MODULE ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Course Title: ELECTRICITY and MAGNETISM

Course Number: Sci 115
Total Learning Time: 6 hours (Week 13-14)

Learning outcomes At the end of this module, the students must have:

1. discussed electromagnetic induction

2. stated and explained Faraday’s law and Lenz’s law
3. demonstrated understanding on Faraday’s and Lenz’s law
4. solved problems using Faraday’s law and Lenz’s law

Of
overview

Electricity and magnetism were considered separate and unrelated phenomena for a long time. In the early
decades of the nineteenth century, experiments on electric current by Oersted, Ampere and a few others established the
fact that electricity and magnetism are inter-related. They found that moving electric charges produce magnetic fields. For
example, an electric current deflects a magnetic compass needle placed in its vicinity. This naturally raises the questions
like: Is the converse effect possible? Can moving magnets produce electric currents? Does the nature permit such a
relation between electricity and magnetism? The answer is resounding yes! The experiments of Michael Faraday in
England and Joseph Henry in USA, conducted around 1830, demonstrated conclusively that electric currents were
induced in closed coils when subjected to changing magnetic fields. In this chapter, we will study the phenomena
associated with changing magnetic fields and understand the underlying principles. The phenomenon in which electric
current is generated by varying magnetic fields is appropriately called electromagnetic induction.

When Faraday first made public his discovery that relative motion between a bar magnet and a wire loop
produced a small current in the latter, he was asked, ―What is the use of it?‖ His reply was: ―What is the use of a new
born baby?‖ The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction is not merely of theoretical or academic interest but also of
practical utility. Imagine a world where there is no electricity – no electric lights, no trains, no telephones and no personal
computers. The pioneering experiments of Faraday and Henry have led directly to the development of modern day
generators and transformers. Today’s civilisation owes its progress to a great extent to the discovery of electromagnetic
induction.

Electromagnetic Induction or Induction is a process in which a conductor is put in a particular position and magnetic
field keeps varying or magnetic field is stationary and a conductor is moving. This produces a voltage or EMF (electromotive
force) across the electrical conductor. Michael Faraday discovered Law of Induction in 1830.

Faraday’s Law of Induction describes how an electric current produces a magnetic field and, conversely, how a
changing magnetic field generates an electric current in a conductor. English physicist Michael Faraday gets the credit for
discovering magnetic induction in 1830; however, an American physicist, Joseph Henry, independently made the same
discovery about the same time.

It is impossible to overstate the significance of Faraday’s discovery. Magnetic induction makes possible the
electric motors, generators and transformers that form the foundation of modern technology. By understanding and using
induction, we have an electric power grid and many of the things we plug into it.

Faraday's law was later incorporated into the more comprehensive Maxwell’s equation which was developed by
Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell to explain the relationship between electricity and magnetism, essentially uniting
them into a single electromagnet force and describing electromagnetic waves that make up radio waves, visible light, and
X-rays.
Indicative content

Faraday’s Law
Lenz’ Law

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Electricity

Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter. Although it is difficult to describe what it actually is,
we are quite familiar with how it behaves and interacts with other charges and fields. The electric field from a
localized point charge is relatively simple. It describes as radiating out equally in all directions, like light from a
bare light bulb, and decreasing in strength as the inverse square of the distance (1/r2), in accordance with
Coulomb’s Law. When you move twice as far away, the field strength decreases to one-fourth, and when you
move three times farther away, it decreases to one-ninth.

Protons have positive charge, while electrons have negative charge. However, protons are mostly
immobilized inside atomic nuclei, so the job of carrying charge from one place to another is handled by electrons.
Electrons in a conducting material such as a metal are largely free to move from one atom to another along their
conduction bands, which are the highest electron orbits. A sufficient electromotive force (emf), or voltage,
produces a charge imbalance that can cause electrons move through a conductor from a region of more negative
charge to a region of more positive charge. This movement is what we recognize as an electric current.

Magnetism

In order to understand Faraday’s Law of Induction, it is important to have a basic understanding of

magnetic fields. Compared to the electric field, the magnetic field is more complex. While positive and negative
electric charges can exist separately, magnetic poles always come in pairs — one north and one south. Typically,
magnets of all sizes — from sub-atomic particles to industrial-size magnets to planets and stars — are dipoles,
meaning they each have two poles. We call these poles north and south after the direction in which compass
needles point. Interestingly, since opposite poles attract, and like poles repel, the magnetic north pole of the Earth
is actually a south magnetic pole because it attracts the north poles of compass needles.

