quality feed to eat. Nutrition and feeding

management are very important aspect of swine production. Therefore, it is extremely important

that swine producers have a good understanding of the nutrient requirement of swine during each

phase of their life cycle, a knowledge of the feed stuff which can be used in swine feeding and an

appreciation of the final point of feeding management for economic production of swine.

Unfortunately, many swine farmers keep them in rather poor conditions and so are not able to

make as much profit as they should. Swine are particularly affected by dirty, drafty housing and

quickly becomes sick. They are also affected by poor feeding. The major groups of essential

nutrients for pigs are energy, protein, minerals, vitamins and water.

Nutritional Requirements of Swine

1 Water

2 Energy

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3 Protein

4 Minerals

5 Vitamins

1. Water

Water is one of the most important nutrients. Swine of all ages should have free access to fresh

and clean water at all times. Drinking water is the first requirement for all animals. Clean and

fresh water for drinking should be available all the time. Pigs drink about two to five times as

much as they eat, depending on the amount of moisture in the feed. Even if you feed them at

will, it is advisable to have extra drinking water available. When an animal is under stress, due to

heat or disease, it will stop eating but will need extra water to drink. A lactating sow with 10

piglets needs at least 25 litres of water per day. Clean the drinking pan or trough at least once a

day. Modern drinking nipples are a lot cleaner, but should be examined daily to check that they

are functioning properly. Although pigs like to wallow in water, to cool down or for fun, this is

not necessary and they should not be allowed to lie down in their drinking water. Limiting water

intake will result in reduced growth rate and efficiency of gain in pigs and reduce milk

production in lactating sows. A severe limitation of drinking water can cause death in pigs. The

requirement of water is influenced by many factors including environmental temperature and

humidity, composition of the feed and weight of the pig.

The table below shows the water requirement of pigs for each kilo of

feed/litre.

Fattening pigs………………..2.5

Lactating sows……………….5.0

Dry sows…………………….3.0

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Piglets’……………………...Ad-libitum (freely as needed)

2. Energy

Apart from water, energy is the most important food requirement of the pig and will most rapidly

influence its survival if withdrawn. It is normally measured in heat units, traditionally as calorie,

but now the megajoule (MJ) is the most commonly-used unit (where 1 MJ = 0239 MCals).

Nursing pigs derived most of their energy from fat and lactose sugar in milk. Most of the energy

for growing pigs is derived from metabolism of starch because of insufficient amylase starch

digestive enzyme in the small intestine. For all weight classes of pigs, the metabolisable energy

(M.E.) is approximately 96% of the digestible energy requirement.

Energy requirement of pigs are influenced by their weight which influences the maintenance

requirement by their genetic capacity for growth or milk synthesis and by the environmental

temperature in which they are housed. The energy requirement for maintenance is directly

related to metabolic body weight and is approximately 110kcal of digestible energy (D.E.) per

kilogram body weight. Some examples are maize, rice, sorghum, cassava, sweet potato and

cereal grain.

You can assess whether the pigs are getting enough energy by looking at their condition. When

there is extra energy available, the animal will store it as body fat. If the pig is very thin, it means

that there is a shortage of energy and the pig’s productivity will be very low. However, if

reproductive sows are too fat, their productivity will decrease.

3. Protein

Protein consists of some 20 basic units known as amino acids. Nine of the amino acids required

by the pig cannot be synthesised by its body, and they must be supplied in the diet.If they are

present in insufficient quantities, the pig will not grow and may not even survive.

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Swine require 10 essential amino acids in its diet for normal body function. A good quality

protein is one that provides the amino acids in the amount and proportion necessary for the

particular need of the pig (growth, reproduction and lactation). Protein food are oil seed e.g.

cotton seed, soybean groundnuts coconut bean, peas, blood meal, fishmeal, etc. amino acid

requirement are influenced mostly by age and weight of the pig. In a daily basis the requirement

increase as the pig increases weight. Protein is necessary for physical development: growth,

breeding and milk production. Protein is the most important nutrient in the body, because all

organs, muscles and enzymes are made of proteins. In the feed, the protein quality is as

important as quantity. It is important that the pig gets the right type of amino acids because it

uses these to build its own protein (muscle protein, milk protein etc.). The best quality protein

(and the highest protein concentration) is from animal products, like fishmeal, milk or meat

meal. Some protein of animal origin should be included if possible, especially for the young

animals, which need to grow a lot. (Compare with nutritional needs of children.). By-products

from plant oils also have a high protein content, e.g. soybean meal or groundnut cake. However,

cereals do not have enough protein and need to be supplemented with protein-rich products.

4. Minerals

Compared with energy and protein, minerals are required in very small amount. Thirteen

minerals are required in the diet. Major minerals include calcium, phosphorus, sodium,

magnesium, choline and the trace minerals includes iron, iodine and selenium. The two minerals

required in the greatest amount by swine are calcium and phosphorus. Adequate levels of both

calcium and phosphorus must be included in the diet for strong skeletal structure.

