Systematic Review of Fiber-Optic Distributed Acoustic Sensing:

Advancements, Applications, and Challenges

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Arni Munira Markom1,2, Suhairi Saharudin2*, Mohd Hafizulfika Hisham2
School of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450
Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia

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Mimos Berhad, Technology Park Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia
Corresponding email: [email protected]

Abstract
Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS) is an advanced optical fiber technique that uses Rayleigh

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backscattering to offer real-time monitoring and data collection across a wide range of
applications. Despite tremendous progress, no comprehensive review has summarized recent

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advancements, applications, and challenges with DAS systems across multiple fields. This
study aims to bridge this gap by systematically reviewing the most recent research and
addressing four essential questions: significant applications, advancements in technology,
critical challenges, and the growth of signal processing approaches in DAS. This review uses
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a systematic approach of identification, screening, eligibility and data abstraction to group
findings into six important themes: civil engineering and structural health monitoring,
environmental and oceanographic applications, oil and gas industry applications, seismic and
geophysical monitoring, telecommunications and infrastructure security, and signal
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processing and advanced sensing techniques. Our findings indicate that DAS has notably
enhanced applications including structural anomaly detection, environmental monitoring,
pipeline surveillance, seismic analysis, and telecommunications security. The precision,
scalability, and versatility of DAS have been further enhanced by developments in machine
learning, noise reduction methods, and hybrid sensing models. This analysis provides
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practical insights and future research objectives by tackling issues like noise interference and
deployment complexity, establishing DAS as a game-changing instrument for transdisciplinary
monitoring and real-time data collecting across a range of industries.
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Keyword: Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS), Fiber Optic Sensors, Systematic Literature
Review, DAS Applications, Acoustic Wave Monitoring.
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1. Introduction
The concept of distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) is applicable to a wide range of sensing
mediums, such as coaxial cables and electrical systems [1], [2]. However, its implementation
in fiber optics has harvested significant interest due to the distinctive benefits of optical fibres.
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Since its inception in the early 1980s, fiber-optic DAS has progressed from theoretical
research to a strong tool for long-distance monitoring, powered by advancements in data
processing, material science, and photonics technology [3]–[5]. Rayleigh backscattering in
optical fibres is employed in fiber-optic DAS, where acoustic disturbances induce fluctuations
in light dispersion that are monitored throughout the entire fiber length. This capability
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transforms conventional optical fibres into continuous, highly sensitive sensor arrays.
Distributed sensing capabilities are facilitated by the use of fiber optics in DAS systems, which
eliminates the need for standalone sensors at multiple locations. The sensitivity and range of

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 fiber-optic DAS are enhanced by methods such as phase-sensitive optical time domain
reflectometry (ϕ-OTDR), which make it an effective, scalable, and cost-effective solution for

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monitoring applications [6]. As a result, fiber-optic DAS has become the most prevalent
application of this technology, which encompasses telecommunications, energy management,
environmental detection, and infrastructure monitoring.
DAS has demonstrated its significance in the monitoring of underwater ecosystems, the

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detection of seismic events, the security of communication networks, and the surveillance of
pipelines [7]–[10]. Traffic monitoring, railway safety, and smart city planning are among the
emerging applications that demonstrate their potential to improve resource management and
improve public safety [11], [12]. Moreover, the scope of DAS research is being expanded by
the increasing interest in specific applications in fields such as marine biological sensing and
military operations [13], [14]. Combining the analytical skills of artificial intelligence (AI) with

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the advanced sensing capabilities of DAS represents a major breakthrough in intelligent
surveillance systems. DAS systems can now more precisely analyze large datasets by utilizing