A magnetic field is often depicted as lines of magnetic flux. In the case of a bar magnet, the flux lines exit
from the north pole and curve around to re-enter at the south pole. In this model, the number of flux lines passing
through a given surface in space represents the flux density, or the strength of the field. However, it should be
noted that this is only a model. A magnetic field is smooth and continuous and does not actually consist of
discrete lines.

Earth’s magnetic field produces a tremendous amount of magnetic flux, but it is dispersed over a huge
volume of space. Therefore, only a small amount of flux passes through a given area, resulting in a relatively
weak field. By comparison, the flux from a refrigerator magnet is tiny compared to that of the Earth, but its field
strength is many times stronger at close range where its flux lines are much more densely packed. However, the
field quickly becomes much weaker as you move away.

Induction

If we run an electric current through a wire, it will produce a magnetic field around the wire. The
direction of this magnetic field can be determined by the right-hand rule. If you extend your thumb and curl the
fingers of your right hand, your thumb points in the positive direction of the current, and your fingers curl in the
north direction of the magnetic field.

If you bend the wire into a loop, the magnetic field lines will bend with it, forming a toroid, or doughnut
shape. In this case, your thumb points in the north direction of the magnetic field coming out of the center of the loop,
while your fingers will point in the positive direction of the current in the loop.

If we run a current through a wire loop in a magnetic field, the interaction of these magnetic fields will exert
a twisting force, or torque, on the loop causing it to rotate, according to the Rochester Institute of Technology.
However, it will only rotate so far until the magnetic fields are aligned. If we want the loop to continue rotating, we
have to reverse the direction of the current, which will reverse the direction of the magnetic field from the loop. The
loop will then rotate 180 degrees until its field is aligned in the other direction. This is the basis for the electric motor.

Conversely, if we rotate a wire loop in a magnetic field, the field will induce an electric current in the wire.
The direction of the current will reverse every half turn, producing an alternating current. This is the basis for the

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electric generator. It should be noted here that it is not the motion of the wire but rather the opening and closing of the
loop with respect to the direction of the field that induces the current. When the loop is face-on to the field, the
maximum amount of flux passes through the loop. However, when the loop is turned edge-on to the field, no flux
lines pass through the loop. It is this change in the amount of flux passing through the loop that induces the current.

Another experiment we can perform is to form a wire into a loop and connect the ends to a sensitive current
meter, or galvanometer. If we then push a bar magnet through the loop, the needle in the galvanometer will move,
indicating an induced current. However, once we stop the motion of the magnet, the current returns to zero. The field
from the magnet will only induce a current when it is increasing or decreasing. If we pull the magnet back out, it will
again induce a current in the wire, but this time it will be in the opposite direction.

If we were to put a light bulb in the circuit, it

would dissipate electrical energy in the form of light and
heat, and we would feel resistance to the motion of the
magnet as we moved it in and out of the loop. In order
to move the magnet, we have to do work that is
equivalent to the energy being used by the light bulb.

In yet another experiment, we might construct

two wire loops, connect the ends of one to a battery with
a switch, and connect the ends of the other loop to a
galvanometer. If we place the two loops close to each
other in a face-to-face orientation, and we turn on the
power to the first loop, the galvanometer connected to
Figure 35. Magnet in a wire loop connected to a galvanometer. the second loop will indicate an induced current and
(Image credit: Fouad A. Saad Shutterstock)
then quickly return to zero.

FARADAY’S LAW

What is Faraday’s Law?

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction (referred to as Faraday’s law) is a basic law of

electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive
force (EMF). This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction.

Faraday’s law states that a current will be induced in a conductor which is exposed to a changing magnetic
field. Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction states that the direction of this induced current will be such that the
magnetic field created by the induced current opposes the initial changing magnetic field which produced it. The
direction of this current flow can be determined using Fleming’s right-hand rule.

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Faraday’s law of induction explains the working principle of transformers, motors, generators, and
inductors. The law is named after Michael Faraday, who performed an experiment with a magnet and a coil. During
Faraday’s experiment, he discovered how EMF is induced in a coil when the flux passing through the coil changes.