5. Vitamins

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Vitamins can be defined as organic compounds which function in small amounts (mg or μg) and

are essential to the normal functioning of the animal body. They cannot be synthesized

inadequate amounts by body tissues and when lacking, provoke deficiency diseases. Fourteen

vitamins are required by swine, all in very small amounts. Fat soluble vitamins are A D E and K.

while water soluble vitamins are vitamin C and B complex, Riboflavin, Pantothenic acid, Niacin,

Vitamin B12, Choline, Pyridoxine, Thiamin, Folic acid and Biotin. Cereal, grains and plant

protein supplements are very poor sources of many of the vitamins. From a practical stand point,

vitamin premix should be added to swine feed.

Feeding

1. Feeding Pregnant Sows

2. Feeding Lactating Sows

3. Feeding Piglets to Weaning

4. Feeding Piglets from Two Weeks After Weaning

5. Feeding Young Pigs

6. Feeding Pigs Heavier Than 40 Kilograms

Pigs in contrast to cows and other ruminants, prefer feed that does not contain too much fibre.

They have difficulty in digesting crude fibre, as unlike ruminants they do not have a composite

stomach, in which microorganisms can break down the fibrous materials. When pigs have to find

their own feed, they will consume the succulent parts of the roughage, but they need also to find

roots or tubers, and they root up worms and insects to get the nutrients they need to survive and

to reproduce. However, their productivity will depend strongly on what they find. In pig

production, the farmer is responsible for supplying feed every day. Pigs should be fed twice a

day and always at the same times. The quality of the feed should be good enough to allow the

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animals to become strong and productive. In terms of the needs of the different pigs, this means

that the young piglets require the best quality feed, especially after they are weaned off the very

nutritious mothers’ milk. At this stage, a lack of protein and minerals/vitamins will really slow

down the development of the piglets.

Next in line for the high-quality feed are the lactating sows. They need to produce enough milk

for their piglets, and can only do so if they receive enough nutrients themselves. The condition of

the sow’s body during the lactation period is a good indicator of whether she is getting enough

feed. A sow with poor nutrition will only manage to raise a small litter of piglets, and if her

condition is so bad that she has lost a lot of weight, she will not be ready for the next

reproduction cycle after weaning.

For optimal nutrition, the feeds should be adjusted to the needs of the pig, which means that

different kinds of feed are used for the different ages and production stages. A commercial feed

factory will produce a minimum of five different feeds.

Sow feed: preferably two different ones, because the quality of the sow feed for pregnancy can

be lower than the quality of the feed they should get when they are producing milk (lactating).

Boars can also be given ‘pregnant sow feed’. If only lactation feed is available, add some

cheaper ingredients, like rice bran, fruits or vegetables, for the pregnantsows. This reduces costs.

Creep feed 1: this is the highest quality feed for the youngest piglets. It

should be put in the creep area where the mother cannot reach it.Feeding can start from seven to

ten days after birth.

Creep feed 2: for the young piglets, starting about two weeks after weaning. By now the piglets

no longer need the very best, so they can eat cheaper feed. In some places piglets only get one

type of creep feed until they weigh about 20kg.

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Starter feed: for young pigs over 20 kg (they should be about 10 weeks old) up to a body weight

of 35-40 kg.

Fattener feed: for pigs heavier than 40 kg that are intended for the slaughterhouse as soon as

they reach the marketable weight (about 90- 100 kg). The slaughter weight depends a lot on the

market, but the older a fattener gets, the lower the feed efficiency (feed conversion rate)

becomes. The different categories of pigs are discussed separately because, besides the choice of

the right type of feed, it is also very important how much to feed during certain periods. For the

adult animals, some additional green materials are always beneficial (appetite, vitamins etc.).

This does require extra labour, especially because the leftovers have to be cleaned out of the

pens.

1. Feeding Pregnant Sows and Gilts

Until she is first served (usually the 2nd or 3rd time that signs of heat (oestrus) are seen), a gilt

needs to mature so she should receive the same feed as a lactating sow. The daily feed allowance

should be between 1.5 and 2.5 kg (depending on bodyweight). Feeding an extra 0.5 kg per day

during the week before mating might increase the number of embryos (this is called ‘flushing’),

but this only works when the oestrus period can be predicted.

In the first month of pregnancy the sow should be fed conservatively (1.5-2.5 kg per day). If no

oestrus signs have been noticed by 21 days (which means that she is pregnant) feed the sow

according to her body condition: 0.5 kg extra if she is too lean, but if she is too fat, nothing extra

until the last month of pregnancy. In the last month of pregnancy, when the embryos are growing

the most, the sow should receive about 2.5-3.0 kg per day. A few days before farrowing (the

mating date must be recorded!) reduce the sow’s feed gradually, and on the day of farrowing

give her only 1-1.5 kg.

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2. Feeding Lactating Sows

After farrowing it is most important that there is plenty of drinking water available. A sow with

10 piglets needs about 30-35 litres of water per day. The daily amount of feed is gradually

increased from 2 kg the day after farrowing, adding 0.5 kg each day for about 10 days after

farrowing. The maximum amount of feed for the lactating sow is related to the number of piglets

that are suckling: About 1.5 kg for the sow’s maintenance and about 0.5 kg extra for every piglet.

