2024

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
LAB MANUAL

SUBMITTED BY: Abdullah Zaheer

REGISTRATION NO: 2020-CIV-74
SECTION: “B”
SUBMITTED TO: Miss Zarafshan Ali

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
LAHORE

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 Table of Contents

Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................ 1

List of Figures, Graph & Tables ............................................................................................... 5
Experiment 1: Determination of the total Hardness, Calcium Hardness, and Magnesium
Hardness in drinking water ....................................................................................................... 6
1.1 Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 6
1.2 Apparatus ............................................................................................................................ 6
1.3 Chemicals ............................................................................................................................ 6
1.4 Related Theory.................................................................................................................... 6
1.4.1. Hardness of Water ...................................................................................................... 6
1.4.2. Types of Hardness ...................................................................................................... 6
1.4.3. Titration Theory .......................................................................................................... 7
1.4.4. Titration Reaction ....................................................................................................... 7
1.4.5. Standard Values .......................................................................................................... 7
1.5 Environmental Significance ................................................................................................ 7
1.6 Procedure............................................................................................................................. 8
1.6.1. Total Hardness ............................................................................................................ 8
1.6.2. Calcium Hardness ....................................................................................................... 8
1.6.3 Magnesium Hardness................................................................................................... 8
1.7 Observations & Calculations .............................................................................................. 9
1.7 Results ................................................................................................................................. 9
1.8 Comments ........................................................................................................................... 9
1.9 References ........................................................................................................................... 9
Experiment 2: Determination of pH of Given Water Samples Using the Given pH Meter
.................................................................................................................................................... 10
2.1 Objectives .......................................................................................................................... 10
2.2 Apparatus .......................................................................................................................... 10
2.3 Chemicals .......................................................................................................................... 10
2.4 Related Theory.................................................................................................................. 10
2.4.1. pH Value ................................................................................................................... 10
2.4.2. pOH Value ................................................................................................................ 10
2.4.3. pH Meter ................................................................................................................... 10
2.4.4. Acidic Substance....................................................................................................... 10
2.4.5. Basic Substance ........................................................................................................ 11

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 2.4.6. Neutral Substance ..................................................................................................... 11
2.5 Environmental Significance .............................................................................................. 11
2.6 Procedure........................................................................................................................... 11
2.7 Observations & Calculations ............................................................................................ 11
2.8 Results ............................................................................................................................... 11
2.9 Comments ......................................................................................................................... 11
2.10 References ....................................................................................................................... 12
Experiment 3: Determination of the Turbidity of Water Samples ..................................... 13
3.1 Objectives .......................................................................................................................... 13
3.2 Apparatus .......................................................................................................................... 13
3.3 Chemicals .......................................................................................................................... 13
3.4 Related Theory.................................................................................................................. 13
3.4.1. Turbidity.................................................................................................................... 13
3.4.2. Units of Turbidity ..................................................................................................... 13
3.4.3. Standard Value ......................................................................................................... 13
3.4.4. Nephelometer ............................................................................................................ 13
3.4.5. Calibration ................................................................................................................. 14
3.5 Environmental Significance .............................................................................................. 14
3.6 Procedure........................................................................................................................... 14
3.7 Observations & Calculations ............................................................................................ 14
3.8 Results ............................................................................................................................... 14
3.9 Comments ......................................................................................................................... 15
3.10 References ....................................................................................................................... 15
Experiment 4: Determination of Sulphate ions in Sample ................................................... 16
4.1 Objective ........................................................................................................................... 16
4.2 Related Theory.................................................................................................................. 16
4.2.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................... 16
4.2.2. Limits ........................................................................................................................ 16
4.2.3. Effects ....................................................................................................................... 16
4.3 Principal ............................................................................................................................ 16
4.4 Procedure .......................................................................................................................... 17
4.5 Calculations and Observations.......................................................................................... 17
4.6 Graph................................................................................................................................. 18
4.7 Environmental significance .............................................................................................. 18
4.8 References ......................................................................................................................... 18

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Experiment 5: Determination of the Solids Content in Water Sample .............................. 19
5.1 Objectives .......................................................................................................................... 19
5.2 Apparatus .......................................................................................................................... 19
5.3 Chemicals .......................................................................................................................... 19
5.4 Related Theory.................................................................................................................. 19
5.4.1. Total Solids (TS) ...................................................................................................... 19
5.4.2. Total Suspended Solids (TSS) .................................................................................. 19
5.4.3. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) .................................................................................. 19
5.4.4. Settleable Solids (SS) ............................................................................................... 19
5.5 Environmental Significance .............................................................................................. 19
5.6 Procedure........................................................................................................................... 20
5.6.1. Total Solids (TS) ...................................................................................................... 20
5.6.2. Total Suspended Solids (TSS) .................................................................................. 20
5.6.3. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) .................................................................................. 20
5.6.4. Settleable Solids (SS) ................................................................................................ 20
5.7 Observations & Calculations ............................................................................................ 20
 For Total Solids............................................................................................................ 20
 For TDS........................................................................................................................ 21
 For TSS ........................................................................................................................ 21
 For Total settle-able solids........................................................................................... 21
5.8 Results ............................................................................................................................... 21
5.9 Comments ......................................................................................................................... 21
5.10 References ....................................................................................................................... 21
Experiment 6: Determination of Alkalinity of given water samples ................................... 23
6.1 Aim ................................................................................................................................... 23
6.2 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 23
6.3 Related Theory.................................................................................................................. 23
6.3.1. Types of alkalinities .................................................................................................. 23
6.3.1.1. Phenolphthalein..................................................................................................... 23
6.3.1.2. Methyl Orange ....................................................................................................... 23
6.4 Principal ............................................................................................................................ 23
6.5 Material required............................................................................................................... 24
6.5.1. Apparatus .................................................................................................................. 24
6.5.2. Chemical and reagent ............................................................................................... 24
6.6 Procedure .......................................................................................................................... 24

