Introduction to Transition Metal Chemistry
Introduction
Transition metals are elements found in the d-block of the periodic table. They are
characterized by the partial filling of d-orbitals, either in their elemental state or in their
common oxidation states. These elements exhibit unique physical and chemical properties due to
the presence of these d-electrons, which enable a wide range of oxidation states, colored
compounds, catalytic activity, and complex formation.
Position in the Periodic Table
Located in groups 3 to 12.
Periods: 4 (Sc to Zn), 5 (Y to Cd), 6 (La, Hf to Hg), and 7 (Ac, Rf to Cn).
Transition series:
o 1st Row: Sc to Zn
o 2nd Row: Y to Cd
o 3rd Row: La (sometimes Lu) to Hg
Definition: A transition element is one that has an incomplete d-subshell in its atoms or in one
or more of its oxidation states (IUPAC).
Electronic Configuration
General outer configuration: (n-1)d¹–¹⁰ ns⁰–²
Example:
o Sc (Z = 21): [Ar] 3d¹ 4s²
o Fe (Z = 26): [Ar] 3d⁶ 4s²
o Cu (Z = 29): [Ar] 3d¹⁰ 4s¹ (due to stability of filled d-orbital)
Note: Due to similar energy levels of 3d and 4s orbitals, anomalies in configuration (like Cr and
Cu) occur for stability.
Characteristic Properties of Transition Metals
A. Variable Oxidation States
Transition metals can lose different numbers of electrons from both s and d orbitals.
Example:
o Fe: +2 (Fe²⁺), +3 (Fe³⁺)
o Mn: +2 to +7
B. Formation of Colored Compounds
Due to d–d transitions of electrons when light is absorbed.
Example:
o [Cu(H₂O)₆]²⁺ — Blue
o [Fe(H₂O)₆]³⁺ — Yellow/Brown
C. Paramagnetism
Unpaired d-electrons make them paramagnetic.
Magnetic moment μ = √(n(n+2)) BM where n = number of unpaired electrons
D. Catalytic Properties
Many act as catalysts in industrial processes due to variable oxidation states and surface
adsorption.
Examples:
o Fe in Haber process (NH₃ synthesis)
o V₂O₅ in Contact process (H₂SO₄ production)
E. Formation of Complexes
Transition metals readily form coordination compounds with ligands.
High charge density and small size allow bonding with ligands like NH₃, H₂O, Cl⁻, CN⁻.
Example: [Fe(CN)₆]³⁻, [Cu(NH₃)₄]²⁺
F. High Melting and Boiling Points
Due to strong metallic bonding involving d-electrons.
Trends in the Transition Series
Property Across the Series (Left → Right)
Atomic size Decreases slightly then stabilizes
Density Increases
Property Across the Series (Left → Right)
Melting point High across series, peak at middle (Cr, Mo, W)
Ionization energy Increases
Electronegativity Slight increase
Oxidation states Increase initially, then decrease
Comparison: Transition vs Main Group Elements
Property Transition Elements Main Group Elements
Oxidation states Variable Usually fixed
Type of bonding Metallic, covalent, ionic Mostly ionic or covalent
Complex formation Extensive Less common
Magnetism Often paramagnetic Usually diamagnetic
Catalytic activity High Limited
Important Transition Metal Reactions
Applications of Transition Metals
Element Use
Fe Structural material, steel production
Cu Electrical wiring, alloys (bronze)
Ni Batteries, stainless steel
Ti Aerospace, medical implants
Pt Catalytic converters, jewelry
Cr Stainless steel, coatings
Element Use
Zn Galvanization, alloys
The First Transition Series (Sc–Zn) Overview
Element Atomic No. Common Oxidation States Color of Ions
Sc 21 +3 Colorless
Ti 22 +3, +4 Purple, Colorless
V 23 +2 to +5 Green, Blue, Yellow
Cr 24 +2, +3, +6 Blue, Green, Orange
Mn 25 +2 to +7 Pale pink to Purple
Fe 26 +2, +3 Green, Yellow
Co 27 +2, +3 Pink, Blue
Ni 28 +2 Green
Cu 29 +1, +2 Red, Blue
Zn 30 +2 (not a transition element) Colorless
Note: Zn has a fully filled d-subshell (3d¹⁰) in all oxidation states and is sometimes excluded
from transition metals.
Summary
Transition metals are d-block elements with partially filled d-orbitals.
Exhibit variable oxidation states, colored ions, complex formation, and catalytic
properties.
Their chemistry is crucial for industrial catalysis, biological enzymes, electronic
devices, and material science.