With 12 piglets, this means that the mother should eat 1.5 + 6 = 7.5 kg feed per day. This is a lot

of feed and many sows have problems eating enough, especially in high temperatures. Therefore,

during the lactating period, the sows feed should be of high quality, so she can obtain enough

energy and protein to produce milk. On the day of weaning give the sow only 0-0.5 kg feed to

stop the milk flow, and the next day put her on the schedule for empty sows (flushing): 2.5-3 kg

day.

3. Feeding Piglets around Weaning

The piglets should receive the first colostrum from their mother as soon as possible after birth,

because it gives them warmth, energy and antibodies against diseases. For the piglets it is best

not to wean them before 6 weeks of age. However, to get the sow into the next reproductive

cycle as soon as possible, weaning at 4 weeks is better commercially. Sow’s milk has one

disadvantage: it contains little iron. Commercial pig producers give piglets an iron injection

during the first week, but it is also possible to put a shovel of compost in the pen every day, in

which the piglets can play and search. This supplies them with the necessary extra iron. Piglets

that lack iron have pale, whitish, unhealthy looking skin.

From the third week on, the piglets will benefit from supplementary feed, because this is when

the sow’s milk production starts to decline. The creep feed must contain animal protein and an

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easily digestible source of energy like maize, preferably even cooked (porridge) for better

digestion. This high-quality feed spoils easily, so the feeder must be cleaned every day and the

feed refreshed. It should be kept out of reach of the sow; she will be fine with less expensive

feed. If the piglets have diarrhoea (scouring), the creep feed should be removed for a few days.

Before the piglets are weaned from the mother, they need to become accustomed to other feed

than milk. Otherwise the change will be too big for them and problems might occur. Diarrhoea,

caused by colibacteria in the intestines, is a frequently occurring problem in the week after

weaning. Affected piglets must be treated with antibiotics, as they can die from an infection. In

the period after weaning, give the piglets the same feed for at least 10 days. If there are no

problems, you can start to gradually change over to a cheaper piglet feed. Changing to the next

feed should take about five days.

4. Feeding Piglets from Two Weeks after Weaning

At about six to eight weeks of age the piglets are still very sensitive and require feed that

includes animal protein and digestible starch from maize or cassava. As they no longer get sow’s

milk, an additional supply of vitamins and minerals is very good for them (compare them with

weaned children). Very often farmers continue to give the same creep feed until the piglets reach

15-20 kg of body weight. The quality of the available creep feed should be taken into account

when deciding when to wean the piglets. If there is no high quality (expensive) creep feed

available, the weaning time should be postponed until the piglets are six to eight weeks old.

However, we recommend that the piglets be given supplementary feed after about two weeks of

age.

5. Feeding Young Pigs (Bodyweight 20-45 Kg)

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By about 10 weeks the young pigs should weigh about 15-20 kg. On an intensive pig farm, they

may weigh as much as 25 kg. At this age they are suitable for selling as fatteners or for rearing as

replacement for breeding stock. The best ones should be selected for breeding, but the feeding

method is the same for both until they reach 50-60 kg body weight. Because this is the starting

period for the fatteners, the feed is called starter feed. The pigs’ growth will depend on the

quality of the feed (energy and protein level), because their feed intake is still limited.They can

eat about 1.0 kg (for a 20 kg pig)-1.8 kg (a 40 kg pig) per day in this period. They should be fed

as much as they can eat, but it is important that no rotting leftovers contaminate the feed. It is

also possible to feed them a smaller amount twice a day. This makes it easier to check the

appetite and health of the pigs. It is important that the pigs finish their feed in about 15-20

minutes. It is good practice generally to keep feed wastage to a minimum.

A small amount of animal protein in the feed will still be very beneficial to the animals at this

stage of their lives, so they can continue to grow more efficiently.

6. Feeding Pigs Heavier Than 40 Kilograms

Older pigs are most suited to lower quality feedstuffs and can tolerate the greatest variety in feed.

Again, their growth results are directly related to the quality of feed they consume, but at this

stage animal protein is not essential in their diet. The pigs’ eating capacity is still increasing with

age, but is generally between 2 and 3.5 kg per day. This means that if the market demands lean

pork, it might be necessary to restrict the feed intake in the final period, to prevent the fatteners

from accumulating too much fat in the carcass. Normally, no feed restriction is necessary until

the body weight has reached 70 kg. As long as fatter slaughter pigs do not command lower

prices, feed restriction is not recommended because extra feed intake always results in extra

body weight.

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Mating

Mating can be defined as the process where by spermatozoa is deposited in the female genital

organ through the penis inserted by male animal in to the vagina of the female animal after

ejaculation of the spermatozoa. It leads to fertilization of the ovum/egg in the female animal.

Mating is also referred to as corpulation or coition.

Mating is sexual reproduction method that ensures continuity of species of animal. Mating

during heat periods leads to fertilization.