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 6.7 Observations and calculations .......................................................................................... 24
6.7.1. 1st Sample (Tap water).............................................................................................. 24
6.7.2. 2nd Sample ................................................................................................................. 25
6.8 Environmental significance .............................................................................................. 25
6.9 References ......................................................................................................................... 25
Experiment 7: Determination of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) for wastewater ......................... 26
7.1 Objective ........................................................................................................................... 26
7.2 Apparatus .......................................................................................................................... 26
7.3 Chemicals .......................................................................................................................... 26
7.4 Related Theory.................................................................................................................. 26
7.4.1. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) ........................................................................................... 26
7.4.2. Importance of DO..................................................................................................... 26
7.5 Environmental Significance .............................................................................................. 26
7.6 Procedure........................................................................................................................... 26
7.7 Observation & Calculation ............................................................................................... 27
7.8 Comments ......................................................................................................................... 27
7.9 References ......................................................................................................................... 27
Experiment 8: Determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) in wastewater ........ 28
8.1 Objectives .......................................................................................................................... 28
8.2 Apparatus .......................................................................................................................... 28
8.3 Chemicals .......................................................................................................................... 28
8.4 Related theory ................................................................................................................... 28
8.4.1. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) ............................................................................ 28
8.4.2. Significance ............................................................................................................... 28
8.5 Environmental Significance .............................................................................................. 28
8.6 Procedure........................................................................................................................... 29
8.7 Observation & Calculations .............................................................................................. 29
8.8 Comments ......................................................................................................................... 29
8.9 References ......................................................................................................................... 30

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 List of Figures, Graph & Tables

Figure 1: Beaker ............................................................................................................................ 6

Figure 2: Titration Apparatus........................................................................................................ 6
Figure 3: pH meter & Beaker ..................................................................................................... 10
Figure 4: Ranges of pH value ..................................................................................................... 10
Figure 5: Nephelometer............................................................................................................... 13
Figure 6: Beaker .......................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 7: Naphelometer............................................................................................................... 13
Figure 8: Head Balloki ................................................................................................................ 15
Figure 9: Oven ............................................................................................................................ 19
Figure 10: Water Bath................................................................................................................. 19
Figure 11: China Dishes and Filter Paper................................................................................... 19
Figure 12: Solids settling in Imhoff Cone .................................................................................. 22
Figure 13: Alkalinity Chart ......................................................................................................... 23
Figure 14: Titration Apparatus ................................................................................................... 26
Figure 15: Titration Apparatus ................................................................................................... 28
Figure 16: COD Flask ................................................................................................................. 28

Graph 1: Between turbidity ratio and concentration .................................................................. 18

Table 1: Calculation for Total Hardness....................................................................................... 9

Table 2: Calculation for Total Calcium Hardness ........................................................................ 9
Table 3: Results for total hardness, Calcium & Magnesium Hardness ....................................... 9
Table 4: Results for pH for different samples ............................................................................ 11
Table 5: Results for turbidity of different samples .................................................................... 14
Table 6: Results for Turbidity ration for different concentration............................................... 17
Table 7: Results for TS, TDS, TSS & SS of given water sample .............................................. 21
Table 8: Alkalinity of Tap water ................................................................................................ 24
Table 9: Alkalinity of sample water ........................................................................................... 25
Table 10: Results for Dissolved Oxygen of different samples .................................................. 27

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 Experiment 1: Determination of the total Hardness, Calcium
Hardness, and Magnesium Hardness in drinking water

1.1 Objectives
To determine:

 Total hardness
 Calcium Hardness
 Magnesium Hardness

1.2 Apparatus
i. Beakers
ii. Titration apparatus & pipette
Figure 1: Beaker
1.3 Chemicals
i. EBT
ii. 0.01 M EDTA
iii. Ammonia buffer solution
iv. EBBR

1.4 Related Theory

Figure 2: Titration Apparatus
1.4.1. Hardness of Water

Hard water is water that has a high mineral content. Hard water is formed when water
percolates through deposits of limestone, chalk, or gypsum which are largely made up of
calcium and magnesium carbonates, bicarbonates, and sulfates.

1.4.2. Types of Hardness

There are two types of hardness:
i. Temporary hardness
ii. Permanent hardness

i. Temporary Hardness
Temporary Hardness is caused due to dissolved calcium hydrogen carbonate. It can easily be
removed by physical methods such as boiling.
ii. Permanent Hardness
Permanent Hardness is caused by dissolved calcium sulfate in water. It has to be removed via
different water treatment methods with the help of chemicals such as lime [Ca (OH) 2] and
sodium carbonate [Na2 CO3].