Faraday’s Experiment

In this experiment, Faraday takes a magnet and a coil and connects a galvanometer across the coil. At
starting, the magnet is at rest, so there is no deflection in the galvanometer i.e the needle of the galvanometer is at
the center or zero position. When the magnet is moved towards the coil, the needle of the galvanometer deflects in
one direction.

When the magnet is held stationary at that position, the

needle of galvanometer returns to zero position. Now when the
magnet moves away from the coil, there is some deflection in
the needle but opposite direction, and again when the magnet
becomes stationary, at that point respect to the coil, the needle of
the galvanometer returns to the zero position. Similarly, if the
magnet is held stationary and the coil moves away, and towards
the magnet, the galvanometer similarly shows deflection. It is
also seen that the faster the change in the magnetic field, the
greater will be the induced EMF or voltage in the coil.

Position of magnet Deflection in galvanometer

Magnet at rest No deflection in the galvanometer

Magnet moves towards the coil Deflection in galvanometer in one direction

Magnet is held stationary at same position (near the coil) No deflection in the galvanometer

Magnet moves away from the coil Deflection in galvanometer but in the opposite direction

Magnet is held stationary at the same position (away from

No deflection in the galvanometer
the coil)

Conclusion:
From this experiment, Faraday concluded that whenever there is relative motion between a conductor and a
magnetic field, the flux linkage with a coil changes and this change in flux induces a voltage across a coil.
Michael Faraday formulated two laws on the basis of the above experiments. These laws are called Faraday’s laws
of electromagnetic induction.

 Faraday’s First Law

Any change in the magnetic field of a coil of wire will cause an emf to be induced in the coil. This emf
induced is called induced emf and if the conductor circuit is closed, the current will also circulate through the
circuit and this current is called induced current.

Method to change the magnetic field:

 By moving a magnet towards or away from the coil
 By moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field
 By changing the area of a coil placed in the magnetic field
 By rotating the coil relative to the magnet

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 Faraday’s Second Law

It states that the magnitude of emf induced in the coil is equal to the rate of change of flux that linkages
with the coil. The flux linkage of the coil is the product of the number of turns in the coil and flux associated with
the coil.

Faraday’s Law Formula

Consider, a magnet is approaching towards a coil. Here we consider two instants at time T1 and time T2.

Flux linkage with the coil at time,

Flux linkage with the coil at time,

Change in flux linkage,

Let this change in flux linkage be,

So, the change in flux linkage,

Now the rate of change of flux linkage will be,

Take derivative on right-hand side we will get,

The rate of change of flux linkage

But according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the rate of change of flux linkage is equal
to induced emf.

Considering Lenz’s Law.

where:
Flux Φ in Wb = B.A
B = magnetic field strength
A = area of the coil

 How To Increase EMF Induced in a Coil

1. By increasing the number of turns in the coil i.e N, from the formulae derived above it is easily seen that if the
number of turns in a coil is increased, the induced emf also gets increased.

2. By increasing magnetic field strength i.e B surrounding the coil- Mathematically, if magnetic field increases, flux
increases and if flux increases emf induced will also get increased. Theoretically, if the coil is passed through a
stronger magnetic field, there will be more lines of force for the coil to cut and hence there will be more emf
induced.

3. By increasing the speed of the relative motion between the coil and the magnet – If the relative speed between the
coil and magnet is increased from its previous value, the coil will cut the lines of flux at a faster rate, so more
induced emf would be produced.

Applications of Faraday’s Law

Faraday’s law is one of the most basic and important laws of electromagnetism. This law finds its
application in most of the electrical machines, industries, and the medical field, etc.

 Power transformers function based on Faraday’s law.

 The basic working principle of the electrical generator is Faraday’s law of mutual induction.

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 The Induction cooker is the fastest way of cooking. It also works on the principle of mutual induction. When
current flows through the coil of copper wire placed below a cooking container, it produces a changing magnetic
field. This alternating or changing magnetic field induces an emf and hence the current in the conductive
container, and we know that the flow of current always produces heat in it.

 Electromagnetic Flow Meter is used to measure the velocity of certain fluids. When a magnetic field is applied to
an electrically insulated pipe in which conducting fluids are flowing, then according to Faraday’s law, an
electromotive force is induced in it. This induced emf is proportional to the velocity of fluid flowing.