Types of mating

There are two broad types of mating:-

1. Natural mating

2. Artificial mating

1. Natural mating:- This occurs when a male animal identifies a female animal on heat and mates

such animal. This could come in various forms viz:-

i- Herd Mating

This is a mating system that is uncontrolled and unplanned. All animals both males and females

are allowed to mix freely with no restriction and no strict monitoring of the oestrus cycle of the

female to dictate heat period.

ii- Hand Mating

This is mating system which is controlled and planned. Here the farm manager gets to

deliberately take the boar to the soar after selection from records and ensure they mate in an

enclosure place. Hand mating has a higher labour requirement.

iii- Pen Mating

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This occurs when few numbers of male animals are kept in the same pen with some females to

mate the female anytime the female comes on heat.

2.Artificial mating:- Artificial insemination is the artificial mating method. Artificial

insemination is the method of introducing semen from a proven male animal (male animal with

desirable characteristics) through its penis in to a female animal on heat using a artificial

insemination gun.

Female animal to be artificially inseminated are usually synchronized (forced to come on heat)

before introducing the semen.

The semen to be used are stored under liquid nitrogen gas at temperature of -196OC in dilute

acid.

Advantages of artificial insemination (AI)

1-It reduces the spread of diseases

2-semen of desirable animals can be preserve and still used after the death of the animal of many

years.

3-It help the farmers to plan breeding and parturition time as date of conception will be known.

4-It reduces the cost of management of desirable male animals. E.g feeding, housing,

vaccination, medication etc.

Dis-advantages of Artificial insemination (AI)

1-It requires technical experience and expertise.

2-Identification of animals on heat may be difficult if animals are to be synchronized.

Selecting Boar for Service

Boars are selected following performance testing to ensure efficient performance of their

offspring. The parameters usually considered include:

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 fast growth rate than average

less back fat than average

eats less food than average

high feed utilisation due to low fat production

two equally sized and firmly suspended testicles and with good sexual libido

good body conformation, strong straight feet and good temperament.

Young boars that are newly brought to the herd must be properly nurtured to adapt to their new

environment. They should be dewormed, sprayed/dipped against ecto-parasites and exercised

daily fitness, to enable him get used to his stock man as well as the sights and smells of the

piggery. The boar should be fed well for continued growth, but should not be allowed to become

fat and sluggish.

Selection of Sows for Breeding

When selecting the sows to be kept for breeding, the following point should be considered:

i. They should have at least 12 normal teats. In well-developedfarms, they should have 14 teats,

preferably seven on each side.

ii. They should be the largest and the healthiest of the litter.

iii. They should have strong legs and walk well.

iv. Their parents should be good breeding animals, capable of producing good sized litters at

regular intervals. Selecting the best females for breeding and giving them good housing and

proper care are the important steps towards improved breeding practice.

Mating Conditions

Recent studies have indicated that boars mating on their own pens displayed lower levels of

sexual behaviour than boars mating in the service pen. This resulted in a lower percentage of

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gilts being mated in the boar pen. This has necessitated the use of a specifically designed service

pen. A boar should not start serving until he is over eight months of age; and during the first two

months of service, only twice per week. Subsequently, he can be used for up to six services per

week.

Overworking a boar will reduce the quality of the sperm produced, leading to small litters and

increased number of sows returning to service. The standard recommendation is one boar to 20

sows/ gilts. Considerable exercise is necessary to prevent the development of leg weakness. It

may be necessary to trim the boar’s feet regularly.

Management of Gilts/ Sows

The major objective of gilt management should be to induce all replacement gilts to reach

puberty as soon as possible after selection.

This will allow the following objectives to be achieved:

disposing of gilts which are not showing any breeding activity at an early stage

access to a pool of young, sexually-active gilts

gilts will be in their second heat or more at first mating there by increasing the first litter size.

Gilts and sows will tend to get too fat if they are not allowed enough exercise. A fat sow takes

longer to come on heat and is more likely to crush her young piglets. Sexual maturity occurs as

early as 4 or 5 months, but the first service should not be until 8 months, when the weight should

be 10-130 kg. A sow has a productive life of four to five

years.

MANAGEMENT, PROCESSING AND

RECORD KEEPING

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DISEASES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

Once disease affects a pig herd, the impact on the economics of pig production in terms of the

cost of control and decreased productivity can be enormous. The first priority must therefore

always be to try to prevent the occurrence of disease. Thus many of the management procedures

are aimed at disease prevention or at mitigating the effects of those diseases that cannot be

prevented. With skilled management, combined with well-designed housing and sound nutrition,

an overall strategy to minimise the possibility of disease attack can be formulated Local pig

breeds are often more resistant to diseases. The most common problem with keeping any sort of

pig in free-range or semi-intensive

systems is not disease, but controlling infestation by worms or otherparasites. In intensive pig-

keeping systems, disease is a greater risk because many animals are kept together in a small

space. Infectious diseases spread easily and quickly among the animals. In intensive systems

commercial breeds are often used and these tend to be less

resistant to disease. Intensive pig production is a financial undertaking. Diseases can lead to

production shortfalls (slower growth rates or loss of animals) and a loss of income for the farmer.

