applied

sciences
Article
Study on Corrosion Monitoring of Reinforced Concrete Based on
Longitudinal Guided Ultrasonic Waves
Ji Qian 1,2 , Peiyun Zhang 2 , Yongqiang Wu 2 , Ruixin Jia 3 and Jipeng Yang 2, *

1 State Key Laboratory of Bridge Engineering Structural Dynamics, Chongqing 400074, China;
[email protected]
2 School of Civil Engineering, Chongqing Jiaotong University, Chongqing 400074, China;
[email protected] (P.Z.); [email protected] (Y.W.)
3 State Key Laboratory of Bridge Engineering Safety and Resilience, Beijing University of Technology,
Beijing 100124, China; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The corrosion of reinforced concrete (RC) is one of the most serious durability problems in
civil engineering structures, and the corrosion detection of internal reinforcements is an important
basis for structural durability assessment. In this paper, the appropriate frequency required to
cause excitation signals in the specimen is first analyzed by means of frequency dispersion curves.
Subsequently, the effectiveness of five damage indexes (DIs) is discussed using random corrosion in
finite elements. Finally, guided ultrasonic wave (GUW) tests are conducted on reinforcement and RC
specimens at different corrosion degrees, and the test results are verified using a theoretical corrosion
model. The results show that the larger the covered thickness is at the same frequency, the higher the
modal order of the GUW in the frequency dispersion curve is, and the smaller the group velocity is.
The SAD is the most sensitive to the corrosion state of the reinforcement compared with the other DIs,
and it shows a linear increasing trend with the increase in the corrosion degree of the reinforcement.
The SAD values of the RC specimens showed a three-stage change with the increase in the corrosion
time, and the time until the appearance of corrosion cracks was increased with the increase in the
covered thickness. It can be seen that increasing the covered thickness is an effective method to delay
the time until the appearance of corrosion cracks in RC specimens.
Citation: Qian, J.; Zhang, P.; Wu, Y.;
Jia, R.; Yang, J. Study on Corrosion Keywords: reinforced concrete; corrosion monitoring; guided ultrasonic wave; spectrum amplitude
Monitoring of Reinforced Concrete difference; corrosion model
Based on Longitudinal Guided
Ultrasonic Waves. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14,
1201. https://doi.org/10.3390/
app14031201 1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Athanasios Sfetsos Reinforced concrete (RC) and prestressed concrete both make full use of the mechanical
properties of reinforcement in tension and concrete in compression and are widely used in
Received: 28 November 2023 various types of structures such as bridges, houses, and nuclear power plants. During their
Revised: 24 January 2024
long service life, these structures display long-term durability problems in bad operating
Accepted: 25 January 2024
environments, such as concrete carbonation [1] and reinforcement corrosion [2,3] of which
Published: 31 January 2024
the latter is the most serious durability problem. Monitoring the corrosion status of
reinforcement in concrete has been a topical research in civil engineering. The current
detection methods are still based on indirect measurements [4], such as chloride content,
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
concrete resistivity, and half-cell potential, which are used to indirectly determine the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. corrosion status of the reinforcement by measuring the corrosion environment parameters
This article is an open access article of the reinforcement inside the concrete [5].
distributed under the terms and GUW testing is widely used as a non-destructive testing technique for the damage
conditions of the Creative Commons monitoring of structures [6]. When GUWs propagate along a corroded reinforcement, the
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// presence of a large number of surface pits due to corrosion will affect the propagation char-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ acteristics of the GUWs in the reinforcement, which is a more direct method for monitoring
4.0/). reinforcement corrosion. Sharma et al. [7] investigated the propagation characteristics of

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1201. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14031201 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1201 2 of 20

GUWs in reinforcement and solved their displacement based on the frequency dispersion
curves of the longitudinal wave modes, which showed that the strain energy of the L(0, 1)
mode is mainly concentrated on the surface of the reinforcement, and is more suitable for
corrosion studies of reinforcement damage. Many scholars [8–12] have simulated the local
corrosion of reinforcement by grinding or notching and have found that the amplitude
of the GUWs showed a linearly decreasing variation with the depth increase in grinding
or notching. Sriramadasu et al. [13] proposed a damage identification index based on the
amplitude difference in the corrosion signal by carrying out GUW finite element simula-
tions of corroded reinforcement and effectively validated the index through GUW tests
of corroded reinforcement. Farhidzadeh et al. [14] carried out a test study concerning the
corrosion process of GUWs on steel strands and proposed a method to identify the residual
corrosion diameter of steel strands utilizing the variation in the group velocity. More signal
processing techniques are being applied to GUW detection with the rapid development of
computing software. Umar et al. [15] used the time-of-flight method to obtain the travel
time of wave packets as a monitoring indicator based on the variation in the wave velocity
with the reinforcement diameter and found that the signal travel time obtained by the
cross-correlation signal processing technique was more accurate for the identification of
the remaining diameter of the corroded reinforcement. Majhi et al. [16] proposed a method
to predict the corrosion status based on the K-means algorithm according to the dispersion
and multimodal properties of GUWs. Sun et al. [17] proposed a feature-level data fusion
strategy method for monitoring reinforcements with different corrosion degrees using a
combination of direct and coda waves.
Extensive research on the GUWs’ propagation characteristics of multilayer waveguide
conductors reports on the propagation characteristics of GUWs in RC. There have been
many studies [18–21] to identify the corrosion stage of reinforcement in concrete by moni-
toring the signal changes under different corrosion states. Li et al. [18] analyzed the signal
amplitude changes during the corrosion process and proved that it is feasible to identify
the corrosion state by using the amplitude changes. Through a GUW test of corroded RC,
Sriramadasu et al. [21] found a corresponding relationship between the amplitude variation
curve of the corrosion signal and the RC corrosion stage. Shi et al. [22] and Liu et al. [23]
monitored the RC corrosion process by the positive and negative bimodal amplitudes of
GUWs on this basis and studied and analyzed three factors: the reinforcement type, the
water–cement ratio and the concrete cover thickness. Zhang et al. [24] found that the em-
bedded ultrasonic transducer method could detect concrete damage during the corrosion
process and proposed a method that could determine the damage stage according to the
relationship between the ultrasonic transducer data and the corrosion rate. Mayakuntla
et al. [25] proposed a histogram-based qualitative analysis method using contact-based
ultrasonic excitation and non-contact laser-based sensing to monitor corrosion in concrete
and the ultrasonic scanning of specimens with different corrosion degrees. The GUW
method of identifying the corrosion state of reinforcement in concrete has achieved more
results, but there are still some shortcomings: on the one hand, most of the existing finite
element simulations of corroded reinforcement simplify corrosion as a regular notch, and
this simplified method cannot accurately quantify the influence of corrosion damage on
GUW propagation; on the other hand, many corrosion identification indexes of RC rely on
the test results, and lack an explanation of the mechanism linking corrosion parameters
and the rust expansion process.
In this paper, GUWs are used to carry out numerical simulations and test studies
on the corrosion process of reinforcement and RC. Firstly, five damage indexes (DIs) that
can identify the corrosion process are proposed, and the indexes with good sensitivity are
selected by a finite element simulation analysis. Secondly, the reinforcement and RC under
corrosion tests are carried out to verify the effectiveness of the selected indexes. Finally,
the correlation between the theoretical corrosion model of the RC and the measured DI is
analyzed, which theoretically explains the rationality and effectiveness of the ultrasonic
identification indexes.
 2. Theoretical Background
2.1. Corrosion Process Model
To facilitate research and analysis, the following assumptions are made:
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1201 3 of 20
(1) The concrete surrounding the reinforcement is a thick-walled cylinder with its wall
thickness equal to the cover thickness.
(2) The thickness of the corrosion products around the reinforcement is the same, that is,
2. Theoretical Background
the reinforcement is uniformly corroded, and the pressure exerted by the corrosion
2.1. Corrosion Process Model
products on the concrete around the reinforcement is uniform.
(3) ToThefacilitate
effects of research
external and analysis,
factors are notthetaken
following assumptions
into account in theare made:
calculations; only the
(1) expansion
The concrete surrounding
of the corrosion the reinforcement
products induced by is astresses
thick-walled cylinder
and strains with its wall
is considered.
thickness
Figure equal that
1 shows to thethe
cover
timethickness.
required for cover cracking is divided into three time
(2) The thickness of the corrosion products around the reinforcement is the same, that is,
intervals [26]:
the reinforcement is uniformly corroded, and the pressure exerted by the corrosion
(1) Tproducts
free interval (determined by the Ar1 surface): as shown in Figure 1a, corrosion prod-
on the concrete around the reinforcement is uniform.
ucts do
(3) The effects of not induce pressure
external factorsonarethenot
concrete
taken intoat the beginning
account in theofcalculations;
reinforcement corro-
only the
sion until the porous zone (δ0) is filled with corrosion products.
expansion of the corrosion products induced by stresses and strains is considered.
(2) Tstress interval (associated with the Ar2 surface): Corrosion products gradually pene-
Figure 1 shows that the time required for cover cracking is divided into three time
trate into the concrete and densify the transition zone at the interface between the
intervals [26]:
reinforcement and the concrete. Once the corrosion products fill the porous zone,
Tfree interval
(1) they (determined
exert pressure on the by the Ar1 surface):
surrounding concrete as (Figure
shown in Figure
1b). When1a, corrosion
the pressureprod-
is so
high that the concrete cannot withstand it, initial cracks will develop in the corrosion
ucts do not induce pressure on the concrete at the beginning of reinforcement concrete,
until
as shownthe porous
in Figure zone
1c.(δ0 ) is filled with corrosion products.
(2) T stress interval (associated
(3) Tingress interval (corresponding withtothetheAA r2r3surface):
surface): Corrosion
When initial products
cracks gradually
induced bypen-in-
etrate into the concrete and densify the transition
ternal pressure appear in the concrete, corrosion continues to expand and zone at the interface between
reduce the
the
reinforcement and the concrete. Once the corrosion products fill the porous zone, they
cross-section of the reinforcement. The corrosion products accumulated in the cracks
exert pressure on the surrounding concrete (Figure 1b). When the pressure is so high
will further lead to cover cracking, as shown in Figure 1d.
that the concrete cannot withstand it, initial cracks will develop in the concrete, as
As
shown corrosion continues
in Figure 1c. to expand, the initial cracks can evolve into cover cracking,
(3) Tingress interval (corresponding and
and even lead to concrete crushing spalling
to the in severe
Ar3 surface): cases,
When as shown
initial cracksininduced
Figure 1e,
by
whichinternal
indicates that corrosion may exceed the acceptable damage
pressure appear in the concrete, corrosion continues to expand and reduce threshold. Therefore,
monitoring the initial corrosion
the cross-section and initial cracks
of the reinforcement. can help to
The corrosion determine
products the safety in
accumulated of the
the
concrete
cracks structures.
will further lead to cover cracking, as shown in Figure 1d.

