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Unit 4 Land and Water Resources

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UNIT

LAND AND WATER RESOURCES

Structure
4.1 Introduction 4.4 Non-renewable Land Resource
Expected Learning Outcomes Processes Involved in the Soil Formation
4.2 Renewable and Non-renewable Changes Caused by Agriculture and
Overgrazing
Resources
Land Degradation
4.3 Renewable Water Resources
Land Use Planning and Management
Water Cycle (Hydrological Cycle)
Forms of Water 4.5 Summary
Over Exploitation of Surface and
4.6 Terminal Questions
Groundwater
Degradation of Water Sources 4.7 Answers
Floods and Droughts
4.8 Further Reading
Conservation and Management of Water
Resources

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units you have studied what constitutes your environment and how
ecosystem supports myriad living forms including human beings. You have also understood
the importance of environment and how energy moves from one form to another form, from
sun to producers (trees, algae, etc.) and thereafter to herbivores and then to various life
consumers like carnivores. In the present unit, we shall discuss the resources or the wealth,
nature has given to us as these are essential for survival and development of all the life
forms. It is our prime concern to use our natural treasures wisely and judiciously. Our
demand on natural resources is rapidly increasing. However, it is believed that the resources
are being used indiscriminately. This is partly because of the tremendous increase in human
population and partly due to lack of realisation on our part that these resources are limited
and will be exhausted one day.
Intensive and unregulated use of land surface for cultivation, grazing or exploitation of plant
material has adversely affected the plant communities and their composition as well as
regeneration capacity. Likewise, one of the most pronounced and long lasting effects of
mining and pollution is both quantitative and qualitative deterioration of water resources.
Industries add toxic wastes to the water bodies making them unusable.
There is another reason to conserve and safeguard our land and water resources as their
supply is not unlimited. Demand for natural resources is increasing progressively, hence we
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need to use them more efficiently and also look for alternative sources or their
substitutes. It will be only possible when we understand about their availability
and limitations.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After completing the study of this unit, you should be able to:
 define renewable and non-renewable resources;
 explain how various human activities in agriculture and industry have led
to degradation of land and water resources;
 describe how environmental degradation has led to conditions of floods
and droughts; and
 explain the phenomena of soil erosion and desertification and how with
wise and careful planning, various natural resources like land and water
can be utilized in a sustainable manner.

4.2 RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE

RESOURCES
Our resources are basically of two kinds viz., renewable and non-
renewable. Let us see what this means. A resource may be defined as any
useful information, material or service. Broadly we can differentiate
between natural resources i.e., goods and services supplied by the
environment and human-made resources i.e., cities, buildings, institutions
and other artefacts and human resources which include wisdom,
experience, skill and enterprise.
Natural resources are of two kinds. Some of the resources of the earth are
replaced from time to time by natural multiplication such as vegetation. In
other words these resources are regenerated and are, therefore, called
renewable resources. Forests, pastures, wild life and aquatic life are
examples of renewable resources. Water is also a renewable resource
because it gets recycled. There are some other resources such as minerals
and fossil fuels which once used are lost for ever. They cannot be
regenerated. Mineral deposits were formed slowly in millions of years. Once a
deposit is used it cannot be regenerated. For example, fossil fuels (petrol,
coal) get burnt up and cannot be recovered. These are known as non-
renewable resources. Similarly, the formation of soil is a very slow process
and formation of a layer of top soil can take thousands of years. Hence, it is
also a non-renewable resource. Let us examine water and land as the
renewable and non-renewable resources individually.

4.3 RENEWABLE WATER RESOURCE

Water is one of the most essential components of life. Our water resources
are limited though apparently water is available in an abundant quantity. There
66 is scarcity of usable quantity of water in large parts of the world.
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Human survival since ages has depended on the relationship societies had
with land and water resources. This relationship has been evolving ever since
riverbanks and river valleys influenced the early human settlements. Many
early civilizations have flourished on the riverbanks, and perished in the river
floods – some probably due to the faulty watershed/river basin management.
However, eventually human beings had come to understand the cyclical
relationship of water with land. This understanding led to the creation of tanks
using highly developed engineering techniques.
Freshwater is one of the most important substances for sustaining human life.
Considered as one the important one in the five elements – earth, fire, air,
space and water – it was revered and worshiped and treated by all with
respect.
This is because a mere one percent of all water on the planet is readily
accessible to us for use. Of this amount, about 73 per cent goes to
agriculture, 20 per cent to industry and the rest is used for domestic and
recreational needs such as drinking and other non-potable uses.
The global distribution of water resources reveals that less than 3% of the total
quantity is fresh water. A break up of the total fresh water among various
resources and its availability is shown in Table 4.1
Table 4.1: Global distribution of fresh water
Types of Fresh Water % of Fresh Water % Available
1) Frozen 80.00
2) Liquid 20.00
Lakes 0.2 1.0
Soil 0.04 0.2
Rivers 0.02 0.1
Atmosphere 0.02 0.1
Biological (Metabolic) 0.001 0.005
Ground water 19.7 98.4

It is evident from the Table 4.1 that only one fifth of the fresh water is available
in the liquid form. This limited amount is replenishable and therefore, has been
relied upon for recurrent use by human being. More than 90% of this scarce
commodity is in the form of ground water, while only 1% is in the lakes and
ponds. The soil profile carries only 0.2%, but double the amount is held either
by rivers or atmosphere. India, in terms of total annual rainfall is very fortunate.
It receives an average rainfall of 400 m ham (million hectare metres) out of
which 185 m ham is available as surface water, 50 m ham is stored as
underground water and 165 m ham is stored in soil.
The total amount of fresh water is more than enough to meet the present and
future needs of human kind. But due to its uneven distribution, wide seasonal
as well as yearly fluctuations, water shortage is a chronic problem in many
parts of the world.
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Thus we can see that the water which is required for various purposes like
irrigation, navigation, generation of hydroelectricity and domestic and industrial
needs is rather scarce. It is, therefore, necessary that water resources should
be utilized judiciously.