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machine learning techniques [15]. This enables the identification of discrepancies, the
reduction of noise, and the execution of predictive analytics in real time.
Unparalleled opportunities for autonomous monitoring and decision-making have been
generated by the integration of DAS and AI, which enables the technology to adjust to complex
and dynamic environments. AI-driven DAS systems are increasingly adept at distinguishing
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between relevant signals and noise, a skill that is essential for environmental monitoring and
urban infrastructure applications. The goal of this paper is to investigate the most recent
developments in DAS applications through a systematic literature review. The research
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concentrates on the examination of the changing role of DAS in a variety of disciplines, with a
particular emphasis on its integration with emerging technologies like AI. This paper proposes
future research directions and provides actionable insights by evaluating the current state of
research, addressing extant knowledge gaps, and highlighting key challenges. The results are
designed to assist researchers and professionals in the utilization of DAS technology to
develop real-time monitoring solutions that are both efficient and large-scale.
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2. Literature Review
Since its creation, DAS has advanced considerably, transforming from a theoretical concept
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into a formidable sensing technology usable across diverse fields. The functioning of DAS is
primarily reliant on Rayleigh backscattering in optical fibres, enabling continuous acoustic
monitoring across vast distances. Recent study highlights improvements in the sensitivity and
efficiency of DAS systems, particularly through the advancement of optical fibres for superior
performance. Westbrook et al. (2020) proved the efficacy of DAS in extreme conditions,
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including deep-sea installations and high-temperature areas, revealing that fiber coatings
tailored for backscatter response enhance signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) and broaden
operating range [16]. These advancements have proven essential in the deployment of DAS
systems for pipeline monitoring, seismic research, and environmental sensing, underscoring
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its adaptability. Geophysical monitoring is a paramount application of DAS, as it

provides a more cost-effective alternative to traditional seismic arrays. In order to get
knowledge on glacial movements and basal icequakes, Hudson et al. (2021) examined how
well DAS identified microseismic events in Antarctic ice streams [17]. Their research
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demonstrated that DAS offers enhanced spatial resolution relative to conventional geophones,
enabling researchers to capture the intricate propagation of seismic waves across vast areas.
DAS was used for volcanic monitoring by Jousset et al. (2022), where its capacity to detect
minute tremors and subsurface fluid movement enhanced hazard assessment frameworks

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 [18]. These applications highlight DAS's critical role in improving our understanding of natural
phenomena and optimizing early warning systems for environmental disasters.

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DAS has demonstrated its use in industrial and urban monitoring applications, in addition
to natural systems. Saharudin et al. (2023) tested DAS technology in practical applications,
utilizing tailored disturbance simulators to assess its precision in identifying occurrences such
as vehicle movements, excavation, and incursions [19]. Their findings underscore the

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reliability of DAS in security applications, traffic control, and infrastructure maintenance. These
studies demonstrate the capability of DAS to oversee and regulate essential infrastructures,
facilitating its incorporation into smart city systems. The implementation of DAS in undersea
monitoring has increased, as demonstrated by Fernández-Ruiz et al. (2022), who illustrated
its efficacy in utilizing pre-existing telecommunication fibres for seismic activity monitoring,
thereby lowering expenses while ensuring accuracy [20]. The integration of advanced

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computing technologies, particularly AI, has markedly improved the functions of DAS. The
application of machine learning techniques led to highly accurate seismic event identification

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in Hernández et al.'s (2022) demonstration of enhanced earthquake detection utilizing DAS
data [21]. AI-driven DAS systems efficiently analyze large datasets in real time, enabling
predictive maintenance and anomaly detection in dynamic environments. These
advancements have positioned DAS as a fundamental technology for intelligent monitoring
systems, allowing them to adapt to the swiftly evolving and intricate environments surrounding
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them. The integration of DAS and AI improves the differentiation between noise and actionable
signals, which is crucial for ensuring reliability in high-noise environments. Notwithstanding its
progress, DAS technology continues to encounter numerous obstacles that impede its
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extensive implementation. Principal concerns encompass polarization fading, coherent noise
interference, and constraints in the detection of weak signals across considerable distances.
Furthermore, Shang et al. (2022) underscored the significance of improving the accuracy of
data by refining signal processing techniques, including optical backscattering and phase
demodulation [22]. The necessity for hybrid systems that combine DAS with conventional
sensing technologies has been emphasized as a strategy to address current constraints and
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broaden the range of DAS applications.

3. Systematic Literature Review Method

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A vast amount of research has been conducted on a global scale to assess the various
applications and advancements in DAS systems. Nevertheless, there is a lack of research that
has examined its integration with contemporary methodologies and its application in a variety
of fields. Scopus was chosen as the primary database for this systematic literature review
(SLR) due to its extensive coverage and indexing of high-quality academic publications, which
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guarantees a comprehensive and reliable review [23]. The subsequent sections offer a
thorough examination of the methodology employed to identify appropriate resources that are
consistent with our objectives. The objective of this paper is to provide a comprehensive
understanding of the current state and future potential of DAS systems by systematically
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reviewing and analysing their applications, advancements, challenges, and methodological

approaches. Our methodology employs a structured approach that includes systematic
identification, screening, eligibility assessment, and data abstraction [24]. The review
procedure focused on the resolution of four critical research questions:
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1. RQ1: What are the prevalent applications of DAS systems across various research
fields globally?

