SHRI VISHNU ENGINEERING COLLEGE FOR WOMEN: : BHIMAVARAM

(AUTONOMOUS)
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
COMPUTER NETWORKS
UNIT – I
Data Communications
When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or remote.
Between individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face, while remote
communication takes place over distance. The term telecommunication, which includes telephony,
telegraphy, and television, means communication at a distance.

Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the communicating
devices must be part of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical
equipment) and software (programs). The effectiveness of a data communications system depends
on four fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by
the intended device or user and only by that device or user.

2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.

3. Timeliness. The system t deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In
the case of video and audio, timemusly delivery means delivering data as they are produced,
in the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery
is called real-time transmission.

4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent
every 30 ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an
uneven quality in the video is the result.

Components:
A data communications system has five components (Message, Sender, Receiver, Transmission
Medium and Protocol)

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 1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.

4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.

5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an

agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by
a person who speaks only Japanese.

Data Representation
Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video.
Text
In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (Os or 1s). Different
sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is called a code, and the
process of representing symbols is called coding.

Numbers
Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not used to
represent numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify mathematical
operations.

Images
Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix
of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel depends on the
resolution. For example, an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels.

There are several methods to represent color images. One method is called RGB, so called
because each color is made of a combination of three primary colors: red, green, and blue. Another
method is called YCM, in which a color is made of a combination of three other primary colors:
yellow, cyan, and magenta.

Audio
Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature different from
text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete. Even when we use a microphone to change
voice or music to an electric signal, we create a continuous signal.

Video
Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be produced as
a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images, each a discrete
entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.

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Data Flow:
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as shown in
Figure.

Simplex
 In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of
the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
 Ex: Keyboards and traditional monitors.

Half-Duplex
 In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.

 The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions. When
cars are traveling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait.

 The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both
directions at the same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized foreach
direction.
Ex: Walkie-talkie

Full-Duplex
 In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously. The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both
directions at the same time.

 One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two
people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.

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 NETWORKS

 A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links.

A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving
data generated by other nodes on the network.

 “Computer network’’ to mean a collection of autonomous computers interconnected by a

single technology. Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange
information. The connection need not be via a copper wire; fiber optics, microwaves,
infrared, and communication satellites can also be used.

 Networks come in many sizes, shapes and forms. They are usually connected together to
make larger networks, with the Internet being the most well-known example of a network
of networks.

 There is considerable confusion in the literature between a computer network and a

distributed system. The key distinction is that in a distributed system, a collection of
independent computers appears to its users as a single coherent system. Usually, it has a
single model or paradigm that it presents to the users. Often a layer of software on top of the
operating system, called middleware, is responsible for implementing this model. A well-
known example of a distributed system is the World Wide Web. It runs on top of the
Internet and presents a model in which everything looks like a document (Web page).

USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

1. Business Applications

 To distribute information throughout the company (resource sharing). sharing physical

resources such as printers, and tape backup systems, is sharing information

 client-server model. It is widely used and forms the basis of much network usage.

 communication medium among employees.email (electronic mail), which employees

generally use for a great deal of daily communication.

 Telephone calls between employees may be carried by the computer network instead of by
the phone company. This technology is called IP telephony or Voice over IP (VoIP) when
Internet technology is used.

 Desktop sharing lets remote workers see and interact with a graphical computer screen

 Doing business electronically, especially with customers and suppliers. This new model is
called e-commerce (electronic commerce) and it has grown rapidly in recent years.
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2. Home Applications

 Peer-to-peer communication:
 Individuals who form a loose group can communicate with others in the group).
 Peer-to-peer communication is often used to share music and videos.

 Person-to-person communication
 Here, the flow of information is driven by the relationships that people declare
between each other.
 Ex: Social Networks (Twitter, Facebook etc..)
 Electronic commerce

 Entertainment.(game playing,)
 Users can find, buy, and download MP3 songs and DVD-quality movies and add
them to their personal collection. TV shows now reach many homes via IPTV
(IPTeleVision) systems that are based on IP technology instead of cable TV or radio
transmissions.