In these circumstances it is essential to take all necessary measures to prevent diseases and treat

the animals if they get sick, as long as the costs of treatment do not exceed the expected loss of

income.

In free-range and sometimes in semi-intensive systems, farmers do not generally have money to

spend on medical treatment. Also, the pigs are probably not their only source of income. In such

cases a drop in production may be considered less important, and farmers may wish to calculate

whether the benefits of saving the sick animal and protecting the others justify the cost of

treatment. In terms of prevention, if there is a high risk of an infectious disease occurring,

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animals can be vaccinated to reduce the risk of losing them all if a disease breaks out. There are

no vaccines for all diseases. For example, there is not yet a vaccine against African Swine Fever

(ASF).This disease affects local and commercial breeds of pigs equally. In fact, free-range pigs

make the disease spread more quickly because they move around more than pigs kept in a

limited space.

Parasites

1. External parasites

2. Internal parasites

Parasites are defined as organisms which live on and obtain food from the body of another,

known as the host. They may live on the exterior of the pig, when they are known as external

parasites or within the internal tissues and organs when they are known as internal parasites.

Parasites will seldom result in the death of the host except in the case of massive infestations or

if the host is also stressed in other ways.

1. External Parasites

These mainly cause irritation to the skin surface, often leading towounds and an increased

susceptibility to other infections. The most common external parasites are mange-mites, ticks,

lice, fleas and flies.

Control: Regular treatment either dipping or spraying with suitable acaricides/anti mange

medication, regular spraying of pigs and their quarters and chronic cases to be culled.

2. Internal Parasites

These include round worms, tape worms and lung worms. The control of these parasites includes

breaking the life cycle i.e. regularly moving range pigs on to fresh grounds. Frequent removal of

faeces in housed pigs. Breeding pigs should be routinely dosed with broad spectrum

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antihelminthes and young stock dosed after weaning. Also, preventing pigs access to human

faeces is particularly important in controlling tape worms.

Infectious Diseases

1. African Swine Fever (ASF)

This is a viral infection. Prevent direct contact between domestic and wild pigs. No vaccine, no

treatment thus far for this disease. There should be strict prevention of movement of pigs,

personal and vehicles between pig farms. Do not feed pigs with uncooked garbage from hotel

this may contain the virus. In case of outbreak of ASF, bury or burn the carcasses, disinfect

house with strong disinfectants. Rest the house for three months.

2. Foot and Mouth Disease

Most contagious of all known viral diseases. There is no cure. If outbreak occurs in nearby

farms, pigs can be vaccinated. Vaccinate with the right antivirus.

3. Swine Erysipelas

Caused by a bacterium that lies in the soil. Treatment is effective with right antibiotics and

should be timely. Excellent vaccines are available. Routine vaccination programme is

recommended to prevent infection.

4. Anthrax

An acute, and often fatal bacterial disease which often cause mortality in humans. There is

effective vaccine against the disease. If the disease is suspected carcass should not be open as

this releases infective spores.

Infected carcass should be buried at sufficient depth to prevent transmission of the spores.

5. Enteritis (Inflammation of the Intestine)

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This is a condition that can be caused by a variety of micro-organisms or inappropriate feed. It is

characterised by some of the following symptoms: loss of energy and interest, high temperature,

loss of appetite, diarrhoea (sometimes bloody) and weight loss. If the problem is food-related,

starve the animal and give only clean water for one or two days. After that, gradually increase

the feed to normal levels. The cause of the problem may be a sudden change in diet, in which

case the same procedure should be followed. Common intestinal problems are listed here:

Clostridium enterotoxaemia:

This usually occurs in piglets that are one to five days old. There is no good treatment. The sows

can be vaccinated, so that the piglets build up antibodies through the sows’ milk. The piglets can

also be given injections of ampi/amoxycilline.

6. Tetanus

Tetanus bacteria can develop if a deep closed wound is incurred from rusty metal (standing on a

rusty nail for example). The animals finally die as a result of severe cramps. There is no

treatment.

7. Mastitis

This affects the tissue of the udder and can result in permanent damage, so that breeding pigs can

no longer be used. Infection can be avoided to a degree by good hygiene. If mastitis is noticed,

the sow must be injected with antibiotics and oxytocin as soon as possible.

8. Brucellosis

This causes abortion in female animals and infection of the reproductive organs in the male

animal. Sterility may result. Although treatment with antibiotics is sometimes possible for

females, it is better to dispose of infected animals. The boars should be carefully controlled

because the germs from the boar can be transmitted without the boar himself being

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ill.

9. Trypanosomiasis

This is transmitted by the tsetse fly. The infected animals are feverish,

lack appetite and breathe very fast. Prevention is only possible by

eradicating the fly from the region. Pig breeding is therefore almost

impossible in tsetse infested areas. Long acting drugs could be used to

protect the pigs.