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 2. RQ2: What technological advancements and methodologies contribute to enhancing
the performance and precision of DAS systems?

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3. RQ3: What are the primary challenges in implementing DAS systems in practical
scenarios?

4. RQ4: How have signal processing techniques evolved to enhance the reliability and

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effectiveness of DAS data analysis?

3.1 Identification

A structured search strategy was employed to identify relevant studies, utilizing

keywords extracted from thesauruses, dictionaries, and prior research. The search queries

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included the terms "distributed acoustic sensing," "fiber optic," "sensor," and "field test," with
an emphasis on publications from 2023–2024. Scopus was selected for its sophisticated

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filtration capabilities, which guaranteed that only peer-reviewed journal articles and
conference proceedings in the English language were taken into account, as illustrated in
Table 1. A total of 1,586 records were obtained during this phase.
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Table 1. Search string.

Database String
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Scopus TITLE-ABS-KEY ( distributed AND ( acoustic OR
"electromagnetic wave" ) AND ( sensor OR sensing OR
detect* OR measure* OR test* ) OR "DAS system" AND
( "fiber optic" OR "fibre optic" OR fiber OR fibre OR optic
) AND ( application OR verification OR "field test*" OR
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employ* OR validation OR implement* ) ) AND ( LIMIT-

TO ( PUBYEAR , 2023 ) OR LIMIT-TO ( PUBYEAR ,
2024 ) ) AND ( LIMIT-TO ( DOCTYPE , "ar" ) ) AND (
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LIMIT-TO ( LANGUAGE , "English" ) ) AND ( LIMIT-TO

( PUBSTAGE , "final" ) )
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3.2. Screening

The screening phase aimed to refine the initial dataset of publications retrieved using the
search string, which totalled 1,367 articles. Specific inclusion and exclusion criteria, outlined
in Table 2, were applied to narrow down the dataset to only the most relevant and high-quality
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studies. Publications not meeting the criteria were excluded during this phase. For
consistency, only articles written in English were included, while non-English publications were
excluded. The time frame was restricted to papers published between 2023 and 2024 to
ensure the study focused on the most recent advancements, excluding older or in-press
works. This screening process resulted in a refined dataset for further analysis.
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Furthermore, only peer-reviewed journal articles were included, as these serve as

primary sources that provide detailed and practical insights into DAS systems. Other literature

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 types, such as books, reviews, conference proceedings, systematic reviews, meta-analyses,
and book chapters, were excluded because they often lack the specificity and depth required

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for this analysis. Lastly, the review considered only finalized publications to avoid
inconsistencies and potential revisions associated with in-press articles. This rigorous
screening process, based on well-defined criteria, ensured a focused and high-quality dataset
aligned with the objectives of this systematic literature review. By applying these standards,

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the study aimed to provide a reliable and comprehensive analysis of DAS applications and
advancements. After the initial screening in Scopus, the dataset was narrowed down to 236
publications that met the predefined inclusion criteria.

Table 2. The selection criterion

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Criterion Inclusion Exclusion

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Language English Non-English

Time line 2023-2024 (2 years) <2023 & >2024

Literature type Journal (Article)

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(Proceeding)

Publication Stage Final In Press

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3.3 Eligibility

At the eligibility stage, 49 articles were eliminated from the 236 articles that advanced
to the third level, resulting in 187 articles being eligible for the fourth level. During this phase,
the titles and primary content of the remaining articles were meticulously examined to
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guarantee that they complied with the inclusion criteria and were consistent with the research
objectives of the study. Consequently, 39 articles were excluded for their exclusive emphasis
on theoretical investigations, non-utilization of fiber optics, or lack of relevance to DAS
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applications. Furthermore, 10 review articles were excluded due to their reliance on empirical
evidence without providing novel insights.