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Determination of hardness
Hardness is usually determined by the EDTA Titrimetric method. This method yields very
precise and accurate results and is the method of choice in most laboratories. The EDTA
titrimetric method involves the use of solutions of ethylene-diamine-tetra-acidic acid (EDTA)
or its sodium salt as the titrating agents. Since EDTA is insoluble in water, the disodium salt
of EDTA is taken for this experiment. EDTA can form four or six coordination bonds with a
metal ion. If a small amount of a dye such as Eriochrome black T is added to an aqueous
solution containing calcium and magnesium ions at a pH of 10 ± 0.1, the solution will
become wine red. If EDTA is then added as a titrant, the calcium and magnesium will be
complex. After sufficient EDTA has been added to the complex all the magnesium and
calcium, in the solution will turn from wine red to blue. This is the endpoint of the titration.
Principle
Principal hardness causing cations and the major anions associated with them Cations causing
Hardness Associated Anions Ca2+ HCO3 - Mg2+ SO4 2- Sr2+ ClFe2+ NO3- Mn2+ SiO3 2-
Hardness caused by each cation can be calculated as follows:
M+2 (mg/ l)X 50
Hardness (mg/I as CaCO3) = Equivalent weight of M2+

1.4.3. Titration Theory

When a small amount of EBBT is added to the solution containing hard water, the indicator
forms its complex with metal ions and gives wine red color. However, EDTA is capable of
forming a more stable complex with EBBT with the addition of EDTA. EDTA replaces
EBBT ions and again the blue color of the solution is obtained due to free indicator ions.
EBBT = Erich Rome Blue Black R
EDTA = Ethylene Di-amine tetra acetic acid

1.4.4. Titration Reaction

𝐶𝐶+2 + 𝐶2𝐶–2 → 𝐶𝐶𝐶–2 + 2𝐶+ + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝐶𝐶2 − 𝐶𝐶2 − 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
Ions that causes hardness are Ca+ and Mg+.

1.4.5. Standard Values

WHO guidelines for hardness are 500 mg/L of CaCO3.
For the treatment of drinking water, desirable limits are 75 – 120 mg/L.

Sr. No. Concentration of CaCO3 Description

Mg/L
1 0 – 75 Soft
2 75 – 150 Moderately hard
3 150 – 300 Hard
4 300 and up Very hard

1.5 Environmental Significance

The environmental significance of the hardness of water is:

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 i. The most important impact of hardness on fish and other aquatic life appears to be the
effect the presence of these ions has on the other more toxic metals such as lead,
cadmium, chromium, and zinc. Generally, the harder the water, the lower the toxicity
of other metals to aquatic life.
ii. In hard water some of the metal ions form insoluble precipitates and drop out of
solution and are not available to be taken in by the organism. Large amounts of
hardness are undesirable mostly for economic or aesthetic reasons.
iii. If a stream or river is a drinking water source, hardness can present problems in the
water treatment process. Hardness must also be removed before certain industries can
use the water. For this reason, the hardness test is one of the most frequent analyses
done by facilities that use water.

1.6 Procedure
1.6.1. Total Hardness
i. Take 50ml of sample in a titration flask.
ii. Add 1-2ml of ammonia buffer in it to attain pH in solution 7-9.
iii. Add a pinch of EBT (Eriochrome Black Tea) as an indicator.
iv. As a result of the addition of EBT, the solution color changes to wine red.
v. Titrate against 0.01M EDTA (ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid).
vi. Test three samples and determine the mean volume of titrant used.
The hardness (mg/l) as CaCO3 is calculated from following formula:
Volume of titrant x 1000
Total Hardness in mg/L as CaCO3 =
25

1.6.2. Calcium Hardness

i. Take 50ml of sample in a titration flask.
ii. Add 1 ml of Sodium Hydroxide buffer solution in it.
iii. Add a pinch of EBBR (Eriochrome Blue Black R) as an indicator.
iv. As a result of the solution color changes to wine red.
v. Titrate against 0.01M EDTA from a burette until color changes to blue.
vi. Note the color change for the endpoint.
vii. Test three samples and determine the mean volume of titrant used.
The hardness (mg/l) as CaCO3 is calculated from following formula:
Volume of titrant x 1000
Calcium hardness in mg/L as CaCO3 =
25

Volume of titrant x 400

Concentration of ions =
25

1.6.3 Magnesium Hardness

Total Hardness = Calcium Hardness + Magnesium Hardness
Magnesium Hardness = Total Hardness – Calcium Hardness

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 1.7 Observations & Calculations
Total
Initial Final Volume
Hardness
Reading Reading Used
V1 V2 V
Sr. No. Sample (ml) (ml) (ml) (mg/l)
Distilled Water 15.5 21.4 5.9 118
1 Tap Water 21.4 36.7 15.3 306
Distilled Water 0 8 8 160
2 Tap Water 8 19.5 11.5 230
Table 1: Calculation for Total Hardness

Total
Initial Final Volume
Hardness
Reading Reading Used
V1 V2 V
Sr. No. Sample (ml) (ml) (ml) (mg/l)
Distilled Water 0 5.4 5.4 108
1 Tap Water 0 10.9 10.9 218
Distilled Water 0 5.4 5.4 108
2 Tap Water 0 11.2 11.2 224

Table 2: Calculation for Total Calcium Hardness

1.7 Results

Total Calcium Magnesium

Hardness Hardness Hardness

Sample (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)

Distilled Water 139 108 31

Tap Water 268 221 47

Table 3: Results for total hardness, Calcium & Magnesium Hardness

1.8 Comments
In this experiment, we determined the total hardness, calcium hardness, and magnesium
hardness of the given water samples. We check the permanent hardness of water by using the
following reagents EBT, EBBR, and EDT. A buffer solution is added to increase the pH of
the solution up to 9 or 9.5. Calcium and magnesium ions from the unstable complex with
reagents and red vine color are an indication of it. These unstable complexes formed blue
color stable complex by mixing with reagent. After that hardness is calculated
mathematically.