4.3.1 Water Cycle (Hydrological Cycle)

The movement of water on the earth is continuous and forms many complex
inter-related loops (Fig. 4.1). Cycling of water involves atmosphere, sea, earth
and the entire living biota. The circulation of water is highly dynamic and global
in extent. However, for the sake of convenience it is divided into different
categories:

Fig. 4.1: Hydrological cycle.

i) Precipitation: Precipitation includes all forms in which atmospheric

moisture descends to earth: rain, snow, hail, sleet and dew. The
moisture that enters the atmosphere by the vaporisation of water
condenses either into liquid (rain) or solid (snow, hail and sleet) before
it can fall (Fig. 4.2). Water returns to the land and the sea from the
atmosphere by means of condensation, deposition and precipitation.
Condensation is defined as the process by which water changes from
vapour phase to a liquid state (in the form of dew droplets). Deposition
is the process by which water changes directly from a vapour into a
solid (ice crystals) phase. In the atmosphere tiny droplets of water and
ice crystals produced through condensation and deposition form
clouds. The major amount of water on earth, is received as rainfall.
The water cycle in nature is sustained by energy from the sun. Solar
energy evaporates water from the sea and the land. Water vapours
condense in the atmosphere to form clouds which are transported to
long distance by wind currents. Rainfall and melted snow replenish
68 water in rivers, which carry it back to the sea.
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Fig. 4.2: Relative humidity for a given parcel of moisture laden air
varies with temperature.

ii) Run off: Some of the rainfall is soaked into the soil and excess water
flows over the land surface along the natural slope of the area. Run off is
the main source of water for lakes and rivers which ultimately drain into
the sea. The flowing water acts as an agent of soil erosion and
weathering of the underlying rock. Excessive run off during the rainy
season causes flood in many parts of our country.

iii) Sublimation: It is the process by which solid water changes directly to

vapour phase without passing through the intervening liquid phase. The
gradual disappearance of flakes of ice during the periods when the
temperature remains well below freezing is an example of sublimation.

iv) Evaporation: It is the process by which liquid water changes into

vapour at ambient temperature. Water evaporates from all aquatic
bodies as well as from wet surfaces. Evaporation from the ocean
surface is by far the largest source of atmospheric water vapour.

v) Transpiration: It refers to the loss of water in vapour form from plant

leaves. On land, transpiration is considerable. For example, the loss of
water through transpiration alone by one hectare (2.5 acres) of corn
approximately amounts to 35,000 litres (8800 gallons) of water each day.

After learning the cycling of water in nature you would like to know about the
different types of water found on the earth.

4.3.2 Forms of Water

Water exists on land in three forms viz: fresh water,brackish water and marine
water.
Fresh Water
Water, a universal solvent, invariably contains many soluble salts. In fresh
water the total salt content remains under 1.5 per cent. Different types of
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soluble salts released by weathering of rocks, soil erosion and decay of
organic matter, readily dissolve in water. Dissolved salts have particular
significance for floating aquatic vegetation and phytoplankton.
Brackish Water
The content of dissolved salts in brackish water is higher than the fresh water
and ranges between 0.5 and 3.5%. These waters of intermediate salinity range
are distinct from fresh or marine waters. In an estuary which represents the tail
end of a river, mixing of fresh water with sea water results in brackish water.
Marine Water
The sea water is highly saline. The average salinity of sea water remains
almost constant at 35 parts of salt per 1000 parts of water by weight and is
written as 3.5%. Some salt lakes may also have salinity levels up to and
above 35%. The biotic activity in such habitats is greatly restricted.

4.3.3 Over Exploitation of Surface and Groundwater

Water which falls in the form of precipitation moves down into soil and through
rocks and gets accumulated as ground water. The layer of rock through
which it percolates down is known as aquifer and water can be utilised by
digging out wells. Ground water can be found in two layers of the soil. The
zone of aeration, where gaps in the soil are filled both with air and water.
Further down there is a zone of saturation where in the gaps are filled up
completely with water. Water table is the boundary between the saturated
zone and unsaturated zone in rock and it rises and drops drown with increase
or decrease in the amount of ground water. Ground water provides a constant
supply to us for different purposes and this is not likely to dry up under natural
conditions.

Box 4.1 : Ground Water Depletion

Ground water is a major source of drinking water. Its usage has been
estimated at around 50% but much of its availability is dependent on the
rainfall and recharge conditions. While the demand is on the rise, it has
also led to water scarcity, and where available it is affected by pollution,
depriving millions of people an access to safe drinking water. This kind of
crisis is more a human made crisis than a natural one. The extraction
levels have gone up and even the farming and industrial sectors are
increasingly using the water from wells. The crisis can be attributed to
lack of adequate water conservation methods, inefficient use of water,
poor ground water recharge and lack of quality in fresh water sources.
The water pollution is marked by excess fluoride, arsenic, iron, salt and
organic matter.
Source: http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/water/water/ground.html

The surface water includes the streams, ponds, lakes, human-made

reservoirs and canals, and freshwater wetlands. As part of water cycle the
surface water bodies are considered renewable resources though they are
70 dependent on other parts of water cycle.
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Agriculture is by far the biggest consumer of water. Almost 70% of available
water is consumed every year in agricultural production worldwide. In Asia, it
accounts for 86% of total annual water withdrawal, compared with 49% in
North and Central America and 38% in Europe. The Green Revolution in India
ushered in an era of energy and resource intensive agriculture. Water was a
critical input to the Green Revolution, through irrigation, flood control, and
drainage, and it has contributed most to the growth in wheat and rice
production for the past 40 years.
Implications for future agricultural production are to develop water efficient
measures giving more productivity per unit of water input. This would require
efficient operation of irrigation systems; technologies that reduce water
consumption, appropriate soil and water conservation measures, changes in
cropping patterns and the ways in which crops are grown, so as to use water
more efficiently.
Similar standards would need to be set and enforced for industries to cut
down on water use and prevent them for discharging polluting effluents into
water bodies.