Figure 1. The process of development of corrosion of reinforcement. Note: where C is the thickness
cover, D
of concrete cover, D is
is the
the diameter
diameter ofof reinforcement,
reinforcement, δδ00 is
is porous
porous zone
zone of
of thickness,
thickness, δδCC the amount
of concrete
of concrete displacement,
displacement, aa isis the
the crack
crack length,
length, R
R11 and
and R
R22,, respectively,
respectively, are
are the internal and
the internal and exterior
exterior
cylinder radii.
cylinder radii.

As corrosion continues to expand, the initial cracks can evolve into cover cracking,
and even lead to concrete crushing and spalling in severe cases, as shown in Figure 1e,
which indicates that corrosion may exceed the acceptable damage threshold. Therefore,
monitoring the initial corrosion and initial cracks can help to determine the safety of the
concrete structures.
One of the effective parameters for calculating the cover cracking time is the ratio
of the volume of the corrosion products to that of the consumed reinforcement in the
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1201 4 of 20

corrosion process (n). In this paper, the main type of corrosion product is Fe2 O3 ; it is
therefore assumed that the parameter (n) is determined to be 2.20 according to Ref. [27].

Ar A + Ar2 + Ar3
Aloss = = r1 , (1)
n n
where Aloss is the reinforcement area loss, and Ar is the cross-sectional area of the rust
causing cover cracking.
Faraday’s law has been used to estimate the time by Jamshidi et al. [26]. To obtain the
total cover cracking time, it is necessary to calculate it using Equation (2).

ml D
T = 1879.2 , (2)
icor

where ml = 100Aloss /Ast ; ml is the mass loss percentage of reinforcement; Aloss is the
reinforcement area loss; Ast is the original cross-sectional area of reinforcement; icor is the
corrosion current density (A/cm2 ).

2.2. Frequency Dispersion Characteristics

Reinforcement as a wave conductor has multimodal and dispersive properties in terms
of propagation, and longitudinal modal GUWs are widely used for damage detection in
rod-like structures. The frequency dispersion curves describe an important feature of the
propagation characteristics of GUWs in wave conductors. For a wave conductor with a
regular cross-section, such as a circular rod, its frequency dispersion curve can be obtained
by solving the characteristic equation. The frequency dispersion curve for a longitudinal
GUW can be obtained by numerically solving the Pochhammer–Chree equation as shown
in Equation (3).

2α 2
( β + k2 ) J1 (αa) J1 ( βa) − ( β2 − k2 ) × J0 (αa) J1 ( βa) − 4k2 αβJ1 (αa) J0 ( βa) = 0 , (3)
a

where α2 = ω 2 /cL 2 − k2 , β2 = ω 2 /cT 2 − k2 . cL and cT are the longitudinal and transverse

wave velocities, respectively. ω is the angular frequency. k is the wave number. J0 and J1
are the corresponding Bessel functions, respectively.
The specimens are of two types, reinforcement, and RC, where the RC consists of the
reinforcement and covered concrete. The parameters of both materials are shown in Table 1.
The frequency dispersion curves of the specimens were solved using the PCDISP program
as a means of investigating the effect of the covered thickness on the propagation of GUWs
in reinforcement.

Table 1. Material parameters for reinforcement and covered concrete.

Density
Material Type MOE (GPa) Poisson’s Ratio Diameter (mm) Length (mm)
(kg/m3 )
Reinforcement PSB500 208 0.3 7850 18 1100
Covered concrete C30 19 0.2 2066 75/110/160 700

One of the unusual properties of GUWs are the infinite number of modes. Depending
on the thickness of the object, the material under study, and the frequency, other higher-
order dispersive modes appear (Figure 2). With a higher excitation frequency, depending
on the thickness and material, higher-order modes are also excited, meaning separating
the different modes and/or identifying the useful signal is a difficult task. Therefore,
the first-order mode L(0, 1) is mainly utilized in the later sections of the finite element
simulation and test study.
 Appl.Sci.
Appl. Sci.2024,
2024,14,
14,1201
x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 20
5 of 20

Group velocity Phase velocity

(a) Covered diameter = 0 mm (bare reinforcement)

Group velocity Phase velocity

(b) Covered diameter = 75 mm

Group velocity Phase velocity

(c) Covered diameter = 110 mm

Group velocity Phase velocity

(d) Covered diameter = 160 mm

Figure 2. Frequency dispersion curves of specimens with different parameters.

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 20

Figure 2. Frequency dispersion curves of specimens with different parameters.