1.9 References
9
1. https://www.woodmoorwater.com/images/docs/Water_Hardness_Information.pdf
2. https://www.google.com/search?q=environmental+significance+of+calculation+of+
hardness+
3. https://byjus.com/jee/hardness-of-water-types-and-removal/
4. Hardness and water quality
5. Scale Deposits

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 Experiment 2: Determination of pH of Given Water Samples
Using the Given pH Meter

2.1 Objectives
 To determine the pH value of different water samples

2.2 Apparatus
i. pH meter
ii. Beakers

2.3 Chemicals
 Water from different sources

2.4 Related Theory Figure 3: pH meter &

Beaker
2.4.1. pH Value

pH is used to indicate the intensity of the acidic or alkaline condition of a solution. The pH value
of a solution has been defined to be the negative log of the hydrogen ions (H+) concentration.
The pH scale runs from 0 to 14, with pH 7 representing neutrality.

Figure 4: Ranges of pH value

2.4.2. pOH Value

The pOH value of a solution has been defined to be the negative log of the hydroxyl ions (OH-
concentration.

2.4.3. pH Meter
It is a device which is used to measure pH of a solution. In pH meter, there is an electrode which
is placed in a solution. Calibration of pH meter is done by buffer solutions (4, 7, and 10).

2.4.4. Acidic Substance

A substance having pH value less than 7 is said to be acidic.

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2.4.5. Basic Substance
A substance having pH value greater than 7 is said to be basic.

2.4.6. Neutral Substance

A substance having pH value equal to 7 is said to be neutral.

2.5 Environmental Significance

The environmental significance of pH of water is:
i. pH affects most chemical and biological processes in water. It is one of the most important
environmental factors limiting species distributions in aquatic habitats. Different species
flourish within different ranges of pH, with the optima for most aquatic organisms falling
between pH 6.5-8.
ii. If the pH of water is too high or too low, the aquatic organisms living within it will die.
pH can also affect the solubility and toxicity of chemicals and heavy metals in the water.

2.6 Procedure
i. Perform calibration of the pH meter using standard pH solutions. The calibration
procedure would depend on the pH range of interest.
ii. In a clean dry 100 mL beaker take the water sample and place it in a magnetic stirrer,
insert the Teflon coated stirring bar and stir well.
iii. Now place the electrode in the beaker containing the water sample and check for the
reading in the pH meter. Wait until you get a stable reading.
iv. Take the electrode from the water sample, wash it with distilled water and then wipe
gently with soft tissue.
v. Repeat the procedure for all samples.

2.7 Observations & Calculations

Sample pH Type
Lab Prepared
Water 12.2 Basic
Lab Prepared
Water 2.3 Acidic
Tap Water 7.2 Neutral
Tap Water 7.1 Neutral
Table 4: Results for pH for different samples
2.8 Results

The observations show that one sample was acidic, one was basic while water was neutral.
Distilled water had exactly 7 pH, while tap water had pH a bit greater than 7 indicating the
presence of impurities in it.

2.9 Comments
We determined the pH of water through a pH meter. The pH was determined automatically
through the pH meter. There was a little difference in the pH of distilled and tap water.

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Distilled water had a pH of exactly 7, while tap water had a little bit higher pH. This may be
due to the fact that tap water contains some impurities and salts.

2.10 References
1. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362644467_pH_Determination_of_Water_
Sample_Usi ng_A_pH_Meter
2. pH Meter- Principle, Parts, Procedure, Types, Uses, Examples (microbenotes.com)
3. pH
4. pH of Water

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 Experiment 3: Determination of the Turbidity of Water Samples

3.1 Objectives
 To determine the turbidity value of different water samples.

3.2 Apparatus
i. Nephelometer
ii. Beakers

3.3 Chemicals
 Water from different sources

3.4 Related Theory Figure 5: Nephelometer

3.4.1. Turbidity
Turbidity is the measure of relative clarity of a liquid. It is an optical
characteristic of water and is a measurement of the amount of light that
is scattered by material in the water when a light is shined through the
water sample.
The higher the intensity of scattered light, the higher the turbidity.
Material that causes water to be turbid include clay, silt, very tiny
inorganic and organic matter, algae, dissolved colored organic
compounds, and plankton and other microscopic organisms.

3.4.2. Units of Turbidity Figure 6: Beaker

The most common measurement units for turbidity are the Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU).

3.4.3. Standard Value

According to Punjab Environmental Health Standards (PEAS), the turbidity of drinking water
should be less than or equal to 5 NTU.

3.4.4. Nephelometer
A nephelometer is an instrument dedicated to the measurement of the turbidity or cloudiness
of a sample. Turbidity is usually caused by the presence of insoluble particles suspended in a
liquid or gas.

Figure 7: Naphelometer

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3.4.5. Calibration
Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions for calibration of your particular meter. If the
instrument does not have a prepared calibration curve, make one by using various values of
turbidity standards. Plot turbidity reading versus the standard concentration to obtain curve.

3.5 Environmental Significance

The environmental significance of turbidity of water is:
i. Turbidity is an important indicator of the amount of suspended sediment in water, which
can have many negative effects on aquatic life. The suspended sediments that cause
turbidity can block light to aquatic plants, smother aquatic organisms, and carry
contaminants and pathogens, such as lead, mercury, and bacteria.
ii. High turbidity can significantly reduce the aesthetic quality of lakes and streams, having
a harmful impact on recreation and tourism.
iii. It can increase the cost of water treatment for drinking and food processing.
iv. It can harm fish and other aquatic life by reducing food supplies, degrading spawning
beds, and affecting gill function.