4.3.4 Degradation of Water Sources

The depletion of water resources and their contamination making them unfit as
a source of water for human consumption. It is a major problem today. Most of
our water bodies like rivers, lakes, oceans, estuaries and ground water bodies
are facing severe pollution due to intensive agriculture, urbanisation,
industrialisation and deforestation. Siltation of rivers and lakes due to soil
erosion progressively reduces their water holding capacity resulting in
ravaging floods year after year. Today we are faced with the paradoxical
situation of lack of safe drinking water in above-average rainfall areas and
regions having abundant water bodies.
Discharge of sewage and industrial effluents into water bodies not only pollute
water but often lead to an increase in the growth of aquatic plants and algal
blooms in water bodies, ultimately causing them to disappear. This may also
cause the decay and destruction of various organisms in water, e.g., fish.

4.3.5 Floods and Droughts

Floods are the most common of all natural calamities. Floods regularly claim
over 20 thousand lives and adversely affect 75 million people annually world
wide. Bangladesh alone accounts for about two-third of global loss of life due
to floods. India accounts one fifth of global death count and loss of Rs. 600
million every year on an average. More than the loss of life and damage to
property, millions of people are displaced every year due to floods in the South
Asian countries.
A flood is the discharge of water that exceeds the canal capacity of the river.
Floods are caused by different factors that include:
It is possible to reduce the adverse effects of floods by:
 construction of dams and reservoirs at appropriate places;
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 strengthening the embankments on rivers and canals;
 improving the carrying capacities of rivers, canals and reservoirs by
periodical desilting and deepening operations;
 diversion of flood waters from a river or a channel into other canals and
channels;
 introducing flood plain management techniques; and
 preparing ponds, reservoirs, tanks and leading channels by removing
obstructions and avoiding constructions.
It is now easy to predict or forecast onset of floods before hand by the
advancement in science and technology. The damage to property and loss of
life or displacement of people can be reduced if only the concerned agencies
coordinate their activities and act in time to address the calamity.
Like flood a ‘drought’ can be defined as a prolonged period of unusually dry
weather, with little rainfall, in a region where rains are normally expected. As
such a drought differs from a dry climate which is usually associated with a
region that is normally or seasonally dry. Droughts often last for years.
Drought is a creeping calamity because it develops slowly and has a
prolonged existence. Droughts are not confined to any particular tectonic or
topographic setting and their impact often extends over large areas and
regions. The impact of drought affects the developing countries more severely
than the developed countries. Crop losses hunger and malnutrition cause
immense misery to the poor people.

Box 4.2 : A Case Study of Drought in Rajasthan

Rajasthan, the largest State in India with a land area of 342,239 sq. km
and an estimated population of about 54 million was in the grip of a
severe drought in the year 2000. Out of the 32 total districts in the
State drought was prevalent in 31 districts and among these 25 districts
were affected severely. 73.64% villages were under the clutches of
drought; affecting nearly 33.04 million people and 39.97 million cattle.
The severity of the drought can be judged from the fact that out of a
total of 2647 major water reservoirs only 300 were filled up. Also,
nearly 75 to 100% of crops was destroyed due to water scarcity. All
this caused loss of livelihood leading to mass migration in search of
employment.
Source: http://www.un.org.in/UNDMT/states/rajas/dstatus.html

Though climate is usually the prime trigger of drought, the situation is often
made worse by the way people use the water resources. Felling trees for
firewood, denuding the forest for agricultural or housing purpose, mining,
unscientific farming methods and indiscriminate drawing of ground water
cause drought. It is argued that serious droughts in developing countries are
72 more a function of global developmental policies than climatic conditions.
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Droughts produce series of direct and indirect impacts that usually extend far
beyond the area that is experiencing the actual water shortage. These may be
classified as:
 Economic – Loss of crop, dairy, livestock, fishery produce;
 Environmental – Damage to plant and animal species, erosion of soils; and
 Social – Food shortage, damage to health, conflicts between water users.
It is possible to take precautions in drought prone areas by constructing
reservoirs, educating people in water conservation, scientific farming and
optimal use of ground water resources. Since many parts of India are prone to
drought, government agencies maintain a stock of food grain to meet the
scarcity to crop failures.
Water Harvesting Measures: One of the effective measures to combat
drought and resulting water shortage is to adopt rain water harvesting
measures. Water harvesting can be undertaken through variety of ways by:
 capturing runoff from rooftops;
 capturing runoff from catchments;
 capturing seasonal floodwaters from local streams in ponds and
reservoirs; and
 conserving water through watershed management.
These techniques can serve the following purpose:
 Provide drinking water
 Provide water for irrigation
 Increase groundwater recharge
 Reduce storm water discharges, urban floods and overloading of sewage
treatment plants
 Reduce seawater ingress in coastal areas.
At the local level, several water management strategies are in use today, that
offer practical and sometimes superior alternatives to the large-scale
centralized, capital-intensive approaches to water management. They can
also complement wider reaching water management approaches.
Several methods are being used in the traditional system of water harvesting
in different regions of the country. For example, johads, talaabs as surface
water bodies and kunds (underground tanks) are in vogue in many parts of the
country. In the North-eastern Hills bamboo drip irrigation is practiced to
conserve water (Fig. 4.3).
In a cold desert area like Spiti in Himachal Pradesh, kul irrigation is practiced
since ancient times. Kuls (see Fig. 4.4) are diversion channels made to carry
water from glaciers to villages. The kuls often span long distances, some
being 10 km long and run down precipitous mountain slopes. 73
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Fig. 4.3: Bamboo drip irrigation.