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1201 6 of 20
The double-layer composite waveguide structure formed by the concrete and the re-
inforcement causes the GUW to be constantly refracted, scattered, and reflected in the
Thearea
contact double-layer
between the composite
concretewaveguide structure formed
and the reinforcement, whichby makes
the concrete and the
the modal rein-
compo-
forcement
nents of thecauses
GUW themore
GUWand to be constantly
more complex.refracted,
Compared scattered,
withand reflected
Figure in the
2a, the groupcontact
and
area between the concrete and the reinforcement, which makes
phase velocities of the same mode L(0, n) at the same frequency shown in Figure 2b–d the modal components
of the GUW
decrease withmore and more
the increase in complex.
the covered Compared
diameter withof theFigure 2a, There
concrete. the group andattenu-
are two phase
velocities of the same mode L(0, n) at the same frequency shown
ation forms of GUWs in RC: one is leakage and the other is absorption by the material.in Figure 2b–d decrease
with
This the increase
leakage andin the covered
absorption diameter
results of the concrete.
in a decrease There are two
in the amplitude attenuation
of the received forms
GUW
of GUWs
signal. in signal
The RC: one is leakage and
attenuation the other
has two is absorption
factors [28]: (1) Thebyfactors
the material.
affectingThis
theleakage
absorptionand
absorption results in a decrease in the amplitude of the received
of the GUW energy by the reinforcement are the material acoustic impedance and the GUW signal. The signal
attenuation
GUW frequency.has two factors [28]: (1)signals
High-frequency The factors
haveaffecting
more energythe absorption
attenuation of caused
the GUW by energy
acous-
by the reinforcement are the material acoustic impedance and the
tic impedance. (2) The factors affecting energy leakage in concrete are the frequency, GUW frequency. High-
ra-
frequency signals have more energy attenuation caused by acoustic
dius, and bond strength of RC. Ahmed et al. [29] pointed out that the leaked energy would impedance. (2) The
factors affecting
not provide enough energy leakage in
information forconcrete
debonding are the frequency,
detection. radius,
Similarly, andthis
since bond strength
debonding
of RC. Ahmed et al. [29] pointed out that the leaked energy would
detection is similar to corrosion detection, it is also suggested that this leaked energy not provide enoughwill
information for debonding detection. Similarly, since this debonding detection is similar to
not have an impact on corrosion detection.
corrosion detection, it is also suggested that this leaked energy will not have an impact on
corrosion detection.
3. Finite Element Simulation of Corroded Reinforcement
3.1.
3. FiniteElement
Finite Element Simulation
Model of Corroded Reinforcement
3.1. Finite
3.1.1. ModelElement Model
Establishment
3.1.1.The
Model Establishment
propagation of GUWs in a reinforcement (length L = 1100 mm, diameter D = 18
mm,The propagation
modulus of GUWs
of elasticity MOE in =a 208
reinforcement
GPa, density (length L = 1100
ρ = 7850 kg/m mm, D = 18
diameterratio
3, Poisson’s ν =mm,
0.3,
modulus of elasticity 3
no material damping MOE effects)= 208 GPa, density
is simulated ρ = 7850 kg/m , Poisson’s
by ABAQUS/Explicit. The axialratio = 0.3,
unit νsize no
in the
material
model isdamping
1 mm, and effects)
the is simulatedintegration
automatic by ABAQUS/Explicit.
time step isTheusedaxial
in unit size in the
the analysis model
process.
is
The1 mm, and the automatic
simulation process isintegration timetwo
divided into step stages:
is used in the analysis
ultrasonic process. and
excitation The simulation
ultrasonic
process is divided
propagation. Theinto
meshtwo stages: and
division ultrasonic excitation
ultrasonic and ultrasonic
excitation propagation. model
of the reinforcement The meshare
division
shown in and ultrasonic
Figure 3. Oneexcitation of the
end of the reinforcement
model model
is completely are shown
fixed, and theinother
Figureend
3. One
onlyendre-
of the model
leases is completely
the axial displacement.fixed, and the other end only releases the axial displacement.

Figure 3. Finite element model of

Figure 3. of reinforcement.
reinforcement.

3.1.2. Effects of Reinforcement Corrugation

Taking the excitation signal with a frequency of 100 kHz as an example, the time
domain signal waveforms at the center node of the rod end face are extracted, as shown in
Figure 4, and it is found that the signal waveforms received at the end of the smooth and
threaded reinforcement are nearly similar. The corrugation on the threaded reinforcement
does not have any significant effect on the GUW propagation property. The wavelength
 3.1.2. Effects of Reinforcement Corrugation
Taking the excitation signal with a frequency of 100 kHz as an example, the time do-
main signal waveforms at the center node of the rod end face are extracted, as shown in
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1201 Figure 4, and it is found that the signal waveforms received at the end of the smooth7 and of 20
threaded reinforcement are nearly similar. The corrugation on the threaded reinforcement
does not have any significant effect on the GUW propagation property. The wavelength
(45.1
(45.1 mm)
mm)of ofthe
theexcitation
excitationsignal
signalis is
much
much larger than
larger thethe
than corrugation
corrugationspacing (10 (10
spacing mm) on
mm)
the threaded
on the threaded reinforcement.
reinforcement. Beard
Beard et et
al.al.
[30] performed
[30] performeda amodal
modalanalysis
analysisof ofGUWs
GUWs for
for
threaded
threaded reinforcement
reinforcement and and found
found thatthat when
when thethe ratio
ratio of
of the
the wavelength
wavelength to to the
the feature
feature
size
size of
of the
the corrugation
corrugation is is sufficiently
sufficiently large,
large, the
the modal
modal features
features are
are almost
almost unaffected
unaffected by by
the
the corrugation,
corrugation, and and thethe threaded
threaded reinforcement
reinforcement can can bebe equivalently
equivalently treated
treated asas smooth
smooth
reinforcement. This
reinforcement. Thisisis consistent
consistent with
with the the simplified
simplified treatment
treatment of ofAhmed
Ahmedet et al.
al. [29],
[29], who
who
simulated the
simulated the propagation
propagation of of GUWs
GUWs in in reinforcement
reinforcement to to study
study debonding.
debonding. Therefore,
Therefore, the
the
longitudinal GUWs
longitudinal GUWsdo do not
not interact
interact with
with corrugation
corrugation andand generate
generate other
other wave
wave modes
modes oror
reflection. In
reflection. In view
view ofof this,
this, the
the smooth
smooth reinforcement
reinforcement was was used
used for
for the
the corrosion
corrosion study
study in
in
RC due
RC due toto ease
ease of
of finite
finite element
element modeling,
modeling, and geometrical and practical considerations.

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Comparison
Comparison of
of GUW
GUW signal
signal propagation
propagation in
in smooth
smooth and
and threaded
threaded reinforcement.

3.1.3. Simulation
3.1.3. Simulation Method
Method for for Random
Random Corrosion
Corrosion Pits
Pits on
on Reinforcement
Reinforcement Surfaces
Surfaces
Based on
Based on the
the real
real morphology,
morphology,the thesimulation
simulationofofcorrosion
corrosion pits is somewhat
pits is somewhat simplified;
simpli-
that is, the shape of the pits is modeled as a sphere, the position of the pits
fied; that is, the shape of the pits is modeled as a sphere, the position of the pits is uni- is uniformly
distributed
formly along along
distributed the surface of theofreinforcement,
the surface the reinforcement, and and
the the
depth
depthof of
thethe
pits obeys
pits obeysa
aGaussian
Gaussiandistribution.
distribution.AAmathematical
mathematical model
model for
for the
the probability
probability distribution
distribution of of the
the etch
etch
pit depth distribution during corrosion was investigated in Ref. [31].
pit depth distribution during corrosion was investigated in Ref. [31]. In this paper, the In this paper, the
corrosion pit depth
corrosion pit depth is adopted as a Gaussian distribution with average value
is adopted as a Gaussian distribution with average value μ = 0.396 mm µ = 0.396 mm
and variance σσ22==0.305
and variance 0.3052,2through
, throughdrawing
drawingon onthe
theresults
resultsofofthis
thisreference.
reference.TheTherelationship
relationship
(Equation (4)) between the mass loss rate η as a description of the
(Equation (4)) between the mass loss rate η as a description of the corrosion degree corrosion degree and
and
the pit number n is as described in Ref. [32]. The mass loss rate of the reinforcement under
the pit number n is as described in Ref. [32]. The mass loss rate of the reinforcement under
different conditions is calculated from Faraday’s law to determine the number of pits
different conditions is calculated from Faraday’s law to determine the number of pits and
and the average radius of the pits in the finite element model. The code for the random
the average radius of the pits in the finite element model. The code for the random distri-
distribution of the pits is written in Python (3.11.15) and imported into ABAQUS (2022)
bution of the pits is written in Python (3.11.15) and imported into ABAQUS (2022) soft-
software to produce a geometric reinforcement model with different corrosion degrees, as
ware to produce a geometric reinforcement model with different corrosion degrees, as
shown in Figure 5.
shown in Figure 5.
1 − e−n/224.017
η = 1.625 × (4)
1 − e−D
n 224.017
 = 1.625  (4)
3.1.4. Determination of Excitation Frequency D
In practical detection, the propagation pattern of GUWs in reinforcement is affected
by the dispersion property, which will make the signal analysis difficult and the detection
accuracy reduced, so it is especially important to select the appropriate excitation signal.
Wu et al. [33] found that it is feasible to select the L(0, 1) mode of GUWs to detect defects
in steel rods at specific frequencies, and pointed out that the dispersion phenomenon of
the L(0, 1) mode is weak at lower frequencies (such as less than 50 kHz). Sun et al. [34]
showed that the excitation of multiple modes should be avoided as much as possible in
GUW tests of rods, and that the excitation frequency needs to be selected as flat as possible
in the frequency dispersion curve. According to the frequency dispersion curve shown in
Figure 2a, it is found that the slope of the curve with a frequency lower than 100 kHz is
flatter, which indicates that the dispersion degree is smaller, and the deformation of the
GUWs in the propagation process is smaller, which makes it easier to accurately identify
 Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1201 8 of 20
(d) η = 25.08% (e) η = 31.35% (f) η = 37.62%
Figure 5. Geometric models of reinforcement with different corrosion degrees (η).
the reach time. Therefore, the GUW with a frequency within 50–100 kHz is selected as the
l. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW excitation frequency. A modulated sinusoidal function with a center frequency of 50, 80, 8o
3.1.4. Determination
and 100 of Excitation
kHz is used for ultrasonic Frequency
excitation at the non-completely fixed end face to avoid
octave
Ininterference.
practical detection, the propagation pattern of GUWs in reinforcement is a
by the dispersion property, which will make the signal analysis difficult and the de
accuracy reduced, so it is especially important to select the appropriate excitation
Wu et al. [33] found that it is feasible to select the L(0, 1) mode of GUWs to detect
in steel rods at specific frequencies, and pointed out that the dispersion phenome
the L(0, 1) mode is weak at lower frequencies (such as less than 50 kHz). Sun et
showed that the excitation of multiple modes should be avoided as much as pos
GUW tests of rods, and that the excitation frequency needs to be selected as flat as p
(a) η = 6.27% in the frequency dispersion
(b) η = 12.54%
curve. According to the (c) η = 18.81%
frequency dispersion curve sh
Figure 2a, it is found that the slope of the curve with a frequency lower than 100
flatter, which indicates that the dispersion degree is smaller, and the deformation
GUWs in the propagation process is smaller, which makes it easier to accurately i
the reach time. Therefore, the GUW with a frequency within 50–100 kHz is selected
excitation frequency. A modulated sinusoidal function with a center frequency of
and 100 kHz is used for ultrasonic excitation at the non-completely fixed end face to
(d) η = 25.08%octave interference. (e) η = 31.35% (f) η = 37.62%
Figure 5. Results
Geometric
Figure
3.2. models
5. Geometric ofofreinforcement
models
of Finite Elementreinforcement with
with
Simulation different
different corrosion
corrosion degreesdegrees
(η). (η).