 Form bases of Electromagnetic theory, Faraday’s idea of lines of force are used in well-known Maxwell’s
equations. According to Faraday’s law, change in magnetic field gives rise to change in electric field and the
converse of this is used in Maxwell’s equations.

 It is also used in musical instruments like an electric guitar, electric violin, etc.

LENZ LAW

Lenz's law, named after the physicist Emil Lenz (pronounced /ˈlɛnts/) who formulated it in 1834, states that
the direction of the electric current which is induced in a conductor by a changing magnetic field is such that the
magnetic field created by the induced current opposes the initial changing magnetic field.

It is a qualitative law that specifies the direction of induced current, but states nothing about its magnitude.
Lenz's law explains the direction of many effects in electromagnetism, such as the direction of voltage induced in an
inductor or wire loop by a changing current, or the drag force of eddy currents exerted on moving objects in a
magnetic field.

Lenz’s Law Experiment

To find the direction of the induced electromotive force and current we look to Lenz’s law. Some
experiments were proved by Lenz’s in accordance with his theory.

 First Experiment
In the first experiment, he concluded that when the current in the coil flows in the circuit the
magnetic field lines are produced. As the current flows through the coil increases, the magnetic flux will
increase. The direction of the flow of induced current would be such that it opposes when the magnetic flux
increases.

 Second Experiment
In the second experiment, he concluded that when the current-carrying coil is wound on an iron
rod with its left end behaving as N-pole and is moved towards the coil S, an induced current will be
produced.

 Third Experiment
In the third experiment, he concluded that when the coil is pulled towards the magnetic flux, the
coil linked with it goes on decreasing which means that the area of the coil inside the magnetic field
decreases. According to Lenz’s law, the motion of the coil is opposed when the induced current is applied in
the same direction.

To produce the current force is exerted by the magnet in the loop. To oppose the change a force must be
exerted by the current on the magnet.

Lenz’s law is based on the law of conservation of energy. From the definition of Lenz’s law, we know
that the induced current is always opposed by the cause that produces it. Therefore, there is extra work done against
the opposing force. The work done against the opposing force results in the change in the magnetic flux and hence the
current is induced. The extra work done is known as electrical energy which is the law of conservation of energy.

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Lenz’s Law and the Electric Generator

The two sides of the coil in Figure 22a move in opposite directions as the armature is rotated through the
magnetic field. Consider side AB whose direction of motion is to the right. According to Lenz’s law, if side AB
moves to the right it will produce a current which in turn will cause a force to the left, opposing the motion. The force
opposes the change that caused it – the change is a motion to the right, so the force is directed to the left. Using the
right-hand rule illustrated in Figure 22b, we can determine the direction of the current. The right0hnad rule for the
generator uses the thumb, the forefinger, and the middle finger of the right hand. These fingers are extended at right
angles to each other, with the middle finger pointing to the direction of induced current, the forefinger pointing to the
direction of the magnetic field, and the thumb to the direction of the motion of the conductor. The direction of the
current in Figure 22a is toward you. The charge would tend to flow from B to A. The generators positive terminal is
at x, and its negative terminal is at y.

Figure 22. (a) Con doctor AB moving to the right, cutting across a magnetic field; (b) right-hand rule for a generator

Experiments showed that the magnitude of the induced emf may also be computed by using the equation,

έ = BLv sin θ where: L = length of the wire in the coil that moves through the magnetic field in m
v = velocity of the moving side in m/s
θ = angle between the direction of B and v
v sin θ = component of the velocity perpendicular to B

If perpendicular to B, θ = 900 = 1, the maximum induced emf is obtained.

έ = BLv

1. What is the difference between Lenz’s law and Faraday’s law?

Lenz’s law is about conservation of energy applied to the electromagnetic induction whereas Faraday’s
law is about the electromagnetic force produced.

2. What is the prime importance of Lenz’s law?

Lenz’s law is used to determine the direction of the induced current.

3. What does the negative sign indicate in Lenz’s law?

The negative sign in Lenz’s law indicates that the induced emf in the coil is in the opposite direction of
the magnetic flux which is linked with the coil.

4. Where is Lenz’s law used?

Lenz’s law is used to explain how electromagnetic circuits obey the conservation of energy and Newton’s
third law.

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