10. Pneumonia

Pneumonia may be caused by bacteria, viruses (usually by both at the

same time) or parasites (lung worms and intestinal worms that have found their way into the

lung). The condition is made worse by keeping too many pigs in a small space, low

temperatures, draughts, insufficient air humidity, and dusty surroundings. The illness is more

common in the rainy season and at this time the pigs should have dry and draught-free

conditions. The animals start coughing, especially after exertion and when roused, and they

breathe with convulsions. Their growth is retarded. If viruses and bacteria are the cause,

treatment is by antibiotics (streptomycin-penicillin, tetracycline). Ripercol R or Ivermectine is

used if lung worms are involved.

11. Weil’s Disease (Leptospirosis)

This disease is marked by sudden abortion by a number of sows, usually

towards the end of their pregnancy. The piglets are often different in size. Sometimes very weak

piglets are born at the normal time. After the abortion there is no loss of fertility in the sows, and

the disease dies out of its own accord within a few months. During a leptospirosis epidemic,

abortions can be prevented by giving all the pregnant sows two injections of

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dihydrostreptomycine in doses of 25mg/kg body weight, with an interval of one week in between

each injection.

Feed-Related Diseases

Some diseases are related to nutritional disorders which could be either due to absence are

feeding too much of a particular nutrient. Some of these disorders are described below

1. Anaemia (Iron deficiency)

This is an important problem, especially for young piglets kept indoors.

The piglets become very pale a few weeks after birth and their growth slows down. The cause is

an iron deficiency in the mother’s milk. This can be prevented by putting iron-rich soil (mud

from the ditches, forest soil) in the pen every day, giving the pigs something to root in. This soil

should not have been in contact with pigs previously, and it must not carry worms. Give soil

from the very first week. Very young pigs (0-3

days old) can be given an injection of irondextran if it is available. This is commonly done in

(semi-) intensive systems. Wood ash may also be put in the pen. Wood ash will not provide iron,

but it provides other minerals such as calcium and phosphorus which are important for the

growth of the piglets’ bones.

2. Constipation

Constipated sows should have a 60 g dose of linseed oil in their feed every day. If this does not

help, give 60 g of Epsom salts and the sow should be made to take exercise.

3. Other Problems

Sunstroke

This is cause by too much sun. The skin gets burned and pigs feel pain. White skinned pigs are

most susceptible to sunstroke, and their skin turns red. To prevent this, make sure there is enough

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shade available. An effective treatment is to bath its head in cold water. If possible, give it some

brandy or whisky with a teaspoon. Make sure it has shade.

Skin or Leg Problems:

Wounds or Injuries

The main causes are either housing if there are sharp edges or fighting especially in overcrowded

conditions. In order to prevent this happening the housing should be improved, avoid

overcrowding and keep different ages of pigs separate. For treatment use antibiotic injections for

three to five days, clean/disinfect wound and use ointment.

Arthritis (Swollen Joints)

This is cause by bacteria and the symptoms include one or more leg joints seriously swollen. The

pig limps, feels a lot of pain and has fever (often a body temp. > 40 °C). For prevention, disinfect

umbilical cords, smooth floors. Treatment includes the use of antibiotic injections for 5 days.

PROCESSING OF PIG PRODUCTS AND

RECORD KEEPING

Pig processing start by transporting them to the slaughter house. The method, by which they are

restrained, transported and the stress to which they are subjected becomes very important. The

final phase of pig production is the sale and disposal of the end product. The pig is extremely

versatile in terms of the number of product which can be derived from pig meat.

Transportation of Pigs to Markets

The stress of transporting pigs to the slaughterhouse can result in pigs dying in transit, dying in

lairage, at the slaughterhouse, or reduced meat quality in the carcass. The stresses which confront

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the pig are the handling at loading and unloading, the new surroundings, mixing with strange

pigs, the physical discomfort of the journey, and most importantly under tropical conditions, heat

stress. Measures taken to minimise these stress include:

i. Ensure that the loading ramp is properly designed with solid walls and is at the correct height

for the cart, truck or trailer.

ii. Handle the pigs quietly and gently at all times. Avoid the use of sticks and prodders.

iii. Do not feed pigs for 12 hours before loading.

iv. Avoid loading and traveling during the heat of the day.

v. Spray the pigs with cold water before loading and again in the truck.

vi. Provide cover on the truck, good ventilation, adequate bedding and ensure the floors are not

slippery. Make sure the sides of the truck are high enough to prevent the pigs jumping out. If

possible, subdivide animals into groups of 10 or fewer, and never mix pigs of different weight.

vii. Do not stop en route to the slaughterhouse.

Lairage

It is important to pen the pigs waiting to be slaughtered under shade and in small groups and

sprayed with water, and feed only if there are long delays before slaughter. Pigs should be

handled and driven quietly and gently at all times and supervised to prevent fighting. As far as

possible, avoid fear, they should be penned away from the sights and smells of the slaughtering

process. All the potential profits which have been achieved

during the growing period can be nullified by deaths or damage at this stage.

Slaughter Procedure

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For reasons of animal welfare, pigs should always be stunned before they are bled. Effective

stunning ensures prompt and more complete bleeding and also minimises intensive muscle

contraction. The main methods of stunning are:

Mechanical: A captive-bold pistol or other implement is used to stunned the animal.