3.2.1. GUW
3.2. Results of Signals
Finite Element Simulation
3.1.4. Determination of Excitation Frequency
3.2.1. GUW Signals
The stress contour of the elastic wave propagating within the reinforcement is
In practical
The stressdetection, theelastic
contour of the propagation patternwithin
wave propagating of GUWs in reinforcement
the reinforcement is shownis affect
in Figure 6. The ultrasonic wave forms significant GUWs at the boundaries after m
by theindispersion
Figure 6. Theproperty, which
ultrasonic wave willsignificant
forms make theGUWs
signalat analysis difficult
the boundaries after and the detecti
multiple
reflections,
reflections, and
and the the axial time domain waveforms of the central node at the end
accuracy reduced, so itaxial time domain
is especially waveformstoofselect
important the central node at the end
the appropriate of the
excitation sign
reinforcement areare extractedanalysis
for analysis at different
corrosion corrosion degrees.
Wu etreinforcement
al. [33] found extracted
that it isfor
feasible toat select
different
the L(0, 1) degrees.
mode of GUWs to detect defe
in steel rods at specific frequencies, and pointed out that the dispersion phenomenon
the L(0, 1) mode is weak at lower frequencies (such as less than 50 kHz). Sun et al. [3
showed that the excitation of multiple modes should be avoided as much as possible
GUW tests of rods, and that the excitation frequency needs to be selected as flat as possib
in the frequency dispersion curve. According to the frequency dispersion curve shown
Figure 2a, it is found that the slope of the curve with a frequency lower than 100 kHz
flatter, which indicates that the dispersion degree is smaller, and the deformation of t
GUWs in the propagation process is smaller, which makes it easier to accurately ident
the reach time. Therefore, the GUW with a frequency within 50–100 kHz is selected as t
excitation frequency. A modulated sinusoidal function with a center frequency of 50,
and 100 kHz is used for ultrasonic excitation at the non-completely fixed end face to avo
octave interference.
Figure 6. Stress contour for reinforcement.

3.2. Results of Finite

Taking Element signal
the excitation Simulation
with a frequency of 100 kHz as an example, the GUW
3.2.1.signals
GUWreceived
Signalsat the center of the reinforcement end under different corrosion degrees
are shown in Figure 7a, where the direct waveform is shown in Figure 7b, and the reflected
The stressiscontour
waveform shown in of the 7c.
Figure elastic
Fromwave propagating
the GUW waveforms within thecorrosion
of different reinforcement
degrees, is show
in Figure
it can 6.
beThe
seen ultrasonic wave forms
that the waveforms show a significant GUWs
regular change as the at the boundaries
corrosion after multip
degree increases;
that is, the
reflections, andamplitude
the axialdecreases, and thewaveforms
time domain waveform moves forward,
of the centralindicating
node atthat
thetheend of t
reinforcement are extracted for analysis at different corrosion degrees.
 Taking the excitation signal with a frequency of 100 kHz as an example, the GUW
signals received at the center of the reinforcement end under different corrosion degrees
are shown in Figure 7a, where the direct waveform is shown in Figure 7b, and the reflected
waveform is shown in Figure 7c. From the GUW waveforms of different corrosion de-
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1201 grees, it can be seen that the waveforms show a regular change as the corrosion 9 of 20 degree
increases; that is, the amplitude decreases, and the waveform moves forward, indicating
that the amplitude decreases with the increase in the corrosion degree, and the arrival
amplitude
time alsodecreases with
decreases. the is
This increase in the
generally corrosionwith
consistent degree, and research
current the arrival time also
findings [35], and
decreases. This is generally consistent with current research findings [35],
some studies [36,37] have shown a more obvious trend in the amplitude relative and some to the
studies [36,37] have shown a more obvious trend in the amplitude relative to the acoustic
acoustic time difference.
time difference.

(a) Whole signal

(b) Direct waveform (c) Reflected waveform

Figure
Figure 7. Waveforms
7. Waveforms of GUW
of GUW signals
signals at different
at different corrosion
corrosion degreesdegrees (100 kHz).
(100 kHz).

3.2.2. Damage
3.2.2. Index
Damage Index
Corrosion products
Corrosion productsgenerated by the
generated byreinforcement in concrete
the reinforcement cause cracks,
in concrete rust
cause cracks, rust
pits, and other defects. It causes different reflection, scattering, diffraction, etc. when the
pits, and other defects. It causes different reflection, scattering, diffraction, etc. when the
GUW propagates in the reinforcement under different corrosion degrees. During initial
GUW propagates in the reinforcement under different corrosion degrees. During initial
corrosion, the volume of the corrosion products increases and then penetrates into concrete,
corrosion, the volume of the corrosion products increases and then penetrates into con-
resulting in a denser interface transition zone, which can mitigate the gradient difference of
crete, resulting
impedance and allowin afor
denser interface
more energy to transition zone,into
be transmitted which can mitigate
the concrete [38]. the gradient dif-
Cracking
ference
leads to theofcontact
impedance
betweenandtheallow for more energy
reinforcement to be
and air, andtransmitted into the
the impedance concrete [38].
difference
Cracking leads to the contact between the reinforcement and air,
between the reinforcement and air is larger than that between the reinforcement andand the impedance dif-
ference
concrete, between
thereby the reinforcement
reducing the energy leakand airthe
from is larger than that between the reinforcement
reinforcement.
and
Theconcrete,
damage thereby
index (DI) reducing the energy
is a quantitative leak from
analysis the
of the reinforcement.
response and monitoring of
GUWs to corrosion damage by associating corrosion damage with some characteristic of the
response signal of GUWs. To study the influence of corrosion damage on the propagation
of GUWs in structures, five damage indexes characterizing the corrosion degree, such as the
time domain cross-correlation (TDC), time domain difference (TDD), spectrum amplitude
difference (SAD), mean square difference (MSD), and normalized correlation moment
(NCM), are proposed in this paper based on existing research [39,40].
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1201 10 of 20