3. Mobile Users
 Text messaging or texting
 Mobile phone user type a short message that is then delivered by the cellular network
to another mobile subscriber
 Smart phones
 Combine aspects of mobile phones and mobile computers.
 The (3G and 4G) cellular networks to which they connect can provide fast data
services for using the Internet as well as handling phone calls.
 Many advanced phones connect to wireless hotspots too, and automatically switch
between networks to choose the best option for the user.
 GPS (Global Positioning System)
 Mobile maps and directions are an obvious candidate as your GPS-enabled phone
and car probably have a better idea of where you are than you do.
 m-commerce (mobile-commerce)

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  An area in which mobile phones are now starting to be used is m-commerce (mobile-
commerce).
 Short text messages from the mobile are used to authorize payments for food in
vending machines, movie tickets, and other small items instead of cash and credit
cards. The charge then appears on the mobile phone bill.
 NFC (Near Field Communication)
 When equipped with NFC (Near Field Communication) technology the mobile can
act as an RFID smartcard and interact with a nearby reader for payment.

4. Social Issues
 With the good comes the bad, as this new-found freedom brings with it many unsolved
social, political, and ethical issues.

 Social networks, message boards, content sharing sites, and a host of other applications
allow people to share their views with like-minded individuals. As long as the subjects
are restricted to technical topics or hobbies like gardening, not too many problems will arise.

 Computer networks make it very easy to communicate. They also make it easy for the
people who run the network to snoop on the traffic. This sets up conflicts over issues such
as employee rights versus employer rights.

 Many people read and write email at work. Many employers have claimed the right to read
and possibly censor employee messages, including messages sent from a home computer
outside working hours. Not all employees agree with this, especially the latter part. Another
conflict is centered around government versus citizen’s rights.

 A new twist with mobile devices is location privacy. As part of the process of providing
service to your mobile device the network operators learn where you are at different times of
day. This allows them to track your movements. They may know which nightclub you
frequent and which medical center you visit.

 Phishing ATTACK: Phishing is a type of social engineering attack often used to steal user
data, including login credentials and credit card numbers. It occurs when an attacker,
masquerading as a trusted entity, dupes a victim into opening an email, instant message, or
text message.

 BOTNET ATTACK: Botnets can be used to perform distributed denial-of-service attack

(DDoS attack), steal data, send spam, and allows the attacker to access the device and its
connection.

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 Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security.

1. Performance: Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and
response time.

 Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device
to another.
 Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.

The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of

users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and
the efficiency of the software. Performance is often evaluated by two networking
metrics: throughput and delay. We often need more throughput and less delay.
However, these two criteria are often contradictory. If we try to send more data to the
network, we may increase throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic
congestion in the network.

2. Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the

frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's
robustness in a catastrophe.

3. Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures
for recovery from breaches and data losses.

Physical Structures
Before discussing networks, we need to define some network attributes.

Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway
that transfers data from one device to another. There are two possible types of connections: point-
to-point and multipoint.

Point-to-Point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of
the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point connections
use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as microwave
or satellite links, are also possible when you change television channels by infrared remote control,
you are establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote control and the television's
control system.

Multipoint
A multipoint (also called multi-drop) connection is one in which more than two specific devices
share a single link In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially
or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection.
If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

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Physical Topology:

The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. Two or
more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is the
geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called
nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.

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MESH:
A mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other node in the network.

A mesh topology can be a full mesh topology or a partially connected mesh topology. In a full
mesh topology, every computer in the network has a connection to each of the other computers in
that network. The number of connections in this network can be calculated using the following
formula (n is the number of computers in the network): n(n-1)/2.
Nodes = 5
Iinks = 10

In a partially connected mesh topology, at least two of the computers in the network have
connections to multiple other computers in that network. It is an inexpensive way to implement
redundancy in a network. In the event that one of the primary computers or connections in the
network fails, the rest of the network continues to operate normally.

Advantages of a mesh topology

 Can handle high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit data
simultaneously.

 A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission of data.

 Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other devices.

Disadvantages of a mesh topology

 The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a less desirable
option.

 Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.

 The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs and potential for
reduced efficiency.

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STAR:

Star topology is one of the most common network setups. In this configuration, every node
connects to a central network device, like a hub, switch, or computer. The central network device
acts as a server and the peripheral devices act as clients. Depending on the type of network card
used in each computer of the star topology, a coaxial cable or a RJ-45 network cable is used to
connect computers together.

Advantages of star topology

 Centralized management of the network, through the use of the central computer, hub, or
switch.

 Easy to add another computer to the network.

 If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network continues to function normally.

 The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs), High-speed LANs often use a star
topology with a central hub.