3.4 Data Abstraction and Analysis

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The final set of 175 articles was analysed to extract insights relevant to the research questions.
The data abstraction process focused on identifying common applications, technological
advancements, methodological approaches, and signal processing techniques in DAS
research. Figure 1 outlines the PRISMA flow diagram, summarizing the systematic review
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process. After full-text reviews, 175 publications were included in the final dataset, ensuring a
robust foundation for analysis.
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This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
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Figure 1. Flow diagram of the proposed searching study [25]

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4. SLR FINDINGS

The examination of published fields reveals that the primary emphasis of DAS research is in
physics and astronomy, with 116 papers, as depicted in Figure 2. This illustrates the essential
dependence of DAS systems on physical principles, especially in comprehending wave
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propagation and signal behaviour. Engineering ranks closely with 93 articles, highlighting its
application-focused nature, especially in areas like infrastructure monitoring, resource
extraction, and security. Research in Earth and Planetary Sciences, 60 papers, underscores
DAS's essential function in geophysical monitoring and seismic activity, encompassing
applications in earthquake detection and fault line analysis. Contributions from computer
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science and materials science, with 36 and 26 publications respectively, indicate a focus on
computational difficulties and the advancement of fiber-optic materials to enhance DAS
performance. Minor yet significant contributions from chemistry, energy, and environmental
science indicate the increasing interdisciplinary interest in DAS, particularly in energy
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monitoring, pipeline surveillance, and environmental applications. These data confirm that
DAS research encompasses various areas, with significant contributions from physics and
engineering, and growing importance in sustainable and energy-focused research.

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Figure 2. Disciplinary Distribution of DAS Research Publications.
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The global distribution of DAS research, as depicted in Figure 3, reveals that the United
States and Russia are the foremost countries in publishing production, with 102 and 63
publications, respectively. The substantial output from Russia is largely attributable to
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governmental and academic efforts to advance DAS applications for infrastructure monitoring,
especially in extensive or remote geographical areas. The United States' contributions may
arise from advancements in seismic monitoring, security systems, and energy-related
applications, including pipeline surveillance. China, India, Germany, and France demonstrate
a robust research interest, producing between five and 10 papers each. These efforts are
likely aimed at fulfilling both scientific and economic needs, encompassing environmental
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monitoring and civil engineering. The rise of contributions from South America and Africa
signifies an increasing interest, especially in infrastructural and environmental applications.
DAS is a globally relevant technology, predominantly propelled by countries with strong
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research capacities, as seen by the widespread dissemination of papers. Nonetheless,

research in underdeveloped places demonstrates that the accessibility and applicability of
DAS technologies are increasing, especially for infrastructure development and monitoring.

The fundamental themes and research directions in DAS are subsequently revealed
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through the analysis of keyword frequency, as illustrated in Figure 4. The centrality of these
technologies in DAS development is reflected in the prevalence of the terms Acoustic Sensing
(128 occurrences) and Optical Fibers (83 occurrences). The ongoing endeavours to refine the
technology, increase its efficiency, and expand its applications are emphasized by the
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prevalence of keywords such as DAS and Fiber Optic Sensors. In addition, the terms "Acoustic
Noise" (31 instances) and "Signal-to-Noise Ratio" (35 instances) indicate a substantial
emphasis on the enhancement of the accuracy and reliability of DAS systems. It is evident
that the translation of theoretical advancements into practical implementations is contingent
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upon efforts to reduce noise and optimize signal clarity. The field's emphasis on the
advancement of foundational sensing mechanisms while addressing challenges related to
signal processing and system optimization is exemplified by the distribution of keywords.

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Figure 3. Geographical Distribution of DAS Research Publications
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Figure 4. Keyword Frequency in DAS Research

5. Results and Discussion

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The findings from the SLR, represented in Figure 5, classify the research into six principal
categories, highlighting the varied applications of DAS technology. A cumulative total of 175
papers from 2023 and 2024, illustrating the extensive range of research and application

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 domains. The distribution comprises 97 papers in 2023 and 78 in 2024, indicating ongoing
interest and progress in DAS technology. Theme 1: Civil Engineering and Structural Health

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Monitoring (SHM) has 23 publications (13 in 2023 and 10 in 2024). This theme emphasizes
the application of DAS in assessing the condition of civil infrastructure, including bridges,
tunnels, and trains, highlighting its significance in safeguarding public safety and assuring
infrastructure reliability. Theme 2: Environmental and Oceanographic Applications comprises

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26 publications (14 in 2023 and 12 in 2024), illustrating DAS's efficacy in undersea acoustic
sensing, environmental hazard identification, and ecosystem surveillance. Theme 3: Oil and
Gas Industry Applications includes 35 publications (18 in 2023 and 17 in 2024), highlighting
DAS's significance in pipeline monitoring, leak identification, and reservoir oversight. This
theme emphasizes the significance of DAS in resource surveillance and the mitigation of
environmental harm.