(1) DI-TDC
The TDC is based on time domain signal correlation and focuses on obtaining the time
domain waveform of the signal over time.
R t1   
t0 b ( t ) − µ b ( t ) m ( t ) − µ m ( t ) dt
DI-TDC = 1 − , (5)
σb(t) σm(t)

where t is time, b(t) is the reference signal corresponding to the uncorroded state, and m(t)
is the detection signal corresponding to different corrosion degrees. t0 and t1 are the start
time and stop time corresponding to the time window of the detection signal, respectively.
µb(t) and µm (t) are the average values of the signal, while σb(t) and σm (t) are the variances of
the signal.
(2) DI-TDD
The principle of the TDD is that the detection signal is first normalized by α, which
is the scale factor of the reference signal, then calculated from the minimum of the mean
squared difference between the normalized detection signal and the reference signal. There-
fore, the difference between the signals reflected by the TDD is independent of the signal
amplitude.
Z t Z t
1 1
DI-TDD = de2 (t)dt = de2 (t)dt , (6)
t0 t0
qR qR
t1 t1
e (t) − αb(t); D
where de(t) = D e (t) = m(t)/
t0 m2 (t)dt; D
e (t) = m(t)/
t0 m2 (t)dt.

(3) DI-SAD
The SAD is based on the amplitude of the signal to measure the difference in the
frequency response amplitude of the signal, and is calculated as follows:
vR
u ω (|b(ω )| − |m(ω )|)2 dω
u ω1
DI-SAD = t 0 R ω 2
, (7)
1
ω (| b ( ω )|) dω
0

R t1 R t1
where b(ω ) = t b(t)e− j2π f t dt; m(ω ) = t m(t)e− j2π f t dt; ω 0 and ω 1 are the start and
0 0
stop frequencies corresponding to the spectral window of the signal, respectively.
(4) DI-MSD
The definition of MSD is as follows:
σm(t) − σb(t)
DI-MSD = , (8)
σb(t)
s s
N h i2 N h i2
where σm(t) = ∑ m(t) − µm(t) /( N − 1); σb(t) = ∑ b(t) − µb(t) /( N − 1); the
i =1 i =1
numerator of the MSD measures the difference between the overall mean square of the
reference and detection signals, while the denominator is the mean square of the reference
signals, which plays a finite normalization role. The difference in the overall mean squared
deviation of the signal is also measured to exclude the influence of signal phase changes.
(5) DI-NCM
The NCM can reflect the variation in the whole signal waveform in terms of both the
amplitude and phase, and is calculated as follows:
R t1 Rt
t0 τ n |r xx (τ )|dτ − t 1 τ n r xy (τ ) dτ
0
DI-NCM = R t1 , (9)
τ n |r ( τ )|dτ
t0
 amplitude and phase, and is calculated as follows:

rxx ( ) d −   n rxy ( ) d
t1 n t1
t  t0
DI-NCM = 0
, (9)
r ( ) d
t1 n
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1201
t0
 11 of 20

where n is the order number of the correlation moment, which may not be an integer. rxy(τ)
is the correlation
where n is the order between
number the
of signals x(t) andmoment,
the correlation y(t), andwhichthe signal
may nottimebedomain length
an integer. is
rxy (τ)
[t
is0,the
t1], correlation
where τ is abetween
lag parameter.
the signals x(t) be
As can and y(t),from
seen and Equation
the signal(10),
timethe NCMlength
domain is negative
is [t0 ,
t1 ], where
when τ is a lagsignal
the detected parameter.
amplitudeAs can is be seen from
greater than theEquation (10),signal
reference the NCMand is negative
takes on a
when in
value thethe
detected
range [0,signal amplitude
1] when is greater
the signal than the
amplitude referencedue
decreases signal and takes on a value
to damage.
in the range [0, 1] when the signal amplitude decreases due to damage.
+
rxy ( ) =
Z +∞ x ( t )y ( t −  ) dt .
 (10)
−
r xy (τ ) = x (t)y(t − τ )dt . (10)
To further investigate the effect of different −∞ excitation frequencies on the characteri-
zation Tooffurther
each DIinvestigate
at differentthecorrosion
effect ofdegrees,
differentthe DIs at different
excitation frequenciescorrosion
on thedegrees are
characteri-
shown
zation of each DI at different corrosion degrees, the DIs at different corrosion degrees 80,
in Figure 8, and the waveforms are analyzed at three excitation frequencies (50, are
and
shown 100in kHz). It can
Figure be seen
8, and the from Figure 8are
waveforms that each DI at
analyzed at different frequencies
three excitation has a mon-
frequencies (50,
otonically
80, and 100increasing
kHz). It can relationship
be seen from withFigure
the mass8 thatloss
eachrateDIη.atThe sensitivity
different (changehas
frequencies de-a
gree) of the five DIs to the mass loss rate η from strong to weak
monotonically increasing relationship with the mass loss rate η. The sensitivity (change is DI-SAD > DI-MSD and
DI-NCM
degree) of> the DI-TDC
five DIsandtoDI-TDD.
the mass Therefore,
loss rate η thefromnextstrong section preferentially
to weak is DI-SADadopts> DI-MSD the
changing pattern between DI-SAD and the corrosion degree
and DI-NCM > DI-TDC and DI-TDD. Therefore, the next section preferentially adopts the of the reinforcement. Another
advantage
changing patternof DI-SAD is that
between its calculation
DI-SAD and the process
corrosion does not involve
degree mode separation.
of the reinforcement. The
Another
normalized
advantage of DI-SAD
DI-SAD increases
is that itswith the increase
calculation in the
process does frequency;
not involve thatmode
is, theseparation.
ability to
characterize
The normalized the change
DI-SADin the corrosion
increases with thedegree increases
increase in the with the increase
frequency; that is,inthefrequency.
ability to
Hence, selecting the center frequency of 100 kHz sine function
characterize the change in the corrosion degree increases with the increase in frequency. excitation signal is supe-
rior.
Hence, selecting the center frequency of 100 kHz sine function excitation signal is superior.

(a) Frequency = 50 kHz (b) Frequency = 80 kHz (c) Frequency = 100 kHz
Figure 8. DIs at different frequencies.
Figure 8. DIs at different frequencies.

4. Testing of Corroded Reinforcement

4.1. Testing Procedures
The coupled tests on corrosion and ultrasonics for the reinforcement and RC are
shown in Figure 9. The parameters for these two materials are shown in Table 1, where the
diameter of the covered concrete is 75, 110, and 160 mm. NaCl solution with a 5% mass
percentage is used as an electrolytic medium.
In the corrosion circuit, the carbon rod acts as the cathode and the reinforcement acts
as the anode. The absorbent cloth is used to cover the surface of the specimen to ensure
that it is always saturated. Chloroprene rubber is applied to the exposed parts of the
reinforcement to ensure the accuracy of the test results and to prevent erosion damage to
the anode leads at the end of the reinforcement. After conducting the test, the DC power
supply is activated, and the corrosion status of the specimen is observed periodically. The
DC power supply is cut every 24 h for the corrosion detection tests with GUWs. The
termination corrosion times for the RC specimens with covered diameters of 75, 110, and
160 mm are 216, 264, and 360 h, respectively.
In the ultrasonic system, a 100 kHz sinusoidal signal (Figure 10) is selected as the
ultrasonic excitation signal. The sampling frequency is 2 MHz, and the signal collection
method is TRA (Time-Reverse Acoustics) mode. To ensure data stability, the detection data
from the two receiver transducers must also be tested continuously for lead breakage until
the signal amplitude difference between the two is less than 3 dB and then switched to the
 Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 20

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1201 12 of 20

4. Testing of Corroded Reinforcement

4.1. Testing Procedures
TRA collection mode. The corrosion test of reinforcement is stopped every 24 h, and the
Thethecoupled
rust on tests on
reinforcement corrosion
corrosion and
area ultrasonics
is wiped clean, for
andthe
the reinforcement
remaining massand RC are
is weighed
shown
so as to in Figure the
calculate 9. The
massparameters for is,
loss rate, that these
the two materials
corrosion areatshown
degree in Table
this stage. 1, where
The process is
the diameter
repeated untilofthe
theend
covered concrete is 75, 110,
of a predetermined time.and
To 160 mm.the
ensure NaCl solution
regularity ofwith a 5%
the test mass
results,
percentage
the transducer is used as an
is kept electrolytic
attached to themedium.
reinforcement throughout the test period.