Electrical: A pair of tongs is used to apply an electrical charge to the pig’s head. A current of

1.25 amps and 300 to 600 volts renders the pig unconscious within one second.

Gas: pigs can be led into a tunnel containing 70 to 80 percent carbon dioxide, when they will

lose consciousness within two seconds.

1. Bleeding

Immediately after stunning the animal should be suspended by it hind legs and the blood vessels

of the neck completely severed to ensure thorough and complete bleeding. The blood should be

collected in clean vessels.

2. Scalding and De-Hairing

By immersing the carcass in water at 65 to 75◦C, the hair is loose and can be removed by

scraping. Any excess hair can be burn of by a flame. For small scale farmers who are

slaughtering on the farm, a drum of water over fire is adequate for scalding purposes. Or

alternatively where water is scarce, and if the skins are not used, de-hairing can be achieved by

covering the carcass with a 5cm deep layer of straw or dry grass and burning it. The skin can

then be scraped to remove the carbonized surface and any remaining hair.

3. Evisceration

A long cut is made down the belly from the breast to the hams. To prevent the meat being

contaminated, the entire length of the gut should be removed intact. Other internal organs can be

separated, and the gut emptied and cleaned away from the rest of the meat.

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Meat Hygiene

The freshly killed carcass is an ideal breeding ground for bacteria and hygienic conditions are of

paramount importance to prevent infections. Ideally carcass should be chilled immediately after

slaughter, and the meat should remain chilled until it is cooked. Where refrigerator is not

available, carcasses should be hung in a cool room, protected from flies by gauze, and then sold

and eaten as soon as possible. At any slaughterhouse, all carcasses should be examined by a

qualified meat inspector. He examines the carcass and offal critically for signs of parasites

infections (e.g. measly pork, ‘milk-spot’ livers, damaged lungs, etc.). Meat that does not pass

inspection is condemned and should be burnt. The carcass slaughtered from pigs on the farm

should also be examined critically so that the transmission of disease and parasites from pigs to

humans can be avoided.

Marketing

The main systems of marketing pigs are:

i. Private sales: This is the most common method in the tropics among small scale producers.

One, or a number of pigs are sold to local consumers, other producers, butchers or middlemen.

The pigs are sold live and the price is generally subject to negotiation this system has the

advantage of being the simplest, but in rural areas individuals who are not aware of current

prices can be taken advantage of by speculators and dealers. Due to this problem, marketing co-

operative have been formed in some rural areas to ensure adequate prices for producer members.

ii. Public sales: This involve taking the pigs to a central market place, where they are sold by

auction on a live basis to the highest bidder.

iii. Direct sale to an abattoir or butcher: This is more applicable to a larger- scale producer. The

big disadvantage of direct sales is the effect of the ‘pig cycle’. This is the notorious fluctuation in

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price which occurs in most countries. When pigs are in short supply, prices rise, but this in turn

stimulates increased production among producers, and consequently prices fall. As it takes

approximately a year for a producer to react to price changes, the cycle will occur every 12 to 18

months. This leads to lack of stability with producers going in and out of pig production.

iv. Contact sales by entering into a contract with an abattoir to supply a certain number of pigs

over a period at a set price, the producer is largely protected from the effects of the pig cycle. In

turn, this allows him to plan his production output over a longer

time.

Uses of Pig Meat

Pig meats are marketed in the form of:

Fresh meat: This is the most important product in the tropics in general, as processing

facilities are limited. Pig destined for the fresh meat trade are usually slaughtered at younger ages

and lower weights (porkers) than those used for processing. If sold in the commercial markets,

the carcass can be butchered into a number of whole sale cuts which can be cooked and eaten in

a number of different ways:

Cured products: These include the various bacons and hams which are curd in brine and can

also be flavoured by hanging in smoke to increase the shelf life of the product compared with

fresh meat. Bacon and ham are derived from the baconer category

of pig, which is heavier than the porker.

Records Keeping and Monitoring

For those who intend to keep a number of pigs for breeding purposes it is essential to have a

good system of record-keeping. This will help to keep track of developments, make comparisons

and take decisions on the management of the herd. It will also have a direct positive impact on

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daily management. Good record-keeping means noting down simply and clearly all important

details and events. It can also be used to provide and record information for future activities. It is

important for example to calculate and note the next date for checking whether a sow is in heat

or the date when she should farrow. Such information should be marked on a card, in a notebook

or on a calendar, so that any necessary preparation can start well in advance (for example

preparing the farrowing pen for the sow). For a farm of up to 3 sows, a system of record-keeping

requires no more than a notebook or exercise book. Use a few pages for each sow, and note

down all the important events. For bigger farms it is good to use a separate farrowing card for

each

farrowing of a sow, and a sow card giving the details of all the litters of one sow Relevant

information to record includes:

For a breeding sow:

i. The name/number of the sow

ii. The month and year of her birth

iii. Her parents’ names or numbers and breed

Important events:

i. Date of 1st heat

ii. Date of 2nd heat

iii. Date of 3rd heat

iv. Date of mating, and name of the boar

v. Result of the heat check three weeks after mating (did she come in heat again?)

vi. Anticipated date of farrowing – mark this on a calendar!