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Theme 1

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Theme 2

Theme 3 er
Theme 4

Theme 5
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Theme 6

0 5 10 15 20 25

2024 2023
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Figure 5. Distribution of DAS Publications Across Themes in 2023 and 2024

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Theme 4: Seismic and Geophysical Monitoring, comprising 40 publications (23 in 2023

and 17 in 2024), underscores the efficacy of DAS in earthquake detection, fault line analysis,
and geophysical surveys, illustrating its applicability in mitigating natural disasters and
enhancing geophysical research. Theme 5: Telecommunications and Infrastructure Security
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comprises 25 publications (12 in 2023 and 13 in 2024). Research in this domain concentrates
on employing DAS to protect infrastructure and improve telecommunications networks,
especially in identifying intrusions or overseeing important assets. Theme 6: Signal
Processing and Advanced Sensing Techniques encompasses 26 publications (17 from 2023
and 9 from 2024), tackling the technological issues in DAS, including noise reduction, signal
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clarity, and real-time responsiveness. This classification illustrates the adaptability of DAS
technology and its utilization in essential sectors. Although civil engineering and seismic
monitoring are predominant, the increasing focus on environmental applications,
telecommunications, and signal processing underscores the expanding significance of DAS
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in addressing contemporary issues. The consistent distribution of publications throughout

2023 and 2024 underscores the ongoing pace in DAS research.

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 Theme 1: Civil Engineering and Structural Health Monitoring

By offering real-time information on the integrity and performance of infrastructure, DAS is

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revolutionizing structural health monitoring in civil engineering Its cost-effective approach for
monitoring large-scale systems including bridges, tunnels, and railroads is derived from its
capacity to use current optical fiber networks for distributed sensing. DAS is a non-intrusive
method for identifying structural stability- compromising irregularities including strain or

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vibrations. Recent developments, especially in signal processing and machine learning, have
improved DAS's performance thereby enabling exact anomaly identification and early alerts.
These features underline its vital importance in guaranteeing infrastructure safety and
lowering maintenance costs, therefore fulfilling the increasing needs of contemporary
metropolitan settings. Table 1 summarizes important studies in civil engineering and structural
health monitoring, highlighting advancements in fiber-optic sensing technologies for varied

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applications, including monitoring high-temperature and corrosive environments in nuclear
and aerospace industries, ensuring urban utility tunnel safety against third-party threats,

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detecting damage in multilayer structures, and analyses shear deformation and failure
mechanisms in tunnel segment joints, conducted across many countries.

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Table 1 Civil Engineering and Structural Health Monitoring

No Authors Year Title Scope and Application Country

High-temperature and
Distributed strain sensing
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corrosive environment
Hyer H.C. & using Bi-metallic coated fiber United
1 2024 monitoring in nuclear
Petrie C.M. optic sensors embedded in States
and aerospace
stainless steel
industries.
A Surveillance System for
Safety monitoring of
Urban Utility Tunnel Subject to
urban utility tunnels
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2 He T. et al. 2024 Third-Party Threats Based on China

against third-party
Fiber-Optic DAS and FPN-
threats.
BiLSTM Network
Multilayer Structure Damage Structural health
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Brusamarello Detection Using Optical Fiber monitoring and damage

3 2024 Brazil
B. et al. Acoustic Sensing and detection in multilayer
Machine Learning [26] structures.
Shear deformation
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characteristics and failure Monitoring shear

mechanisms of tunnel deformation and failure
4 Liu X. et al. 2024 China
segment inter-ring joints: of tunnel segment
Numerical and experimental joints.
study
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Monitoring and early warning

Sinkhole detection and South
detection of collapse and
5 Jena J. et al. 2024 structural stability Africa &
subsidence sinkholes using
monitoring. Zimbabwe
an optical fibre seismic sensor
Detection of Track Bed
Early detection of
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Defects Based on Fibre Optic

railway track bed
6 Li W. et al. 2024 Sensor Signals and an China
defects using optical
Improved Hidden Markov
sensors.
Model [27]

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 Study on Coal Seam Roof
Monitoring coal seam
Failure Based on Optical Fiber
7 She Z. et al. 2024 roof failures with China

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Acoustic Sensing and the
distributed sensing.
Parallel Electrical Method
Intelligent detection of loose
Detecting anomalies in
fasteners in railway tracks Singapore
8 Han C. et al. 2024 railway track fasteners
using distributed acoustic & China
using DAS.