Fig. 4.4: Kuls in the Spiti area.

Several methods are being followed by individuals, and communities in urban

as well as rural areas to harvest rain water. One such scheme is operational
in the Rashtrapati Bhavan.
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In Rashtrapati Bhavan an underground tank of 1 lakh litre capacity has been
constructed to store water for low quality use (see Fig. 4.5). Rainwater from
the northern side of roof and paved areas surrounding Rashtrapati Bhavan is
diverted to it.

Fig. 4.5: Rainwater harvesting in Rashtrapati Bhawan.

Two dugwells are used to store overflow from the 1 lakh litre rainwater storage
tank. Another dry open well is recharged with rainwater from the southern side
of the roof and runoff from the staff residential area. A desilting tank is used to
remove pollutants from the water passing into the recharge well. (see fig. 4.6)

Fig. 4.6: Rain water harvestig.

Box 4.3 : Water Harvesting measures by Hyderabad Metropolitan

Water Supply and Sewerage Board

The Hyderabad Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board

(HMWSSB) has set up an ambitious plan of taking up several water
harvesting measures in twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad and
its vicinity through active involvement of people to improve the ground
water level. The Water Harvesting measures, under the Neeru-Meeru
(Water and You) Programme, include construction of a recharge pits or
a mini-treatment units, planting saplings or any other action that would
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improve water recharge and green cover which ultimately increase the
ground water levels. Different opinion makers like ex servicemen, retired
officials, women’s groups and NGOs were sensitised on motivational
aspects and techniques of various water harvesting structures. The
trained groups would in turn reach out to communities and motivate the
people highlighting the importance of rainwater harvesting and its
benefits. As part of the strategy, the Board has recently created water
soldiers, by sensitising ex-servicemen recently. It had also proposed to
involve the student community in a big way so that the schools and
colleges and other institutions would contribute to the cause of improving
ground water table.
Source: http://www.hyderabadwatr.gov.in/RWH_Note.html

4.3.6 Conservation and Management of Water

Resources
Water is increasingly becoming a scarce commodity. Its scarcity threatens us
all - jeopardizing our livelihoods, and sometimes endangering our lives. For
many millions of people, freshwater scarcity is defined as much by poor
quality as by insufficient quantity. As reported in 2001 by the United Nations
Population Fund (UNFPA), within the next 25 years, one-third of the world’s
population will experience severe water scarcity. Right now, more than 1 billion
people lack access to safe drinking water and 3 billion people (half of the
Earth’s population) lack access to basic sewage systems. More than 90 % of
all the sewage produced in the developing countries returns untreated to land
and water. Unless water resources are managed properly, we will keep facing
paradoxical situations like lack of drinking water due to pollution even in above-
average rainfall areas.
As populations increase and economic development intensifies, critical policy
decisions would need to be taken on a long-term basis for regenerating,
regulating, allocating, and using water resources. In future, conflicting
demands will increasingly be felt between the needs for safe drinking water
and sanitation as well as industrial and agricultural activities.
Management of water resources means a programme to provide an adequate
supply of good quality of water for various uses without endangering the life of
the source or the reserve of water. In other words, efforts should be made to
see that: (i) water of the right quality is available for all kind of uses and (ii)
there is no misuse or wastage of this precious resource.
Water management includes recharging the reserves of groundwater and
diverting supply from an area of surplus to the region of scarcity.
Recharging of groundwater is the most important aspect of the water
management. In the mountains and hills, the watersheds are covered with
vegetation. The litter-covered soil of the watershed allows infiltration of rain
water, which finds its way to the aquifers.
In urban and rural areas, storm water, used water or domestic drains can be
fed into pits, trenches, or any depression, where it can filter underground.
Flood water can be injected into aquifers through a series of deep pits or it can
76 be spread on the fields through a network of ditches.
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The excess flow of normal as well as flood water can be diverted to areas
where there is scarcity of water. This will not only remove the danger of
damage caused by floods but will also benefit the regions of scarcity.
By proper treatment of the domestic and municipal waste water, one can
obtain a supply fit for many industrial and agricultural purposes. The treatment
of waste water involves removal of pollutants, germs, and toxic elements as
you have already studied in the previous section.
Desalination of sea water
By use of solar energy, sea water can be distilled, thus fresh water of good
quality can be obtained. This method of desalination of sea water is being
used in our country at places like Bhavnagar in Gujarat (Fig. 4.7) and Churu in
Rajasthan.

Fig. 4.7: Desalination of sea water by use of solar energy.

Reducing over consumption

Using more water than necessary is an unpardonable waste of the precious
and scarce resource. In our country, a lot of water is wasted due to leaking
taps and bad plumbing. There is also need for a check on excessive irrigation.
Waste water
Domestic and municipal waste water is rich in organic nutrients. If this kind of
water is made free from disease carrying germs and poisonous elements, it
can be used for irrigation of farms, gardens and other vegetations (Fig. 4.8).

Fig. 4.8: Domestic and municipal waste water treatment. 77

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For the removal of germs and toxic elements, the waste water or sewage is
treated in a tank or in ponds for several days. In doing so, the heavy particles
settle down to the bottom by themselves, while the finer particles are made to
settle down by adding alum and caustic soda. The clear liquid is then allowed
to pass through filters or sand or earth and finally air is blown through it. This
treatment not only removes carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide which is
generally dissolved in waste water, but also adds oxygen to the filtered water,
thus helping in purification. Treatment of water with appropriate doses of
chlorine, known as chlorination, kills all the harmful germs and makes water
usable. Growing of algae or water hyacinth, a wild plant that grows in floating
masses in rivers and lakes serves a double purpose. It cleans the water of
pollutants like phosphates and nitrates that act as nutrients for these plants,
and these plants can also be utilised for the production of biogas.