Disadvantages of star topology

 Can have a higher cost to implement, especially when using a switch or router as the central
network device.

 The central network device determines the performance and number of nodes the network
can handle.

 If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire network goes down and all computers
are disconnected from the network

BUS:

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a line topology, a bus topology is a network setup in which each computer and network device are
connected to a single cable or backbone.

Advantages of bus topology

 It works well when you have a small network.

 It's the easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals in a linear fashion.

 It requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of bus topology

 It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.

 It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.

 Bus topology is not great for large networks.

 Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.

 Additional devices slow the network down.

 If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.

RING:

A ring topology is a network configuration in which device connections create a circular data path.
In a ring network, packets of data travel from one device to the next until they reach their
destination. Most ring topologies allow packets to travel only in one direction, called a
unidirectional ring network. Others permit data to move in either direction, called bidirectional.
The major disadvantage of a ring topology is that if any individual connection in the ring is broken,
the entire network is affected. Ring topologies may be used in either local area networks (LANs) or
wide area networks (WANs).

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Advantages of ring topology

 All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions.

 A network server is not needed to control network connectivity between each workstation.

 Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.

 Additional workstations can be added without impacting performance of the network.

Disadvantages of ring topology

 All data being transferred over the network must pass through each workstation on the
network, which can make it slower than a star topology.

 The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.

 The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is more expensive than
Ethernet cards and hubs/switches.

Hybrid Topology
A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology with each branch
connecting several stations in a bus topology as shown in Figure

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 Types of Network

The types of network are classified based upon the size, the area it covers and its physical
architecture. The three primary network categories are LAN, WAN and MAN. Each network differs
in their characteristics such as distance, transmission speed, cables and cost. Basic types are as
follows:

LAN (Local Area Network)

Group of interconnected computers within a small area. (room, building, campus) Two or more pc's
can from a LAN to share files, folders, printers, applications and other devices. Coaxial or CAT 5
cables are normally used for connections. Currently, LAN size is limited to a few kilometres. The
most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and star. Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16
megabits per second (Mbps) range. Today, however, speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps.

Example: A computer lab in a school.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data, image, audio, and video
information over large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole
world.

The switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually comprise a router (internetworking
connecting device) that connects to another LAN or WAN.

The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a telephone or cable TV provider that connects
a home computer or a small LAN to an Internet service provider (lSP). This type of WAN is often used
to provide Internet access.

An early example of a switched WAN is X.25, a network designed to provide connectivity between end
users.

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MAN (Metropolitan Area Networks)
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN. It
normally covers the area inside a town or a city. It is designed for customers who need a high-speed
connectivity, normally to the Internet, and have endpoints spread over a city or part of city. A good
example of a MAN is the part of the Telephone Company or Cable TV network. Recent developments
in high-speed wireless Internet access resulted in another MAN, which has been standardized as IEEE
802.16.

Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork

Today, it is very rare to see a LAN, a MAN, or a LAN in isolation; they are connected to one another.
When two or more networks are connected, they become an internetwork, or internet.

As an example, assume that an organization has two offices, one on the east coast and the other on the
west coast. The established office on the west coast has a bus topology LAN; the newly opened office
on the east coast has a star topology LAN. The president of the company lives somewhere in the middle
and needs to have control over the company from her horne. To create a backbone WAN for
connecting these three entities (two LANs and the president's computer), a switched WAN
(operated by a service provider such as a telecom company) has been leased. To connect the LANs
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to this switched WAN, however, three point-to-point WANs are required. These point-to-point
WANs can be a high-speed DSL line offered by a telephone company or a cable modern line
offered by a cable TV provider as shown in Figure

WLAN (Wireless LAN)

It is the fastest growing segment of computer. They are becoming very important in our daily life
because wind connections are not possible in cars or aeroplane. We can access Internet at any place
avoiding wire related troubles.. These can be used also when the telephone systems gets destroyed
due to some calamity/disaster. WANs are really important now-a-days.

PAN (Personal Area Network)

Network organized by the individual user for its personal use.

SAN (Storage Area Network)

Connects servers to data storage devices via fiber-optic cables.

E.g.: Used for daily backup of organization or a mirror copy

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 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An entity is
anything capable of sending or receiving information. For communication to occur, the entities
must agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol
defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. The key
elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.

1. Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in
which they are presented.
For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to be the address of the
sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the
message itself.

2. Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a
particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation?
For example, does an address identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the
message?

3. Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how
fast they can be sent.
For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data at
only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and some data will be lost.

Standards
 Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for
equipment manufacturers.
 Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government agencies, and other
service providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace
and in international communications.
 Data communication standards fall into two categories: de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by
convention") and de jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation").

De facto. Standards that have not been approved by an organized body but have been adopted as
standards through widespread use are de facto standards. De facto standards are often established
originally by manufacturers who seek to define the functionality of a new product or technology.

De jure. Those standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized body are de jure
standards.

Standards Organizations
Standards are developed through the cooperation of standards creation committees, forums, and
government regulatory agencies.

1. Standards Creation Committees

While many organizations are dedicated to the establishment of standards, data
telecommunications in North America rely primarily on those published by the following:

i. International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The ISO is a multinational

body whose membership is drawn mainly from the standards creation committees of
various governments throughout the world. The ISO is active in developing cooperation
in the realms of scientific, technological, and economic activity.
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 ii. International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standards Sector
(ITU-T). By the early 1970s, a number of countries were defining national standards for
telecommunications, but there was still little international compatibility. The United
Nations responded by forming, as part of its International Telecommunication Union
(ITU), a committee, the Consultative Committee for International Telegraphy and
Telephony (CCITT). This committee was devoted to the research and establishment of
standards for telecommunications in general and for phone and data systems in
particular. On March 1, 1993, the name of this committee was changed to the
International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T).

iii. American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Despite its name, the American
National Standards Institute is a completely private, nonprofit corporation not affiliated
with the U.S. federal government. However, all ANSI activities are undertaken with the
welfare of the United States and its citizens occupying primary importance.

iv. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers is the largest professional engineering society in the world.
International in scope, it aims to advance theory, creativity, and product quality in the
fields of electrical engineering, electronics, and radio as well as in all related branches
of engineering. As one of its goals, the IEEE oversees the development and adoption of
international standards for computing and communications.

v. Electronic Industries Association (EIA). Aligned with ANSI, the Electronic Industries
Association is a nonprofit organization devoted to the promotion of electronics
manufacturing concerns. Its activities include public awareness education and lobbying
efforts in addition to standards development. In the field of information technology, the
EIA has made significant contributions by defining physical connection interfaces and
electronic signaling specifications for data communication.
2. Forums
Telecommunications technology development is moving faster than the ability of standards
committees to ratify standards. Standards committees are procedural bodies and by nature
slow-moving. The forums work with universities and users to test, evaluate, and standardize
new technologies. By concentrating their efforts on a particular technology, the forums are
able to speed acceptance and use of those technologies in the telecommunications
community. The forums present their conclusions to the standards bodies.
3. Regulatory Agencies
All communications technology is subject to regulation by government agencies such as the
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States. The purpose of these
agencies is to protect the public interest by regulating radio, television, and wire/cable
communications. The FCC has authority over interstate and international commerce as it
relates to communications.

Internet Standards
An Internet standard is a thoroughly tested specification that is useful to and adhered to by those
who work with the Internet. It is a formalized regulation that must be followed. There is a strict
procedure by which a specification attains Internet standard status. A specification begins as an
Internet draft. An Internet draft is a working document (a work in progress) with no official status
and a 6-month lifetime. Upon recommendation from the Internet authorities, a draft may be
published as a Request for Comment (RFC). Each RFC is edited, assigned a number, and made
available to all interested parties. RFCs go through maturity levels and are categorized according to
their requirement level.
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 The OSI Reference Model
 In 1983, this model is developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO).
 It was revised in 1995, and it is called the ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
Reference Model.
 The OSI model has seven layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven
layers can be briefly summarized as follows:
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown
together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the architecture does
not become unwieldy.

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The Physical Layer (Provides a physical medium through which bits are transmitted)
 Lowest layer of the OSI model.
 The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel.
 The design issues have to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit it is received
by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit.
 The design issues largely deal with mechanical, electrical, and timing interfaces, as well as
the physical transmission medium, which lies below the physical layer.

The Data Link Layer (Used for error free transfer of data frames)
 The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission facility into a line that
appears free of undetected transmission errors.
 It accomplishes this task by having the sender break up the input data into data frames
(typically a few hundred or a few thousand bytes) and transmit the frames sequentially.
 If the service is reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of each frame by sending back
an acknowledgement frame.
 Issue that arises in the data link layer (and most of the higher layers as well) is how to keep a
fast transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in data.
 Broadcast networks have an additional issue in the data link layer: how to control access to
the shared channel.