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vii. The date for putting the sow in a farrowing pen (one or two weeks before farrowing). Mark

this on the calendar too!

viii. Actual date of farrowing

ix. Size of the litter, number of healthy piglets, number of still-born

x. piglets and, if possible, the weight of the piglets.

- Number and weight of piglets that have survived and have been successfully weaned (this gives

an idea of the sow’s mothering qualities).

Other information to note:

i. Dates of illness, nature of the problem and the treatment and/or

medicines administered.

ii. Vaccination information.

iii. If a piglet is selected for further breeding, information should be

transferred to the new page of records opened for that piglet in its

new role as a breeding sow or boar.

iv. It is important to record the boar’s activity and the results obtained, so that his performance

can be assessed. The fertility of the boar is indicated by the size of the litters he produces and the

percentage of sow’s in-pig after a first service (insemination

rate).

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN SWINE

PRODUCTION

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In this unit you will learn about the various things you need to do on your farm in order to ensure

that your pigs are healthy and your farm is doing well. The activities are referred to as

management practices.

Different classes of pigs need to be managed in appropriate manner to attain and maintain high

productivity and profitability.

Management Practices

Various management practices require in a farm are described below:

1. Creep Feeding

Young piglets from 10 days onwards should have a high protein diet available to them. They

have to be fed in small creep area where the mother cannot eat the feed. The feed conversion rate

of young piglets is very high thus creep feeding is particularly economical. Creep feeding is very

important as the piglets become used to feeding on solid food at an early age; the sows’ milk

begin to decrease just as the piglets require

more feed.

2. Provision of Iron

It is necessary for piglets to be given iron this can be in the form of an injection of 2ml iron

dextran, or as pills or in their creep feed or swab the sow’s teats with an appropriate solution that

contains iron or copper, like ferrous sulphate, or administer in water daily, for the first five days

of life. If piglets are reared on a concrete floor, provide clean soil or

earth (sod) which is of up-rooted grass with both roots and earth intact at a corner of the pen as a

source of iron and copper. By observing good management and sanitary practices as mentioned

above the piglets will double their birth weights within five to eight days. At weaning i.e.

between four to six weeks of age they should weigh 10-12 times more than their birth weight.

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Growth rates in large litters are usually less uniform than smaller ones. Bigger piglets usually

prefer the better front teats and so gain more weight and faster than the rest. Piglets usually stick

to teats they started with.

3. Needle Teeth Removal

Piglet needle teeth should be clipped off with a pair of clippers to prevent them from wounding

their sow’s teat which might make her refuse them suckling.

4. Castration

Castration is the act of removing the testicles of a male animal to render them ineffective. This

operation is carried out on all unwanted males in the herd. This management operation prevents

unwanted breeding and improves the carcass quality of the animal. It can be carried out by

surgically operation or bloodlessly by the use of a burdizzo or rubber ring elastrator after the

animal must have been haltered. Surgical operation is done within the first week of the animal’s

life while the bloodless one could be done within the first two weeks of life.

5. Tail Docking

The tails of ruminants are cut in a process called docking. This is practiced especially in sheep

within one week of life. Long tails in sheep at times do not make for good mating at adult age.

An elastrator could be used at times to dock the animal and the wound treated. At this age the

pain is minimised.

6. Culling of Sows

To maintain overall productivity in the herd, it is important to have a culling policy so that sows

removed at the correct time. The reasons for culling include; Lameness, other injuries, farrowing

problems, poor litter-size, poor mothering ability, and low fertility. A sow that regularly

produces a good litter will eventually start to decline with age, probably around her tenth litter if

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she is producing well; a god guide is to allow her to remain in the herd until her performance

falls below the average of the gilts in the herd. At the same time, it is important to have a supply

of pregnant gilts available to replace sows that need to be culled.

Marking and Identification

(i) Ear Tagging: This is done for identification purposes. The animal is haltered and the tag is

placed in the applicator then clamped to the pina of the ear. Caution must be taken not to damage

the blood vessels on the pina. Other operations for identification includes: tattooing, ear

notching, skin branding, horn branding and the use of neck chains or tags- either plastic or

metals.

(ii) Tattooing: This is the art of drawing a design on the body of the animal that is peculiar to the

animal and well known by the farm manager.

(iii) Ear notching: is cutting the ears in a particular shape and coding the shape. It involves the

use of razor or scissors to cut a “V” shape on the tip of the pina. The positions of the cut indicate

numbers. If it is at the top of the pina it denotes 1, if at the tip, 5 and if under, it is 3. The right

ear represents tens while the left represent units. The two are added to give the animal an

identification number in the herd.

(iv) Skin and horn branding: are very common in our local setting. Hot iron is used to write

numbers and at times names of owners of the animal on their skin or horn. This practice is very

common with cattle.

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