3.6 Procedure
i. Select the scale.
ii. Add the standard solution in turbidimeter cell and place it in turbidimeter.
iii.Calibrate the instrument.
iv. Thoroughly shake the sample. Wait until air bubbles disappear before pouring sample in
turbidity tube. When necessary, immerse the turbidity tube in an ultrasonic bath for 1 to
2 seconds to dislodge the bubbles. Letting the sample stand for period of time to allow air
bubbles to dissipate will also allow the solids to settle thus changes the characteristics of
the sample being evaluated.
v. Wipe outside of tube to remove fingerprints, dust dirt and water droplets. Place tube in
turbidity meter.
vi. Read turbidity from instrument by direct reading scale or from calibration table.

3.7 Observations & Calculations

Sample Source Turbidity
1 Syphon 391 NTU
2 Head Balloki 471 NTU

Rukh Canal
3 39.6 NTU
Faisalabad

4 Tap Water 6.34 NTU

Table 5: Results for turbidity of different samples

3.8 Results

The turbidity values of different samples of water obtained from different locations are given
in the above table. Only the value of turbidity obtained from tap water was less than 5 NTU.

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3.9 Comments
Turbidity is the measure of how clear the water is. High turbidity may not be intrinsically harmful,
but its effects can certainly be.
The sources from where the samples were taken are mostly earthen channels, which carry a high
quantity of silts and thus are highly turbid. Their water is brownish. Only tap water is clear, that
is why its turbidity was less than the amount fixed by PEAS.

3.10 References
1. Turbidity
2. Turbidity: Description, Impact on Water Quality, Sources, Measures
3. Head Balloki

Figure 8: Head Balloki

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 Experiment 4: Determination of Sulphate ions in Sample

4.1 Objective
 To determine the SO2- 4 (Sulphate ions) In H 2O

4.2 Related Theory

4.2.1. Introduction
Determining the concentration of sulphate ions in a particular sample is important for the
environment. An essential tool for evaluating water quality and spotting possible pollution is
this experiment. Sulphate ions can come from man-made or natural sources, including runoff
from farms and industrial wastes. Sulphate level monitoring offers information on the general
condition of water systems, aiding in the identification of contamination sources and
guaranteeing adherence to environmental laws. High sulphate concentrations can affect
groundwater quality, cause infrastructure to corrode and scale, and even contribute to the
development of acid rain.
These ions can produce hydrogen sulphides as per following equation (1):

To protect the public's health, sulphate levels in drinking water are also regularly checked.
All things considered, this research provides essential information for environmental
management that guarantees the preservation of infrastructure, ecosystems, and human
health. The suitability of various water types for their commercial and public uses is
determined using the sulphate data. It suggests, in an indirect way, the scope of issues that
may result from the conversion of sulphates to hydrogen sulphides. Furthermore, the amount
of sulphate in the organic matter fed to the anaerobic digester is crucial information since it
indicates the possibility of hydrogen sulphide development, which must be eliminated. [1]

4.2.2. Limits
i. In land or surface water the limit of sulphate ions is 600 ppm.
ii. In waste water the limit of sulphate ions is 1000 ppm.

4.2.3. Effects
Corrosion occurs toxic

4.3 Principal
The principal of measuring sulphate ions is here

Ba2+ + SO42- BaSO4

BaCl added because the Ba react quickly and make suspension and break the Barium
Chloride into ions from suspension, we can measure turbidity. Then Sulphate ions react with
Barium and make BaSO4 which is unsalable in water.

17
Always we add distilled water to avoid any effect on results to make it standard and to avoid
impurities.

4.4 Procedure
i. To make a stock solution of 100 ppm, we add 0.26g of copper into 100 ml of distilled
water.
ii. Then we make a dilution by adding 2% of Barium chloride.
Formula
𝐶1𝐶1 = 𝐶2𝐶2
C1=Concentration of 100ppm of stock solution
V1= Unknown Volume
C2= Dilution
V2=100ml flask volume
iii. Use the formula for getting the volume to dilute stock solution.
iv. Find out turbidity in NTU and make a graph to show the relation between
concentration and turbidity of the sample.

4.5 Calculations and Observations

Conc.
Sr. No Turbidity
(ppm)
1 0 0 NTU
2 10 282 NTU
3 20 385 NTU
4 30 439 NTU
5 40 507 NTU
Table 6: Results for Turbidity ration for different concentration

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4.6 Graph

Calibration Chart
700

600

500
Turbidity (NTU)

400

300

200

100

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Concentration (ppm)

Graph 1: Between turbidity ratio and concentration

4.7 Environmental significance

Determining the concentration of sulphate ions in a particular sample is an essential analytical
procedure that has broad environmental consequences. Sulphate ions are important markers
of water quality that come from both natural and man-made sources. Because the concentration
of sulphate ions in water is a good indicator of many environmental parameters, this analysis
is essential for regulating and keeping an eye on the health of aquatic systems as well as human
health. Sulphate ions are of substantial concern because they are indirectly liable for two
serious problems frequently related with handling and treatment of wastewater. They are Odor
and sewer corrosion problem result from the reduction of sulphates to hydrogen sulphide under
anaerobic conditions. [2] This experiment is essential for determining possible pollutants,
making sure rules are followed, and protecting ecosystems.

4.8 References
1. https://web.iitd.ac.in/~arunku/files/CEL212_Y14/L4_sulfate.pdf
2. https://www.google.com/search?q=enviromental+significance+i

19
 Experiment 5: Determination of the Solids Content in Water
Sample

5.1 Objectives
 To determine the total dissolved solids, settleable solids, total suspended solids and
total solids in the water
sample.