The Network Layer (Moving packets from source to destination)

 The network layer controls the operation of the subnet.
 A key design issue is determining how packets are routed from source to destination.
 Routes can be based.
 If too many packets are present in the subnet at the same time, they will get in one another’s
way, forming bottlenecks.
 Handling congestion is also a responsibility of the network layer.
 The quality of service provided (delay, transit time, jitter, etc.) is also a network layer issue.
 When a packet has to travel from one network to another to get to its destination, many
problems can arise. The addressing used by the second network may be different from that
used by the first one. The second one may not accept the packet at all because it is too large.

The Transport Layer (It provides reliable message delivery from process to process)
 The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above it, split it up into
smaller units if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive
correctly at the other end.

 The transport layer also determines what type of service to provide to the session layer, and,
ultimately, to the users of the network. The most popular type of transport connection is an
error-free point-to-point channel that delivers messages or bytes in the order in which they
were sent.

 The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer; it carries data all the way from the source to
the destination. In other words, a program on the source machine carries on a conversation
with a similar program on the destination machine, using the message headers and control
messages.

The Session Layer (Used to establish, manage and terminate session)

 The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them.
 Sessions offer various services,

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 Dialog control: keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit.
Token management: preventing two parties from attempting the same critical operation
simultaneously.
Synchronization: Check pointing long transmissions to allow them to pick up from where
they left off in the event of a crash and subsequent recovery.

The Presentation Layer (Responsible for translation, compression, encryption and decryption)
 The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
transmitted.
 In order to make it possible for computers with different internal data representations to
communicate, the data structures to be exchanged can be defined in an abstract way, along
with a standard encoding to be used ‘‘on the wire.’’
 The presentation layer manages these abstract data structures and allows higher-level data
structures (e.g., banking records) to be defined and exchanged.

The Application Layer (Provides the services to the user)

 The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by users.
 One widely used application protocol is HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol), which is the
basis for the World Wide Web. When a browser wants a Web page, it sends the name of the
page it wants to the server hosting the page using HTTP. The server then sends the page
back. Other application protocols are used for file transfer, electronic mail, and network
news.

The TCP/IP Reference Model

 TCP/IP Reference Model was first described by Cerf and Kahn (1974), and later refined and
defined as a standard in the Internet community (Braden, 1989). The design philosophy
behind the model is discussed by Clark (1988).

The Link Layer

 The lowest layer in this model.
 The link layer describes what links such as serial lines and classic Ethernet must do to meet
the needs of this connectionless internet layer.
 It is not really a layer at all, in the normal sense of the term, but rather an interface between
hosts and transmission links.

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The Internet Layer
 Its job is to permit hosts to inject packets into any network and have them travel
independently to the destination (potentially on a different network).
 They may even arrive in a completely different order than they were sent, in which case it is
the job of higher layers to rearrange them, if in-order delivery is desired. Note that
‘‘internet’’ is used here in a generic sense, even though this layer is present in the Internet.
 The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP (Internet
Protocol), plus a companion protocol called ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
that helps it function.
 The job of the internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they are supposed to go. Packet
routing is clearly a major issue here, as is congestion.

The Transport Layer

 The layer above the internet layer in the TCP/IP model is now usually called the transport
layer. It is designed to allow peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on a
conversation, just as in the OSI transport layer. Two end-to-end transport protocols have
been defined here. The first one, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), is a reliable
connection-oriented protocol that allows a byte stream originating on one machine to be
delivered without error on any other machine in the internet. It segments the incoming byte
stream into discrete messages and passes each one on to the internet layer. At the
destination, the receiving TCP process reassembles the received messages into the output
stream. TCP also handles flow control to make sure a fast sender cannot swamp a slow
receiver with more messages than it can handle.

 The second protocol in this layer, UDP (User Datagram Protocol), is an unreliable,
connectionless protocol for applications that do not want TCP’s sequencing or flow control
and wish to provide their own. It is also widely used for one-shot, client-server-type request-
reply queries and applications in which prompt delivery is more important than accurate
delivery, such as transmitting speech or video. The relation of IP, TCP, and UDP is shown
in Fig. 1-22. Since the model was developed, IP has been implemented on many other
networks.