SAQ 1
Fill in the blanks with appropriate words and check your answer given at the
end of this unit:
i) ……………… is one of the most important substances for sustaining
human life.
ii) Movement of water on the ……………… is continuous.
iii) Water a universal ……………… invariably contains many soluble
………………
iv) Agriculture is by far the biggest ……………… of water.
v) A ……………… is the discharge of water that exceeds the canal capacity
of the ………………
vi) The Krishna ……………… reached its decision in 1973.
vii) ……………… methods are being used in tradition system of water ……

4.4 NON-RENEWABLE LAND RESOURCE

After learning about the renewable resources like water and forests, you would
like to know what are our non-renewable resources such as land, mineral
oceanic resources. These resources can neither be regenerated nor
expanded.
Land resources
Land is a basic resource for us. As you have learnt in the previous section, it
is, in fact, the foundation on which the entire ecological system rests and it is
the living ground (habitat) for all terrestrial plants and animals. The capability of
land to support life and various activities of man and animals is dependent
both on its biological productivity, and load bearing capacity of the soil and
rocks.
Land is under great pressure due to increase in population. Our land mass
which was, in 1901, inhabited by 238 million people, is now shared by more
78 than 1200 million people. Mismanagement of the land resource as a result of
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indiscriminate cutting of trees or deforestation has caused considerable
damage to the quality of the soil and landscapes.
Soil resources
Soil, which forms the uppermost layer of the land, is the most precious of all
resources, because it supports the whole life system, provides food and
fodder in the form of vegetation and stores water essential for life. It contains
sand, silt and clays, mixed with air and moisture. It possesses rich organic
and mineral nutrients.
The type of soil varies from place to place. Those soils which are rich in
organic matter are fertile. Fertility is also dependent on the capacity of the soil
to retain water and oxygen. The following major types of soil are shown in the
outline map of India (Fig. 4.9).

Fig. 4.9: Major Soil types of India.

1. Red soil is found on plateaux and lowland areas of eastern Bihar,

Madhya Pradesh, Jharkand, Chhatisgarh, Odissha, Kerala, Karnataka
and Andhra Pradesh, where rainfall is between 100-300 cm/year and
temperature remains above 22°C. The soil supports rain forests and
grasslands and is good for cultivation of potatoes, bananas, pineapples
and rubber.
2. The type of soil found on the Deccan and Malwa plateaux of western and
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central India has a cover of clay and is loamy and black. It is very fertile
and supports mixed grasslands, forests, crops of sugarcane, groundnut,
soyabean, cotton and rice.
3. The soils of the desert region of western and north-western India are
low in organic matter and generally considered to have low fertility.
However, if water is provided they can be made very fertile.
4. Another type of soil forms part of the Indo-Gangetic plains extending in the
delta regions on the coasts of Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, Kerala and Gujarat. This soil is characterised by loamy texture,
dry composition and variability of thickness from place to place. The soil
is highly productive and supports crops of all kind.
5. The soil that forms part of the low-lying wetlands or marshy land in the
deltas of Ganga, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri and in the river basins of
Kerala, contains rich organic matter such as decomposed farmyard
manure (dung) and plant material (wood peat), and as such is very fertile.
6. The soil found on the mountainous Himalayan region, which is ash grey
to pale yellow-brown in colour, has low fertility and supports oak and
coniferous plants such as pines and deodar.

4.4.1 Processes Involved in the Soil Formation

The processes which are involved in the formation of soils can be studied
under the following headings:
Weathering of Rocks
The processes involved in the formation of soil are slow, gradual and
continuous. The sum total of natural processes resulting in the disintegration
of parent rocks is collectively known as ‘weathering’, and it involves physical,
chemical and biological agencies.
Physical Weathering
Mechanical forces acting upon the rocks cause physical weathering.
Temperature fluctuations cause expansion and contraction of rock surface
resulting in the formation of cracks and fissures. During cold weather, the
water present in rock crevices gets frozen and the formation of ice results in
its expansion. The force of expansion causes breaking up of rock. Broken rock
fragments roll down the slopes and break further into smaller pieces. Hails,
rainfall and fast flowing streams are important agents of physical weathering.
Wind is another agent of physical weathering particularly when it carries sand
particles which causes abrasion of rock surface, due to friction. In the
Vindhyan hill forests, it is commonly seen that tree roots often penetrate
through the rock crevices and in course of time, with the radial growth of roots,
the rocks get disintegrated.
Chemical Weathering
The rocks while getting disintegrated may also undergo chemical change.
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Water is an important agent in bringing about chemical changes due to
dissolution or reaction of one or more components of rock materials.
Presence of dissolved materials and warm temperature favour chemical
weathering. Another very important process of chemical weathering is through
hydrolysis in which water dissociates (particularly in the presence of carbon
dioxide and organic acids) into H+ and OH-ions which act on silicates like
orthoclase to produce silicate clays. Oxidation and reduction reactions and
carbonation are other important means of chemical weathering.

Mineralisation and Humification

As a result of physical weathering, the rocks are broken down into smaller
particles. But this is not the true soil, and plants cannot grow well in the
disintegrated rock material alone. The weathered material, however,
undergoes further changes, that you would study in this section. You might
have noticed that during weathering, mostly physical and chemical factors are
involved. For the further development of soil, that is mineralisation and
humification, mainly the biological agents are involved.