5.2 Apparatus
i. China Dish
ii. Water Bath
iii. 0.45µm filter paper
iv. Oven
v. Imhoff Cone
Figure 9: Oven Figure 10: Water Bath

5.3 Chemicals
 Water samples

5.4 Related Theory

5.4.1. Total Solids (TS)
It is the material residue left in a dish after evaporation of a sample
and its subsequent drying in an oven at a defined temperature. Total
solids include total suspended solids and total dissolved solids.

5.4.2. Total Suspended Solids (TSS) Figure 11: China Dishes

and Filter Paper
It is the solid material in water or wastewater sample, which is
retained by a filter of 2µm nominal size under specified conditions.

5.4.3. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

It is portion of solids present in water or wastewater through a filter of 0.45µm nominal pore
size under specified conditions. The principal ions contributing to TDS are carbonate,
bicarbonate, chloride, sulfate, nitrate, sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium. TDS in
water may originate from natural source or sewage effluent discharges.

5.4.4. Settleable Solids (SS)

It refers to material settling out of suspension within a defined period.

5.5 Environmental Significance

The environmental significance of solid contents in water is:
i. Higher solids decrease the passage of light through water, thereby slowing photosynthesis by
aquatic plants. Water will heat up more rapidly and hold more heat; this, in turn, might
adversely affect aquatic life that has adapted to a lower temperature regime.
20
ii. Suspended solids can clog fish gills, either killing them or reducing their growth rate.
They also reduce light penetration. This reduces the ability of algae to produce food and
oxygen.
iii. Pollutants such as dissolved metals and pathogens can attach to suspended particles and
enter the water. This is why an increase in turbidity can often indicate potential pollution,
not just a decrease in water quality.
iv. Settleable solids can suffocate benthic organisms and fish eggs. In addition, the sediment
may smother insect larvae and other fish food sources.

5.6 Procedure
5.6.1. Total Solids (TS)
i. Take 100ml of sample.
ii. Take a China dish and note its empty weight.
iii. Pour the sample in China dish.
iv. Place it in water bath, as a result, solid residues will be left in China dish.
v. Take the weight of this China dish.
(A–B) x 1000 x 1000
TS in mg/L =
Volume of sample

5.6.2. Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

i. Take 100ml of sample of water.
ii. Pass it through 0.45µm filter paper.
iii. Take the filtrate and pour it in China dish.
iv. Dry it in water bath and then take the weight the China dish.
(A–B) x 1000 x 1000
TDS in mg/L =
Volume of sample

5.6.3. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

i. Take 100ml of sample of water.
ii. Take a filter paper and note its weight
iii. Pass it through filter paper
iv. Take the filter paper and dry it in oven and then note the weight
(A–B) x 1000 x 1000
TDS in mg/L =
Volume of sample

5.6.4. Settleable Solids (SS)

i. Take 1 liter of sample in Imhoff Cone
ii. Settle it for 45 minutes
iii. After 45 minutes, gently stir this sample from edges 1-2 times
iv. Wait for 15 minutes and note the settleable solids.

5.7 Observations & Calculations

 For Total Solids:
W1= 50.0855 g
W2=50.1177 g

21
 TS= ((50.0855 – 50.1177) * 10002)/100
= 322mg/l

 For TDS:
TDS= ((w2 – w1) *10002)/100
= ((50.1177- 50.0855) *10002)/100
= 292mg/l

 For TSS:
TSS= ((F2– F1) *10002)/100
= ((0.0984-0.0961) *10002)/100
= 24mg/l

5.8 Results

W1 W2 Value
Sample
g g mg/L
TS 50.0855 50.1177 322
TDS 44.9188 44.948 292
TSS 0.096 0.0984 24
Table 7: Results for TS, TDS, TSS & SS of given water sample

5.9 Comments
We determined the solids content of the given water sample. The amount and type of solids
in water are very important as they directly affect the quality of water. Higher concentrations
of solids usually lead to an undrinkable water.
Higher concentration of solids reduces the discharge carrying capacity of water channels and
may also clog pipes and other structures. They also increase the turbidity of water.
According to Public Health Engineering, the limit for TS in water is 500 ppm, which for
water is about 500 mg/L. The given water sample almost conformed to this limit, so it can be
used for domestic purposes.

5.10 References
1. Total Suspended Solids and water quality
2. Turbidity, Total Suspended Solids & Water Clarity

22
3. Total Solids
4. Engineering: Public Health Engineering

Figure 12: Solids settling in Imhoff Cone

23
Experiment 6: Determination of Alkalinity of given water samples

6.1 Aim
 To check the quality of water by seeing the neutralizing power.

6.2 Introduction
Alkalinity is primarily a way of measuring the acid-neutralizing capacity of water. In other
words, its the ability to maintain a relatively constant pH. The possibility to maintain constant
pH is due to the hydroxyl, carbonate, and bicarbonate ions present in water. The ability of
natural water to act as a buffer is controlled in part by the amount of calcium and carbonate
ions in the solution.
Carbonate ions and calcium ions both come from calcium carbonate or limestone. So, water
that comes in contact with limestone will contain high levels of both Ca++ and CO32- ions
and have elevated hardness and alkalinity.

6.3 Related Theory

6.3.1. Types of alkalinities
6.3.1.1. Phenolphthalein
We add the phenolphthalein indicator in water and titrate it against the H2SO4 the endpoint
appears and when the acid is added color of phenolphthalein appears, pink color disappears.