The Application Layer

 The TCP/IP model does not have session or presentation layers. No need for them was
perceived. It contains all the higher- level protocols. The early ones included virtual terminal
(TELNET), file transfer (FTP), and electronic mail (SMTP). Many other protocols have
been added to these over the years. Some important ones that we will study, shown in Fig.
1-22 include the Domain Name System (DNS), for mapping host names onto their network
addresses, HTTP, the protocol for fetching pages on the World Wide Web, and RTP, the
protocol for delivering real-time media such as voice or movies.
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 OSI TCP/IP
7 Layers 4 Layers
Reference/Theoretical Model Practical/Reality Model
Model was defined before the Model was defined after the implementation
implementation of protocols of protocols
OSI model based on three concepts. i.e TCP/IP did not clearly distinguish between
Service, interface and protocol Service, interface and protocol
It has separate Presentation and Session Presentation and Session layers are combined
layers in Application layer
Provides connection-oriented and Provides only connectionless service in the
connection-less service in the network layer, network layer, but both in the Transport
but only connection oriented communication Layer.
in the Transport layer.
Strict Layered Structure Loosely layered Structure

Transmission medium
In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between the
transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which data is sent from one place to
another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:

It can be broadly defined as anything that can carry information from a source to a destination.

Classes of transmission media

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Guided Media:

 It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted are
directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.

 Features:
 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances

Twisted-Pair Cable:
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation,
twisted together. One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only
as a ground reference.

Twisted Pair is of two types:

1. Unshielded Twisted-Pair
2. Shielded Twisted-Pair

Unshielded Twisted-Pair:
 The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as unshielded
twisted-pair (UTP).
 UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another.
 This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical
shield for this purpose.
 It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages:
 Least expensive
 Easy to install
 High-speed capacity

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Disadvantages:
 Susceptible to external interference
 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
 Short distance transmission due to attenuation
Applications:
 Used in telephone connections and LAN networks
Connectors:
The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack).

Performance:
One way to measure the performance of twisted-pair cable is to compare attenuation versus frequency
and distance.

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Shielded Twisted-Pair:
 STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated
conductors.
 Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise
or crosstalk.

Advantages:
 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
 Eliminates crosstalk
 Comparatively faster
Disadvantages:
 Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
 More expensive
 Bulky

Applications:
The shielded twisted pair type of cable is most frequently used in extremely cold climates, where
the additional layer of outer covering makes it perfect for withstanding such temperatures or for
shielding the interior components.

Coaxial Cable
 It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon and
 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover.
 The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable
bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges).
 Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Advantages:
 High Bandwidth
 Better noise Immunity
 Easy to install and expand
 Inexpensive

Disadvantages:
 Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network

Applications:
Radio frequency signals are sent over coaxial wire. It can be used for cable television signal
distribution, digital audio (S/PDIF), computer network connections (like Ethernet), and feedlines
that connect radio transmitters and receivers to their antennas.
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Connectors:
To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The most common type of connector
used today is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC), connector.

The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to a device, such as aTV set. The BNC T
connector is used in Ethernet networks to branch out to a connection to a computer or other device. The
BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the signal.

Performance:
The attenuation is much higher in coaxial cables than in twisted-pair cable.

Fiber-Optic Cable
 It uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of glass or plastic.
 The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding.
 It is used for the transmission of large volumes of data.
 The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional.
 The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional
and bidirectional mode.

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Advantages:
 Increased capacity and bandwidth
 Lightweight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
 Difficult to install and maintain
 High cost
 Fragile
Applications:
 Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
 Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
 For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.
 Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing the
interior and exterior of automobiles.

Propagation Modes

Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move through the core in
different paths. How these beams move within the cable depends on the structure of the core, as
shown in Figure

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  In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the center to
the edges. A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it
reaches the interface of the core and the cladding. The term step index refers to the
suddenness of this change, which contributes to the distortion of the signal as it passes
through the fiber.
 A second type of fiber, called multimode graded-index fiber, decreases this distortion of
the signal through the cable. The word index here refers to the index of refraction.
 Single-Mode:
Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits beams to a
small range of angles, all close to the horizontal.

Connectors:

The subscriber channel (SC) connector is used for cable TV. It uses a push/pulllocking system.
The straight-tip (ST) connector is used for connecting cable to networking devices. It uses a
bayonet locking system and is more reliable than SC.
MT-RJ is a connector that is the same size as RJ45.