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR(a) Corrosion

PEER REVIEWtest (b) GUWs test 13 of 20

Figure
Figure 9.
9. Test
Test setup.
setup.

In the corrosion circuit, the carbon rod acts as the cathode and the reinforcement acts
as the anode. The absorbent cloth is used to cover the surface of the specimen to ensure
that it is always saturated. Chloroprene rubber is applied to the exposed parts of the rein-
forcement to ensure the accuracy of the test results and to prevent erosion damage to the
anode leads at the end of the reinforcement. After conducting the test, the DC power sup-
ply is activated, and the corrosion status of the specimen is observed periodically. The DC
power supply is cut every 24 h for the corrosion detection tests with GUWs. The termina-
tion corrosion times for the RC specimens with covered diameters of 75, 110, and 160 mm
are 216, 264, and 360 h, respectively.
In the ultrasonic system, a 100 kHz sinusoidal signal (Figure 10) is selected as the
ultrasonic excitation signal. The sampling frequency is 2 MHz, and the signal collection
method is TRA (Time-Reverse Acoustics) mode. To ensure data stability, the detection
data from the two receiver transducers must also be tested continuously for lead breakage
until the signal amplitude difference between the two is less than 3 dB and then switched
Figure
Figure
to the 10.
TRA Time
10.Time domainmode.
domain
collection waveform
waveform and
Theand frequency
frequency
corrosion spectrum
spectrum
test ofofthe
of reinforcementtheexcitation
excitation signal.every 24 h, and
signal.
is stopped
the
4.2. rust on the for
Test Results reinforcement corrosion area is wiped clean, and the remaining mass is
Bare Reinforcement
4.2. Test Results
weighed so as forcalculate
to Bare Reinforcement
the mass loss rate, that is, the corrosion degree at this stage. The
4.2.1. Mass Loss Rate of Reinforcement
4.2.1. Mass Loss Rate of Reinforcement
process is repeated until the end of a predetermined time. To ensure the regularity of the
Reinforcement with different corrosion degrees is produced by controlling the corro-
test Reinforcement
results, the transducer is keptcorrosion
with different attacheddegrees
to the reinforcement
produced bythroughout
is reinforcement controlling the test pe-
sion time through corrosion tests, and the mass loss of is shown inthe corro-
Table 2. It
riod.time through corrosion tests, and the mass loss of reinforcement is shown in Table 2.
sion
can be seen that the reinforcement mass loss rate is linearly related to the corrosion time
Itand
canthat
be seen that the
the mass lossreinforcement
rate observed massin theloss
testsrate isgeneral
is in linearlyagreement
related to thewithcorrosion time
the theoretical
and that the mass loss rate observed in the tests is in general agreement
value derived from Faraday’s law. Therefore, the mass loss at any time can be estimated with the theoret-
ical value derived
according from Faraday’s
to Faraday’s law. In orderlaw.toTherefore,
ensure thethe unitymass of loss at any
the full texttime can be esti-
and facilitate the
mated according to Faraday’s law. In order to ensure the unity
comparison between the finite element and the test, the theoretical mass loss rate of the full text and facilitate
will be
the
usedcomparison
as the actual between the finite
corrosion degreeelement and the
to analyze the results.
test, the theoretical mass loss rate will
be used as the actual corrosion degree to analyze the results.
Table 2. Comparison of test and theoretical loss rate for reinforcement.
Table 2. Comparison of test and theoretical loss rate for reinforcement.
Corrosion Time T (h) 0 24 48 72 96 120 144
Corrosion Time T (h) 0 24 48 72 96 120 144
η test
ηtest (%) (%) 0 0 5.85 5.85 10.6710.67 18.2518.25 22.49
22.49 32.06
32.06 36.78
36.78
η theory (%) 0 6.27 12.54 18.81 25.08 31.35 37.62
ηtheory (%) 0 6.27 12.54 18.81 25.08 31.35 37.62
∆η (%) 0 −6.70 −14.91 −2.98 −10.33 2.26 −2.23
Δη (%) 0 −6.70 −14.91 −2.98 −10.33 2.26 −2.23

4.2.2. GUW Signals and DI-SAD of Reinforcement

As shown in Figure 11, ultrasound waves propagate within the reinforcement and
form GUWs under 100 kHz sinusoidal pulse excitation, and evidently reflected waves can
be seen. The direct waveforms of the reinforcement at different corrosion degrees are not
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1201 13 of 20

4.2.2. GUW Signals and DI-SAD of Reinforcement

As shown in Figure 11, ultrasound waves propagate within the reinforcement and
form GUWs under 100 kHz sinusoidal pulse excitation, and evidently reflected waves can
be seen. The direct waveforms of the reinforcement at different corrosion degrees are not
visibly different after amplification. When the reflected waves are formed, the waveforms of
the GUWs with different corrosion degrees are different. From the direct waveforms, it can
be seen that the time corresponding to the peak of the direct wave is almost the same (about
292 µs) for reinforcements with different corrosion degrees. From the reflected waveforms,
it can be seen that with the increase in the corrosion degrees, the reflected waveforms of
reinforcement show a forward shift and its peak value gradually decreases, that is, the
time corresponding to the peak value gradually decreases (from 800.27 µs to 798.58 µs). In
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
conclusion, the greater the corrosion degree, the lower the waveform amplitude and 14 of
the20

lower the arrival time.

Figure 11.
Figure 11. GUW
GUW signals
signals of
of reinforcement
reinforcement at
at different
differentcorrosion
corrosiondegrees.
degrees.-

It has
It canalso
be seen
been in the that
noted frequency dispersion
the amplitude of thecurve shown
reflected wavein Figure 2a that decreased
is significantly the group
velocity
with of the
respect to reinforcement
the direct wave, is and
4510Sun m/set atal.
a frequency
[41] pointed of 100 kHz.this
out that Thedecreasing
propagation trendve-
locities of to
conforms theanspecimens
exponential in the finite element
function. This is due andtotestthestudies wereand
refraction calculated
scattering from the
of the
arrival times
reflected wave of after
the absolute
passingpeakthroughamplitudes: The propagation
the interface between the velocity of the GUW
two media. Part ofin the
the
energy is reflected
reinforcement backelements
in finite while theisother4449 m/spart according
propagates tothrough the medium
Figure 7b,c; during the
the propagation ve-
GUW
locity propagation.
of the GUW inThis the results in the decrease
reinforcement in the test in is
the amplitude
4329 of the reflected
m/s according to Figurewave 11. It
compared
can be seenwith the direct
in Figure wave.
12 that the deviations in the propagation velocities obtained by these
It can be seen in the frequency
three are small, all within the 4% deviation dispersionrange. curve
Thisshown
furtherin Figure 2a
validates thethat the group
correctness of
velocity of the reinforcement is 4510 m/s at a frequency of
the finite element method and test. For the reinforcement embedded in concrete, various 100 kHz. The propagation
velocities
longitudinal of the
GUW specimens
modes are in the finite element
observed at a single and test studies
frequency, weremakes
which calculated from the
it complicated
arrival
to separatetimes theofwave
the absolute
modes and peak amplitudes:
calculate the groupThe propagation velocity ofthis
velocities. Considering the complex-
GUW in
the
ity, reinforcement
the group velocity in finite elements
dispersion is is 4449
only m/s according
validated for baretoreinforcement.
Figure 7b,c; the propagation
velocity
Theofsamethe GUW in thefrequency
excitation reinforcement as theinfinite
the test is 4329simulation
element m/s accordingis used,to Figure
and the11.test
It
can be seen in Figure 12 that the deviations in the propagation
and simulated DI-SAD obtained after amplitude normalization are compared, as shown velocities obtained by these
three are small,
in Figure 13. The allresults
withinshow
the 4% thatdeviation
the changingrange.trendThis between
further validates
the DI-SAD the correctness
and corrosion of
the finite element method and test. For the reinforcement embedded
degree of the corroded reinforcement is consistent. The sensitivity of the index is posi- in concrete, various
longitudinal
tively correlated GUWwith modes the are observed
frequency ofatthe
a single
GUWs. frequency,
Overall, which
both themakes it complicated
test and simulated
to separate the wave modes and calculate the group velocities. Considering
results indicate that it is feasible that the DI-SAD can be used as an index for determining this complexity,
the
the group
degreevelocity dispersion
of corrosion is only validated for bare reinforcement.
of reinforcements.
 in Figure 13. The results show that the changing trend between the DI-SAD and cor
degree of the corroded reinforcement is consistent. The sensitivity of the index i
tively correlated with the frequency of the GUWs. Overall, both the test and sim
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1201 results indicate that it is feasible that the DI-SAD can be used as an index for determ
14 of 20
the degree of corrosion of reinforcements.