6.3.1.2. Methyl Orange

In this Methyl Orange indicator was added in water an orange colour appeared and when
titrated against H2SO4 pink color converted into red.
Red color indicator this endpoints all carbonates and bicarbonates have been neutralized
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶ℎ𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶ℎ𝐶ℎ𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶ℎ𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

6.4 Principal
The colour of alkalinity due to different ions is based on the titration of water sample against
a standard acid that is H2SO4 making the selected use of indicator indicator are used of
phenolphthalein and methyl orange the volume of acid consumed during titration can be used
to determine the strength of various causing alkalinity causing ions.
The more use of acid the more will be Alkalinity

Figure 13: Alkalinity Chart

24
 6.5 Material required
6.5.1. Apparatus
 Burette with Burette stand and porcelain title
 Pipettes with elongated tips
 Conical flask
 Measuring cylinders
 Beakers
 Dropper
 Stirrer

6.5.2. Chemical and reagent

i. distilled water
ii. water sample
iii. phenolphthalein indicator
iv. methyl orange indicator
v. H2SO4 (0.02 normal)

6.6 Procedure
i. Take 25 ml sample in conical flask.
ii. Fill the burette with 0.02 normal H2SO4.
iii. Add few drops of enough the line indicator in the conical flask.
iv. Solution will turn pink.
v. Titrate against 0.02 normal H2SO4 till the pink colour disappear note the volume A
use in calculating phenolphthalein alkalinity.
vi. To the same solution in conical flask add few drops of methyl orange.
vii. Orange colour will appear in the solution.
viii. Continue titration till solution become red.
ix. The entire volume B of H2SO4 is noted.
x. Repeat the experiment for all samples.

6.7 Observations and calculations

Vol. of sample P Indicator Vol. of H2SO4 MO Indicator Vol. of H2SO4
Sr. No.
mL I.R F.R mL I.R F.R mL
1 25 0 1.9 1.9 1.9 13.1 11.2
2 25 0 1.8 1.8 1.8 13.5 11.7

PA1 = 76 mg/L PAavg = 74 mg/L

MOA1 = 448 mg/L MOAavg = 458 mg/L
PA1 = 72 mg/L Total Alkalinity = 532 mg/L
MOA1 = 468 mg/L

25
 MOA = (A * N * Eq. Wt. * 1000) / Volume of sample

= 15.48 mg/l
PA = (A * N * Eq. Wt. * 1000) / Volume of sample

= 18.89 mg/l

6.8 Environmental significance

The experiment to determine water alkalinity is environmentally significant. Alkalinity
indicates a water body's ability to resist pH changes, crucial for ecosystem health. It acts as a
natural buffer against acid rain, protecting aquatic life.

 Understanding alkalinity is vital for water treatment, corrosion control, and

maintaining optimal conditions for aquaculture and agriculture.
 It also contributes to managing eutrophication, preventing harmful nutrient
imbalances in water bodies.
 In essence, assessing alkalinity helps in preserving water quality, safeguarding
ecosystems, and supporting sustainable water management practices.

6.9 References
1. https://www.google.com/search?q=kindly+write+the+envirnomental+significance+o
f+experime
2. https://www.wwdmag.com/home/article/21384197/what-is-alkalinity

26
 Experiment 7: Determination of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) for
wastewater

7.1 Objective
 To determine the amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) in a water sample.

7.2 Apparatus
i. Beaker
ii. Titration Apparatus

7.3 Chemicals
i. MnSO4
ii. Alkali azide iodine solution
iii. H2SO4
iv. Na2S2O3 (0.025 n)
v. Starch solution
vi. Water samples
Figure 14: Titration Apparatus
7.4 Related Theory
7.4.1. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
The dissolved oxygen (DO) is oxygen that is dissolved in water. The oxygen dissolves by
diffusion from the surrounding air; aeration of water that has tumbled over falls and rapids;
and as a waste product of photosynthesis.

7.4.2. Importance of DO
 Fish and aquatic animals cannot split oxygen from water (H2O) or other oxygen-
containing compounds.
 Only green plants and some bacteria can do that through photosynthesis and similar
processes.
 A total of three-fourths of the earth’s oxygen supply is produced by phytoplankton in
the oceans.

7.5 Environmental Significance

The environmental significance of dissolved oxygen in water is:
i. Dissolved oxygen (DO) is one of the most important indicators of water quality. It is
essential for the survival of fish and other aquatic organisms. Oxygen dissolves in
surface water due to the aerating action of winds. Oxygen is also introduced into the
water as a byproduct of aquatic plant photosynthesis.
ii. Dissolved oxygen is necessary to many forms of life including fish, invertebrates,
bacteria and plants. These organisms use oxygen in respiration, similar to organisms
on land.

7.6 Procedure
i. Take BOD bottle (300 ml volume).
ii. Fill the bottle with water sample.
iii. Add 1 ml MnSO4 solution to it and mix uniformly with the help of pipette.