.
Performance:
Attenuation is flatter than in the case of twisted-paircable and coaxial cable. The performance is
such that we need fewer (actually 10 timesless) repeaters when we use fiber-optic cable.

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UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless communication.

Radio Waves:
 These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings.
 The sending and receiving antennas need not be aligned.
 Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz.
 AM and FM radios and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.

Microwaves:
 It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other.
 The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of the antenna.
 Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz.
 These are majorly used for mobile phone communication and television distribution.

Infrared:
 Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication.
 They cannot penetrate through obstacles.
 This prevents interference between systems.
 Frequency Range: 300GHz – 400THz.
 It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

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 Multiplexing

Multiplexing is used in cases where the signals of lower bandwidth and the transmitting media is
having higher bandwidth. In this case, the possibility of sending a number of signals is more. In
this, the signals are combined into one and are sent over a link that has greater bandwidt h of
media than the communicating nodes.

 n lines share the bandwidth of one link.

 MUX combines multiple signals into a single composite signal at sender side.
 DEMUX separates the composite signal into its components at receiver side.

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

In this, a number of signals are transmitted at the same time, and each source transfers its signals
in the allotted frequency range. There is a suitable frequency gap between the 2 adjacent signals
to avoid over-lapping. Since the signals are transmitted in the allotted frequencies so this
decreases the probability of collision. The frequency spectrum is divided into several logical
channels, in which every user feels that they possess a particular bandwidth. A number of signals
are sent simultaneously at the same time allocating separate frequency bands or channels to each
signal. It is used in radio and TV transmission. Therefore to avoid interference between two
successive channels Guard bands are used.

Application of FDM:
1. In the first generation of mobile phones, FDM was used.
2. The use of FDM in television broadcasting
3. FDM is used to broadcast FM and AM radio frequencies.

Advantages of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

1. Efficient Use of Bandwidth: FDM allows multiple signals to be transmitted over a single
communication channel, which can lead to more efficient use of available bandwidth.

2. No Time Synchronization Required: FDM does not require precise time synchronization
between the transmitting and receiving devices, making it easier to implement.

3. Low Implementation Cost: FDM is a relatively simple technique that does not require
sophisticated hardware or software, making it less expensive to implement.

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Disadvantages of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

1. Limited Capacity: FDM is limited in terms of the number of signals that can be
transmitted over a single communication channel, which can be a disadvantage in
applications where a large number of signals need to be transmitted.

2. Interference: FDM can be susceptible to interference from other signals transmitted on

nearby frequencies, which can degrade the quality of the transmitted signals.

3. Difficulty in Assigning Frequencies: FDM requires careful assignment of frequencies to

different signals to avoid interference, which can be a complex and time-consuming
process.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

This happens when the data transmission rate of media is greater than that of the source, and each
signal is allotted a definite amount of time. These slots are so small that all transmissions appear
to be parallel. In frequency division multiplexing all the signals operate at the same time with
different frequencies, but in time-division multiplexing, all the signals operate with the same
frequency at different times.

Synchronous TDM:
The time slots are pre-assigned and fixed. This slot is even given if the source is not ready with
data at this time. In this case, the slot is transmitted empty. It is used for multiplexing digitized
voice streams.

Asynchronous (or statistical) TDM:

The slots are allocated dynamically depending on the speed of the source or their ready state. It
dynamically allocates the time slots according to different input channels’ needs, thus saving the
channel capacity.

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Advantages of Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

1. High Capacity: TDM can support a large number of signals over a single communication
channel, making it ideal for applications where many signals need to be transmitted.

2. Simple Implementation: TDM is a relatively simple technique that is easy to implement,

making it a cost-effective solution for many applications.

3. Precise Time Synchronization: TDM requires precise time synchronization between the
transmitting and receiving devices, which can help ensure accurate transmission of
signals.

Disadvantages of Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

1. Inefficient Use of Bandwidth: TDM may not make optimal use of available bandwidth,
as time slots may be left unused if there are no signals to transmit during a particular time
slot.

2. High Implementation Cost: TDM requires sophisticated hardware or software to ensure

precise time synchronization between the transmitting and receiving devices, making it
more expensive to implement than FDM.

3. Vulnerable to Timing Jitter: TDM can be vulnerable to timing jitter, which can occur
when the timing of the transmitting and receiving devices drifts out of sync, leading to
errors in the transmission of signals.

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