Figure 12.Comparison
Figure 12. Comparisonof propagation velocities
of propagation in bare reinforcement.
velocities in bare reinforcement.
The same excitation frequency as the finite element simulation is used, and the test
and simulated DI-SAD obtained after amplitude normalization are compared, as shown in
Figure 13. The results show that the changing trend between the DI-SAD and corrosion
degree of the corroded reinforcement is consistent. The sensitivity of the index is positively
correlated with the frequency of the GUWs. Overall, both the test and simulated results
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
indicate that it is feasible that the DI-SAD can be used as an index for determining the
degree of corrosion of reinforcements.

13.Comparison
Figure 13.
Figure Comparisonof test and simulated
of test DI-SAD.DI-SAD.
and simulated
4.3. Test Results for RC
4.3. Test
4.3.1. TestResults for RCof RC
Phenomenon
4.3.1.The surfaces
Test of the threeof
Phenomenon RCRC
specimens before and after the tests are shown in Figure 14.
It shows that as the corrosion time of the reinforcement increases, the corrosion products
The to
continue surfaces
increase,ofand
thethe
three RC specimens
specimens before
begin to show and after
different theoftests
degrees areThe
cracks. shown in
14.
RCItwill
shows thattheaswhole
undergo the corrosion timerusting
process of slow of thefrom
reinforcement increases,
the reinforcement surfacethe corrosion
to the
concrete surface.
ucts continue to increase, and the specimens begin to show different degrees of
The RC will undergo the whole process of slow rusting from the reinforcement sur
the concrete surface.
 4.3.1. Test Phenomenon of RC
The surfaces of the three RC specimens before and after the tests are shown in Figure
14. It shows that as the corrosion time of the reinforcement increases, the corrosion prod-
ucts continue to increase, and the specimens begin to show different degrees of cracks.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1201 15 of 20
The RC will undergo the whole process of slow rusting from the reinforcement surface to
the concrete surface.

(a) Before corrosion (b) After corrosion

Figure14.
Figure 14.Diagram
Diagramof
ofspecimens
specimenswith
withdifferent
differentcovered
coveredthicknesses
thicknessesbefore
beforeand
andafter
aftercorrosion.
corrosion.

4.3.2.
4.3.2.Mass
MassLoss
LossRate
Rateof
ofRC
RC
Since
Sincethe
themass
massloss
lossrate
rateofofthe
thereinforcement
reinforcementatateacheachcorrosion
corrosionmoment
momentcannot
cannotbe be
measured
measured after the reinforcement is covered in concrete, the corrosion time is usedinstead
after the reinforcement is covered in concrete, the corrosion time is used instead
of
ofthe
the mass. Therefore,the
mass. Therefore, thefollowing
followinguses uses the
the corrosion
corrosion time
time instead
instead of the
of the mass mass
loss loss
rate.
rate. The linear
The linear relationship
relationship betweenbetween
the mass theloss
mass
rateloss
andrate
the and the corrosion
corrosion time
time of the of the
reinforce-
reinforcement is described
ment is described in 3.2
in Section Section
(Table3.22).
(Table 2).

4.3.3.
4.3.3.GUW
GUWSignals
Signalsand
andDI-SAD
DI-SADof ofRC
RC
Figure
Figure 15 shows the GUW signalwaveforms
15 shows the GUW signal waveformsof ofbare
barereinforcement
reinforcementand
andRCRCwithout
without
corrosion. It can be seen from Figure 15 that the influence of the concrete cover
corrosion. It can be seen from Figure 15 that the influence of the concrete cover onon the GUW
the
characteristics is mainly as follows:
GUW characteristics is mainly as follows:
(1) The amplitude of the GUW signal decreases as the covered thickness increases, and
(1) The amplitude of the GUW signal decreases as the covered thickness increases, and
the more signal energy is leaked. The amplitudes in the reinforcement bars with the
the more signal energy is leaked. The amplitudes in the reinforcement bars with the
75, 110, and 160 mm covered diameters are 1/19, 1/28, and 1/70 of those in the bare
75, 110, and 160 mm covered diameters are 1/19, 1/28, and 1/70 of those in the bare
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW reinforcement, respectively. 16 of 20
reinforcement, respectively.
(2) With the increase in the covered thickness, the arrival time increases and the wave
(2) With the increase in the covered thickness, the arrival time increases and the wave
velocity decreases. The arrival time of the signal in the bare reinforcement is 292 µs,
velocity decreases. The arrival time of the signal in the bare reinforcement is 292 μs,
whereas the corresponding arrival times are 405, 462, and 491 µs for the reinforcements
(3) The mode the
whereas components in the arrival
corresponding signals times
are increased
are 405,and
462,the signals
and 491 μs are complex.
for Ma
the reinforce-
with 75, 110, and 160 mm covered diameters, respectively.
etments
al. [28] pointed
with outand
75, 110, that160
onmmthe covered
one hand, due to the
diameters, small signal amplitude, the
respectively.
(3) The mode components in the signals are increased and the signals are complex.
signal-to-noise ratio is lower and more interfered with by noise; on the other hand,
Ma et al. [28] pointed out that on the one hand, due to the small signal amplitude,
the modal components of the GUW signals are more complex in the composite rein-
the signal-to-noise ratio is lower and more interfered with by noise; on the other
forcement–concrete waveguide medium.
hand, the modal components of the GUW signals are more complex in the composite
The above phenomenon is
reinforcement–concrete consistentmedium.
waveguide with the results discussed in Section 2.2.

Figure
Figure 15.
15. GUW
GUWsignals
signalsfor
forreinforcement
reinforcementand
andRC
RCwithout
withoutcorrosion.
corrosion.

The effectiveness of DI-SAD has been discussed previously, and DI-SAD is still used
here to identify the corrosion state of the reinforcement within the concrete. The relation-
ship between the measured DI-SAD and corrosion time for the three RC specimens with
the same excitation frequency at different corrosion times is shown in Figure 16a. During
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1201 16 of 20

Figure 15. GUW signals for reinforcement and RC without corrosion.

The above phenomenon is consistent with the results discussed in Section 2.2.
Theeffectiveness
The effectivenessof ofDI-SAD
DI-SADhas hasbeen
beendiscussed
discussedpreviously,
previously,andandDI-SAD
DI-SADisisstill
stillused
used
heretotoidentify
here identifythethecorrosion
corrosion state
state of of
thethe reinforcement
reinforcement within
within the the concrete.
concrete. TheThe relation-
relationship
ship between
between the measured
the measured DI-SADDI-SAD and corrosion
and corrosion time time
for theforthree
the three RC specimens
RC specimens withwith
the
the same
same excitation
excitation frequency
frequency at different
at different corrosion
corrosion timestimes is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 16a. 16a. During
During the
the corrosion
corrosion process,
process, the the corrosion
corrosion inside
inside thethe concrete
concrete was
was measuredintermittently
measured intermittentlyusing
using
GUWs.In
GUWs. Inthe
theRC
RCspecimen
specimenwithwitha a7575mmmmdiameter,
diameter, thethe measured
measured GUWGUW signals
signals at differ-
at different
corrosion timestimes
ent corrosion are shown in Figure
are shown 16b. 16b.
in Figure

(a) Normalised DI-SAD (b) Time domain waveforms of RC with 75 mm covered diameter
Figure16.
Figure 16.GUW
GUWsignals
signalsand
andDI-SAD
DI-SADof
ofRC
RCwith
withdifferent
differentcovered
coveredthicknesses.
thicknesses.