During the early stages of soil formation, organic matter in the soil is not very
high, as the vegetation and the soil fauna are not much developed. In such
soils, algae, lichens, mosses, and other small form of plants grow and
contribute organic matter through their death and decay. In due course of time,
various types of plants, animals and microorganisms colonise such soils.
They also contribute organic matter to the soil, in the form of wastes or their
dead remains. This organic debris then break down into simpler products.
This breakdown process, also known as decomposition, is brought about by
different kinds of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. They break the
organic substances into various compounds such as polysaccharides,
proteins, fats, lignins, waxes, resins and their derivatives. These compounds
are further broken down into simple products such as carbon dioxide, water
and minerals. This latter process is called mineralisation. The residual,
incompletely decomposed organic matter left after mineralisation is called
humus and the process of its formation as humification. Humus is an
amorphous, colloidal and dark substance that is the source of energy and
nutrients for most soil microorganisms. Humus is important, as it gives the
soil a loose texture ensuring better aeration. Being colloidal in nature, it has a
great capacity for imbibing and retaining water and nutrients. Humus greatly
improves the soil fertility.

4.4.2 Changes Caused by Agriculture and Overgrazing

The changes in environment caused by man through his agro-pastoral
activities can be divided into two types for the sake of simplicity: (a) changes
brought about by traditional agriculture; (b) changes brought about by modern
agriculture. The characteristics of traditional agriculture include defacement of
land, deforestation coupled with loss of soil structure, soil erosion and
depletion of soil nutrients. Overgrazing, is also a bye-product of efforts to
exploit the land resources for maximum livestock production. While modern 81
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agriculture continues to share the disruptive effects of traditional agriculture on
environment. It also affects certain changes in environment characteristic only
of modem agricultural practices. For example, excessive irrigation causes
twin problems of salinisation and water logging resulting from rise in water
table apart from causing depletion of ground water resources. Similarly,
addition of chemical fertilisers increases the rate of depletion of micronutrients
from soils and eutrophication of water bodies and nitrosoamenia in children.
The use of plant protection chemicals poisons the food products and
sometimes kills non-target friendly organisms. Likewise, use of high yielding
varieties makes the agriculture market-oriented, encourages monoculture
causing eruption of epidemics and depletion of genetic diversity.

4.4.3 Land Degradation

Land degradation refers to the process of deterioration in the quality of land
(Fig.4.10). In a general way, it has been defined as a reduction in the capacity
of the soil to produce in terms of quality, quantity, goods and services. Human
activities which result in land degradation include deforestation, farming,
damming of rivers, industrialisation, mining, developmental works such
as human settlements, roads and highways, and networks for transport
and communication.

Fig.4.10: Land degradation due to agricultural mismanagement and

deforestation.

Natural disasters, such as droughts, floods, landslides and earthquakes also

contribute to land degradation. Land use has undergone tremendous change
as human societies evolved through the ages. However, in the pre-industrial
era, nature’s restorative ability could take care of these changes. In recent
times, the over exploitative use of land and soil degradation have assumed
alarming proportions. Table 4.2 gives the extent and causes of major land
82 degradation in the world.
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Table 4.2: Extent and causes of land degradation of the world
Extent of Degradation Causes of land degradation
580 million ha Deforestation-Vast reserves of forests
have been degraded by large scale logging
and clearance for farm and urban use.
More than 200 million ha of tropical forests
were destroyed during 1975-1990, mainly
for food production.
680 million ha Overgrazing – About 20 per cent of the
world’s pasture and rangelands have been
damaged. Recent losses have been most
severe in Africa and Asia.
137 million ha Fuel wood consumption – About 1730
million m3 of fuel wood is harvested
annually from fomrests and plantations.
550 million ha Agricultural mismanagement – Loss of
soil due to water erosion is estimated at
25,000 million tonnes annually. Soil
salinization, water logging, chemical
degradation and desertification affect about
40 million ha of land globally.
19.5 million ha Industrialization and urbanization –
Urban growth, road construction, mining
and industry are major factors in land
degradation in different regions. Valuable
agricultural land is often lost.
Source: FAO, 1996

Land and Soil

Environmental degradation has not only led to lowering of water tables but also
to land degradation, soil erosion, and desertification. Table 4.3 gives the
worldwide statistics for land use. Notice that only about 10 per cent of the
world’s land area is arable (able to be tilled for crops) or under permanent
crops such as orchards, plantations or vineyards. The remaining area is too
steep, too cold, too hot, too wet, or too dry for cultivation.
Table 4.3: World land use, 1972 and 1987.
Land Use World Area (1000 ha)
1972 1987
Total area 13,389,001 13,389,055
Land area 13,073,849 13,076,536
Arable and permanent crops 1,413,990 1,473,699
arable 1,322,797 1,373,200
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Permanent crops 91,193 100,499

Permanent pasture 3,226,013 3,214,352
Forest and woodland 4,195,500 4,068,536
Other land 4,238,344 4,519,949
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization, Production Yearbook 1989, vol. 42,
Statistics Series 88, Rome.
In India, between 30 and 50 per cent of private and common land is estimated
to be ecologically degraded to varying degrees and is generally referred to as
“wasteland”, that is land not producing its potential of biomass due to
ecological degradation, over exploitation or the absence of a clear
management system.
Wasteland development involves regenerating the land through a variety of soil
and water management practices, planting appropriate plant species,
protecting them and sharing the benefits.
The following programmes are being implemented currently as part of the
national effort towards wasteland development:
 Integrated Wastelands Development Project (IWDP) schemes
 Technology development extension and training scheme
 Support to NGOs/Voluntary agencies (grant-in-aid) scheme
 Investment promotional schemes (IPS)
 Wastelands development task force (WDTF)
The Society of Promotion of Wasteland Development (SPWD) has undertaken
Charagah development in Rajasthan as one of its major activities. Charagahs
are common lands allotted for cattle grazing in a village. In dry land areas like
Rajasthan, the role of common lands is crucial in the maintenance of cattle
population. Small farmers depend on Charagahs as fodder availability on their
own lands is poor especially in the months when no fodder is available at all.
Thus, the development of Charagahs assumes importance. The following
experiences reflect a measure of success in development of wasteland
through voluntary effort supported by government agencies.