27
 iv. Add 1ml alkali-azide iodide solution. On addition, if white ppts. are formed, then
there is no DO in water. Formation of Reddish brown ppts.
v. Indicates the presence of DO.
vi. If Reddish brown ppts are formed, stopper the bottle, and shake it upside down for 20
times and allow the ppts. To settle down for about 2 inches.
vii. Add 1 ml Concentrated H2SO4 and again shake for about 8 times.
viii. Take 200 ml of this water sample in a titration flask and titrate it with 0.025 N
Na2S2O3 till the appearance of light-yellow color.
ix. Then add 1ml starch solution. The color of solution becomes blue on this addition.
x. Again, titrate it with 0.025N Na2S2O3 till the disappearance of blue color.
xi. Note the volume of titrant used.
ml of titrant used = DO in mg/liter
𝐷𝑂 (𝑚𝑔/𝑙) = [𝐴 𝑥 𝑁 𝑥 𝐸𝑞𝑣. 𝑊 𝑥 1000] / [𝐹 𝑥 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙e]

7.7 Observation & Calculation

Sample 2 : TAP WATER

Initial Reading Final Reading Vol.of Acid Use
Sr. No.
mL
1 0 7.4 7.4
2 7.4 14.5 7.1
3 14.5 20.9 6.4
A = 20.9

Sample 3 : AIRED WATER

Initial Reading Final Reading Vol.of Acid Use
Sr. No.
mL
1 0 7.5 7.5
2 7.5 16 8.5
3 16 25.5 9.5
A = 25.5

Sample Color of ppt DO

Sr. No.
mg/L
1 Distilled Water White 0
2 Tap Water Yellowish Brown 15.48
3 Aerial Water Yellowish Brown 18.89
Table 10: Results for Dissolved Oxygen of different samples

7.8 Comments
We determined Dissolved Oxygen (DO) in the given samples. Healthy water should have
dissolved oxygen concentrations between 6.5 – 8 mg/L.
The tap water has DO less than the given range limits while aerated water has DO slightly
more than the upper limit of range. Lesser amount of DO would negatively affect aquatic life

28
while a slightly more DO is more or less fine. So, we should increase DO in tap water more
before supplying it to water bodies.

7.9 References
1. Learn More: Dissolved Oxygen
2. Dissolved Oxygen
3. https://atlas-scientific.com/blog/the-importance-of-dissolved-oxygen-in-wastewater-
treatment/\

29
 Experiment 8: Determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD) in wastewater

8.1 Objectives
 To determine the amount of Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) in different water
samples.

8.2 Apparatus
i. COD Flask
ii. Titration Flask
iii. Burette

8.3 Chemicals
i. K2Cr2O7
ii. HgCl2
iii. H2SO4
Figure 15: Titration Apparatus
iv. Ferroin Solution
v. FAS (0.025N)

8.4 Related theory

8.4.1. Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
The Chemical Oxygen Demand, or COD, is a measurement of the
amount of material that can be oxidized (combined with oxygen) in the
presence of a strong chemical oxidizing agent. Since the COD test can
be performed rapidly, it is often used as a rough approximation of the
water's BOD, even though the COD test measures some additional
organic matter (such as cellulose) which is not normally oxidized by
biological action. As with the BOD test, the COD test is reported as
Figure 16: COD Flask
mg/Lit of oxygen used.

8.4.2. Significance
 Chemical Oxygen Demand is an important water quality parameter because, similar to
BOD, it provides an index to assess the effect discharged wastewater will have on the
receiving environment.
 Higher COD levels mean a greater amount of oxidizable organic material in the sample,
which will reduce dissolved oxygen (DO) levels.
 A reduction in DO can lead to anaerobic conditions, which is deleterious to higher
aquatic life forms.

8.5 Environmental Significance

The environmental significance of chemical oxygen demand is:
i. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is the amount of dissolved oxygen that must be present
in water to oxidize chemical organic materials, like petroleum. COD is used to gauge the
short-term impact wastewater effluents will have on the oxygen levels of receiving waters.

30
 ii. The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure of water and wastewater quality. The
COD test is often used to monitor water treatment plant efficiency.
iii. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is used to determine the quantity of pollution in water
after wastewater treatment. The higher value of chemical oxygen demand indicates the
higher organic pollution in the water sample.

8.6 Procedure
i. Place 50ml sample in 500ml refluxing flask (for samples with COD>900mg/L use a
smaller sample diluted to 50ml).
ii. Add 1g HgSO4 and several glass beads.
iii. Add slowly 5ml H2SO4 reagent while mixing to dissolve HgSO4
iv. Cool while mixing to avoid the loss of volatile materials.
v. Add 25 ml 0.25N K2 Cr2O7 solution and mix.
vi. Attach the flask to the condenser and turn on cooling water.
vii. Add remaining H2SO4 (70ml) through open end of the condenser continue mixing
while adding H2SO4.
viii. Reflux the mixture for 2 hrs. and cool to room temperature, after diluting the
mixture to about twice its volume with distilled water.
ix. Titrate excess of K2 Cr2O7 with Ferrous ammonium sulfate using 2,3 drops of ferroin
indicator. The end point will be from blue green to reddish brown.
x. Reflux and titrate in the same manner a blank containing the reagents and the volume
of the distilled water will be equal to that of sample.
𝐶𝑂𝐷 (𝑚𝑔/𝑙) = [(𝐵 − 𝐴) 𝑥 0.25𝑁 𝐹𝐴𝑆 𝑥 𝐸𝑞𝑣. 𝑊 𝑥 1000]/ 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒]
B: Blank sample
A: Waste water sample

8.7 Observation & Calculations

Vol. of FAS for water sample

= 21 mL
(A)
Vol. of FAS for Blank (B) = 24 mL
COD = 120 mg/L

8.8 Comments
We determined Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) in the given samples. Typical maximum
values range from not more than 120 mg/l depending on receiving water or type of industry under
consideration of PCC but not exceeding 400 mg/l.

31
We obtained a COD value of 108 mg/L, which is well within limits. A higher value of COD
indicates that water requires more oxygen, hence it has more organic pollution in it. The given
sample had a less amount of COD, hence it shows that it is relatively free from organic matter.

8.9 References
1. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
2. Water for COD - Chemical Oxygen Demand
3. Determination of COD of Wastewater
4. Water Quality Standards
5. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/chemical-oxygen

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