ItItcan
canbe
beseen
seenfrom
fromFigure
Figure16 16that
thatthe
thechange
changein
inthe
theGUW
GUWsignal
signalDI-SAD
DI-SADpropagating
propagating
inthe
in thereinforcement
reinforcementwith
withthe
thecorrosion
corrosion time
time (based
(based onon
thethe minimum
minimum andand maximum
maximum val-
values
ues
of theofnormalized
the normalized DI-SAD)
DI-SAD) can becandivided
be divided
intointo the following
the following three
three stages
stages in the
in the casecase
of
of covered concrete.
covered concrete.
(I) The first stage is the initial stage of reinforcement corrosion, which is characterized
by a decrease in the amplitude of the GUWs. At this stage, the corrosion products
are slowly filled in the pores of the concrete around the reinforcement, which does
not cause the internal cracking of the concrete. Due to the filling of the corrosion
products, the contact between the reinforcement and concrete is closer, and more
GUW energy is leaked from the reinforcement to the concrete, making the amplitude
decrease continuously.
(II) The second stage is the development stage of the internal cracks in the concrete.
After the corrosion products fill the pores, their volume continues to increase, and the
resulting rust expansion pressure causes cracks to begin to develop within the concrete
when the concrete stresses reach the tensile strength. The bond failure between the
reinforcement and concrete leads to the gradual decrease in the GUW energy leaked
into the concrete, so the amplitude of the GUWs propagating along the reinforcement
tends to increase.
(III) The third stage is the development stage of the concrete surface cracks. As the cracks
within the concrete continue to extend and expand, cracks appear on the concrete
surface. Corrosive products on the reinforcement surface seep out along the cracks,
while the corrosion solution flows to the reinforcement surface along the cracks. Since
the acoustic impedance of the liquid is much larger than that of the metal material,
the amplitude of the GUWs propagating in the reinforcement decreases rapidly.
However, the corrosion time of the concrete at each stage is related to the diameter
of the concrete. The larger the diameter, the longer the duration of each stage, and the
fluctuation of DI-SAD (the difference between the maximum and minimum) is reduced.
This results from the combined effect of the rust expansion pressure are generated by the
corrosion and the ultimate tensile strength of concrete materials. Thus, it can be seen that
 Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1201 17 of 20

the time until the appearance of corrosion cracks in the RC can be delayed by increasing
the covered thickness of the reinforcement to protect the reinforcement in the concrete.

4.3.4. Comparative Analysis with Theoretical Corrosion Model

Combined with the existing corrosion model of the RC [26], the effectiveness of the DI
proposed in the paper is demonstrated by comparing the theoretical corrosion times and
measured DI-SAD results at different corrosion stages. Combining Figure 17 and Table 3, it
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
can be found that the error of the internal cracking time is within 7% for the RC specimens
with diameters of 75 and 110 mm, and the error of the surface cracking time is within 2%
for the 110 mm diameter specimens.

17.Comparison
Figure 17.
Figure Comparisonof test
ofand
testtheoretical values forvalues
and theoretical cracking
fortime of RC specimens.
cracking time of RC specimens.

Table 3. Comparison of test and theoretical values for cracking time of RC specimens.
Table 3. Comparison of test and theoretical values for cracking time of RC specimens.
Test Value for Theoretical Value for Test Value for Theoretical ValueTheoretical
for
Covered
Internal Theoretical
Internal CrackingValue for Surface Value
Diameter DTest Value for Inter- Error Test Value forCracking
Surface Sur- Time Error
Covered Diam-
(mm)
Cracking Time Internal
Time
theory
Cracking Cracking Time theory
Tsurface (h)
for Surface Crack-
nal Cracking
Ttest
internal (h)
Time Tinternal (h) Error
Ttest face Cracking
surface (h)
Time
eter D (mm) test Time test ing Time
Tinternal
72 (h) Tsurface (h)
75 67 theory
(h) −5.21%
6.94% 168 147
T− 12.50%
theory
110 96
T
101 internal 216 212 surface (h)
−1.85%
75 160 72
168 101 67 −39.88%−6.94%336 168 274 −147
18.45% −
110 96 101 5.21% 216 212 −
160 168 101
At the same time, it is also seen−39.88%
that there is a large 336
error between the test 274and
value −
the theoretical value of the internal cracking time and the surface cracking time of the RC
specimen with the 160 mm diameter, and the test results are obviously lagging behind.
5. Conclusions
This is because the theoretical corrosion model assumes that when the cover thickness
In this
is greater thanpaper,
30 mm,firstly, the GUW
the opening dispersion
necessary characteristics
to start cracking no longerofincreases
the reinforcement
with
increasing cover thickness. However, the test results show that for the RC
are analyzed. Secondly, the finite element simulation of a corroded reinforcemenspecimens with
a diameter of 160 mm (cover thickness of 70 mm), the cracking time lags significantly
ried out using random corrosion to determine the frequency of the excitation sig
behind that of the RC specimens with a diameter of 110 mm (cover thickness of 45 mm).
the
This damage
phenomenon index. Finally,
suggests the identification
that increasing the concreteof the thickness
cover corrosion stages of a reinforce
is advantageous in
concrete
delaying theis corrosion
carried out using
cracking of GUW tests on reinforcement
the RC specimens. andthickness
Although the cover RC specimens.
of a Th
typical RC structure
conclusions are asdoes not exceed 40 mm, the cover thickness of piers and prestressed
follows:
RC structures on sea-crossing bridges is usually much larger. Therefore, the internal
(1) The five proposed Dis all show a linear increasing trend with the increase in
inforcement corrosion degree in the finite element analysis, and DI-SAD is th
sensitive to the corrosion state of the reinforcement compared with other DIs
excitation frequency increases in the range of 50–100 kHz. The results of th
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1201 18 of 20

reinforcement corrosion of the concrete at larger covered thicknesses should be considered;

otherwise, the extent of internal reinforcement corrosion at large covered thicknesses will
be underestimated.

5. Conclusions
In this paper, firstly, the GUW dispersion characteristics of the reinforcement and
RC are analyzed. Secondly, the finite element simulation of a corroded reinforcement is
carried out using random corrosion to determine the frequency of the excitation signal and
the damage index. Finally, the identification of the corrosion stages of a reinforcement in
concrete is carried out using GUW tests on reinforcement and RC specimens. The main
conclusions are as follows:
(1) The five proposed Dis all show a linear increasing trend with the increase in the
reinforcement corrosion degree in the finite element analysis, and DI-SAD is the
most sensitive to the corrosion state of the reinforcement compared with other DIs,
as the excitation frequency increases in the range of 50–100 kHz. The results of the
reinforcement corrosion test and the finite element are in good agreement, and their
data correlation is 0.998.
(2) The direct waveforms of the reinforcement in the finite element simulation and the test
almost coincide, while the reflected waveforms tend to shift forward with the increase
in the corrosion degree of the reinforcement, and their amplitudes are significantly
decreased compared with the direct waveforms. The deviation between the GUW
propagation velocity for the specimens with a different corrosion degree from the
finite element and test and the numerical solution of the frequency dispersion curve
(4510 m/s) is within 4%, which is in good agreement.
(3) As the corrosion time of the RC specimens increases, the DI-SAD values of the GUW
show three-stage changes. The larger the covered thickness of the RC specimens, the
longer the corrosion time required for each stage. This is the result of the combined
effect of the corrosion expansion pressure generated by corrosion and the ultimate
tensile strength of the concrete material.
(4) Increasing the covered thickness is beneficial to delay the appearance time of corrosion
cracks in the RC specimens. When the covered thickness is small, the test value of the
cracking time of the RC specimens is basically consistent with the theoretical results,
and the error is within 12.5%, while the test values are significantly larger than the
theoretical values when the covered thickness is larger, which is due to the assumed
conditions of the theoretical model.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.Q.; methodology, J.Q.; software: P.Z.; validation, J.Y.;
formal analysis, Y.W.; investigation, Y.W.; data curation, R.J.; writing—original draft, J.Q.; visualiza-
tion, P.Z.; writing—review and editing, J.Q.; project administration, J.Y.; funding acquisition: J.Q. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by State Key Laboratory of Bridge Engineering Structural
Dynamics, grant number: ZSJK-KF01; the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant
No. 52378283); China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (Grant No. 2021M702782); Natural Science
Foundation of Chongqing, China (Grant No. CSTB2023NSCQ-MSX0633); Chongqing Education
Commission Science and Technology Research Youth Project (Project Number KJQN202300745).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available in the main article.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to appreciate Linqiang Zhou, who discussed the finite
element simulation and suggested useful comments.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1201 19 of 20

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