Box 4.4 : The Case of Prayatna Samiti

Prayatna Samiti is an NGO involved in regenerating forestland and

panchayat lands in villages of Gudli-Bambora region of Girwa block in
Udaipur district, Rajasthan. Its work on Charagah protection was started
by constructing cattle proof trenches/stone walls around the common
land. Appropriate soil and water conservation measures and plantation
were undertaken along with dibbling of seeds (grass and trees). The
market value of grass produced in these Charagahs in four years was to
the tune of Rs.32.5 lakhs. Apart from making fodder available, these
efforts led to regeneration of local species and greatly reduced levels of
soil erosion. More information about this effort can be obtained from
Source : http:/www.humanscapeindia.net/humanscape/new/june02/
thecostof.html.
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Box 4.5: The Case of Hanuman Van Vikas Samiti

The Society for Promotion of Wastelands Development works with

Hanuman Van Vikas Samiti in Tonk village of Udaipur district since 1994.
Due to soapstone mining in the charagah land by local residents, it was
badly degraded. In addition, a major portion of the land was encroached
upon by some influential people. Meetings were held with the village
community to create awareness, remove encroachment and to stop
mining. Self-help groups formed by Hanuman Van Vikas Samiti played a
vital role in facilitating community action. A charagah management
committee was formed to manage this work. Financial support was
provided for the boundary wall, trench, pit digging, gully plugs/check
dam, plantation, dibbling of grass and tree seeds. The employment
generated through these activities was to the tune of around 4,500
human days. In comparison, a similar period of soapstone mining would
provide 2000 human days/year. Grass production from the charagah
increased from 6 to 44 tonnes. The per family grass availability was 155
kg while the per animal availability was 27 kg during 2000-2001. An
investment of Rs.3.77 lakh was made for the development of fifty
hectares of land. Hence, the average cost per hectare with local
contribution was Rs.7,540. At the prevailing rate of grass, its total value
is estimated to be Rs.1.93 lakhs.
More information about this effort can be obtained from:
Source : http:/www.humanscapeindia.net/humanscape/new/june02/
thecostof.html.

Soil is literally the material we live on. It is the material that supports what we
build, treats our waste, and purifies our water. Use of soil for any purpose
changes it - some of these changes may be good, many are not. Some of the
severest challenges confronting agriculturists today are soil erosion, soil
salinity, soil pollution and maintenance of soil fertility.

Soil Erosion is the process in which the top layers of soil are removed and
carried away from one place to another by wind or water. In this process,
mineral particles, organic matter, and nutrients from the soil are removed,
reducing its thickness and water-holding capacity. Eroded soil may then
become a pollutant in streams and reservoirs. The time required to form new
soil is so long that from human viewpoint, soil lost through erosion is lost
forever. A host of practices such as bunding, mulching and soil moisture
conservation needs to be adopted at a large scale to prevent soil erosion.

One way of achieving and maintaining a fertile soil is to apply organic material
in the form of green manures, straw or as manure which has already
undergone a high degree of fermentation. This improves the cohesiveness of
the soil, increases its water retention capacity and promotes a stable
aggregate structure.

In arid and semi-arid regions, too much or too little irrigation can lead to an
increase in soluble salts, rendering the soil saline or alkaline and thus 85
Block 2 Natural Resources
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unfavourable for plant growth. As water evaporates from the soil, salts such as
chlorides, sulfates, and bicarbonates of sodium, calcisum and magnesium
accumulate in it. The most effective treatment of alkaline soils is to apply
“gypsum”. A good drainage system must also be provided to assist with
washing out the sodium from saline soils. Only the most salt-tolerant species
can be grown in areas with severe soil salinity.

4.4.4 Land Use Planning and Management

Land is an exhaustible resource and is very sensitive to changes in climate
and physical processes. Land should be used according to its suitability and
capability. As you have studied in earlier sections, suitability and capability of
land is assessed in terms of its load bearing ability and fertility.
Since food for an increasing population requires more land for cultivation, the
encroachment of fertile agricultural lands for non-agricultural purposes like
construction of roads and buildings should be reduced to the minimum. Extreme
care should be taken in selecting sites for development of industries, construction
of dams and water reservoirs and mining so that the environment and socio-
economic conditions of the people living in that area are not disturbed.
Hill areas, as far as possible, should be put under forest cover because
forests serve as a resource for fuel, fodder, and timber, and provide space for
animal farming (Fig. 4.11). Besides, forests help in increasing the ground
water, since they impede the free surface run-off, thus allowing water to be
absorbed by the ground. In this process, soil erosion is minimised and flooding
can be avoided.

Fig. 4.11: An ideal land use in the hill region.

Let us see what are the essential components of land management.
Soil Management
As we have said before, soil is a precious resource which takes millions of
years to form, and hence proper management of soil is very necessary. The
management of the soil is two-fold i.e. (a) to minimise or check soil erosion
86 and (b) restore productivity of the soil.
Unit 4 Land and Water Resources
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(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4.12: a) Drainage system for preventing uncontrolled flow of water;
b) & c) Check dams for preventing the flow of running water.

Control of soil erosion

The most significant measures for control of soil erosion are: growth of
grasses, shrubs and trees on soils i.e; construction of a drainage system
which can prevent free, uncontrolled flow of water (Fig. 4.12a). Water flow
causes formation of narrow channels or gullies and leads to development
of deep narrow valleys leading to ravine land. The famous Chambal
ravines (Fig. 4.13) have been formed as a result of deep soil erosion and
the process is still continuing. This can be controlled by constructing a
series of check dams which prevent the flow of running water and
widening of gullies (Fig. 4.12b & c). Formation of a broad wall of stone
along the coasts of Maharashtra, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha has
proved to be very effective in controlling erosion by sea waves and
currents. Movement of sand by gusts of wind in the deserts and sandy
coasts can be prevented by putting barriers of trees and shrubs across the
path of wind (Fig. 4.14). In the mountain and hilly areas, planting of stems
and branches of self propagating trees and shrubs, not only strengthens
the slope of the terrace but also provides fuel wood and fodder to the
farmers.

Fig. 4.13: Chambal ravines.

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Block 2 Natural Resources
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Fig. 4.14: Checking movement of sand gust by erecting barriers of trees

and shrubs.

On the vulnerable slopes, a cover of vegetation is provided and in the

beginning, seeds are covered with coir netting pegged firmly to the ground (as
shown in Fig. 4.15). Netting checks erosion, holds the soil material together
and adds nutrients. The quick growth of grass stabilises the soil.

Fig. 4.15: Plantation of vegetation cover and brush wood or coir netting
on the slopes of mountain.

Treatment of soil sickness

Due to overuse without rest, soil becomes deficient in the requisite nutrients
and loses its fertility. Rotation of vegetables, such as peas and beans, helps to
remove the deficiency of nutrients. Legume plants such as peas add nitrogen
to the soil and thus increase its binding property as well as productivity. The
roots and off-shoots of the crops and their remains are left in the field for a
certain period of time to protect the soil from erosion.
It is found that excessive irrigation causes complete saturation or water
88 logging of the soil, which consequently loses productivity, partially or
Unit 4 Land and Water Resources
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completely. As a result of over irrigation in some areas, salinity and alkalinity of
the soil increases, making it “sick”. This kind of soil sickness can be controlled
by, first of all, sealing off all points of leakage canals, reservoirs, tanks and
ponds, and use of only the required amount of water.

SAQ 2
Fill in the blanks with appropriate words and check your answer given in the
end of this unit:
i) ……………… forms the upper most layer of ………………
ii) Mechanical forces acting upon the rocks cause physical ………………
iii) ……………… is a by-product of efforts to exploit the land resources for
maximum ……………… production.
iv) Land ……....… refers to the process of deterioration in the quality of land.
v) ………… are common lands allotted for cattle grazing in a ………………
vi) Land should be used according to its ……………… and ………………
vii) Excessive irrigation course complete ……………… or water logging of
the ………………

4.5 SUMMARY
In this unit we have tried to view the natural resources land and water and
principle of their management and conservation.
 Water is renewable resource whereas land is a non-renewable resource.
 Degradation in physical resources such as land and water results mainly
due to exploitative activates of humans in the fields of agriculture, industry
and urbanisation.
 Conservation in agriculture can be affected by changes in land use
pattern, conservation of irrigation water, minimising use of pesticides and
fertilisers and implementation of innovative and environmentally sound
agricultural techniques.

4.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What are renewable and non-renewable resources? Explain with the help
of examples.
2. Discuss the various ways of water conservation.
3. Describe the essential components of land management.

4.7 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1. i) Fresh water; ii) Earth; iii) Solvent, Salts; iv) Consumer;
v) Flood, River; vi) Tribunal; vii) Several, Harvesting 89
Block 2 Natural Resources
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2. i) Soil, Land; ii) Weathering; iii) overgrazing, Livestock; iv) Degradation
v) Charagahs, Village; vi) Suitability, Capability; vii) Saturation, Soil

Terminal Questions
1. Refer to Section 4.2 for its answer.
2. Refer to Sub Section 4.3.6.
3. Refer to Section 4.4.4

4.8 FURTHER READING

1. Bharucha, E. (2005) Textbook of Environmental Studies for
Undergraduate Courses, Hyderabad: Universities Press (India) Private
Limited.
2. Botkin, D. B. & Keler, E. A. 8th Ed, (2011) Environmental Science, Earth
as a Living Planet, New Delhi: Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.
3. Kaushik, A. 2nd Ed. (2004) Environmental Studies, New Delhi: New Age
International (P) Limited.
4. Rajagopalan, R. 3rd Ed. (2015) Environmental Studies, New Delhi: Oxford
University Press.
5. Wright, R. T. (2008) Environmental Science: Towards a Sustainable
Future New Delhi: PHL Learning Private Ltd.

Acknowledgement
1. Fig. 4.4: Kuls in the Spiti area.

(Source: <https://image.slidesharecdn.com/ traditionalwaterharvestinginindia1-

130531120014-phpapp01/95 /traditional-water-harvesting-in-india-part-1-12-
638.jpg?cb=1370002112>;

Source: http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/methods/traditional /kul2.jpg)

2. Fig. 4.9: Major Soil types of India.

(Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/
Major_soil_types_in_India.jpg)

3. Fig. 4.10 Land degradation due to agricultural mismanagement and deforestation

Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_degradation#/media/
File:Karst_following_phosphate_mining_on_Nauru.jpg

4. Fig. 4.11: An ideal land use in the hill region.

(Source: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/

080110_zell_mosel.JPG/1200px-080110_zell_mosel.JPG)

5. Fig. 4.12: (a) Drainage system for preventing uncontrolled flow of water, (b) & (c) Check
dams for preventing the flow of running water.
(a) Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/white-water-cascade-flow-stream-983997/
(b) Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manimuthar_Dam#/media/
File:Manimuthar_Dam_f.jpg
(c) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam#/media/
90 File:Lake_Parramatta,New_South_Wales.jpg