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sensing and machine learning
Acoustic Emission (AE) based
health monitoring of RC Monitoring damage in
Holsamudrkar
beams strengthened with reinforced concrete
9 N. & Banerjee 2024 India
mechanically anchored hybrid beams using acoustic
S.
Fiber Reinforced Cementitious emissions.

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Matrix (FRCM) system
Strain field reconstruction
from helical-winding fiber

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Reconstructing strain China &
distributed acoustic sensing
10 Zhang L. et al. 2024 fields for seismic United
and its application in
imaging applications. States
anisotropic elastic reverse
time migration
Laboratory Small-Strain Laboratory-scale small- Singapore
11 Niu Y. et al. 2023
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Stiffness Measurement Using
Distributed Acoustic Sensing
strain stiffness
monitoring in materials.
& United
States
A collection of machine
Enhancing
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Karapanagiotis learning assisted distributed
12 2023 infrastructure monitoring Germany
C. et al. fiber optic sensors for
with fiber optic sensors.
infrastructure monitoring
A Fiber Phase-Sensitive
Seismic and
Alekseev A.E. Optical Time-Domain Russian
13 2023 geotechnical monitoring
et al. Reflectometer for Engineering Federation
for engineering geology.
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Geology Application
Constitutive relationships and
acoustic emission behavior of Monitoring stress and
plant-fiber/magnesium damage in bio-
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14 Yang J. et al. 2023 China

oxychloride cement composite construction
composites under uniaxial materials.
compressive load
Anisotropy influence on Detecting damage in
Hervin F. & guided wave scattering for aerospace composite United
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15 2023
Fromme P. composite structure structures with guided Kingdom
monitoring waves.
Evaluation of machine
learning techniques for Structural health
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Abbassi A. et structural health monitoring monitoring under

16 2023 Germany
al. using ultrasonic guided waves varying temperature
under varying temperature conditions.
conditions
Development of a rapid and
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quantitative prediction model Real-time monitoring of

17 Xia B. et al. 2023 for assessing the leakage water pipeline leakage China
status of water pipeline and flow dynamics.
systems

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 Finding Well-Coupled Optical
Optimizing railway
Fiber Locations for Railway Spain &
18 Muñoz F. et al. 2023 vibration monitoring with

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Monitoring Using Distributed Chile
fiber optic sensors.
Acoustic Sensing
An Efficient Separation and
Efficient threat detection
Identification Algorithm for
near critical
19 He T. et al. 2023 Mixed Threatening Events China
infrastructure using

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Applied in Fiber-Optic
DAS.
Distributed Acoustic Sensor
Traffic Vibration Signal
Analysis of DAS Fiber Optic Traffic vibration analysis
20 An Y. et al. 2023 Cables with Different Coupling and structural health China
Based on an Improved monitoring.

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Wavelet Thresholding Method
High-resolution
Soriano-Amat Time-expanded φOTDR using distributed strain

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21 2023 Spain
M. et al. low-frequency electronics sensing for structural
monitoring.
Near-surface characterization Soil characterization United
using distributed acoustic and seismic States,
22 Li Y. et al. 2023
sensing in an urban area: microzonation in urban Mexico &
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Granada, Spain areas. Spain
Distributed Impact Wave Impact wave and
Detection in Steel I-Beam with structural integrity
23 Wang Y. et al. 2023 Canada
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a Weak Fiber Bragg Gratings detection in steel I-
Array beams.

Particularly for sectors like aerospace and nuclear energy, the integration of
sophisticated monitoring technologies in high-temperature and corrosive surroundings
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remains a crucial topic of research. Embedded in stainless steel (SS316), Hyer and Petrie
(2024) examined bi-metallic coated fiber optic sensors for distributed strain sensing at high
temperatures [28]. Although the fiber showed resistance up to 1000°C, plastic deformation in
the nickel covering and limited strain transmission resulting from Kirkendall void development
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presented problems above 500°C. In structural health monitoring under different

temperatures, Abbassi et al. (2022) similarly assessed machine learning methods using
ultrasonic guided waves [29]. While Abbassi et al. show the possibility of combining advanced
computational tools to solve environmental obstacles, Hyer and Petrie's work emphasizes
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material constraints in hostile settings. Their work revealed that autoencoders could identify
and localize damage without traditional temperature adjustment rather successfully. These
publications underline the requirement of better material coatings and sophisticated
computational methods for dependable monitoring in demanding surroundings.
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DAS in conjunction with sophisticated computational methods has shown great

promise for safety monitoring and hazard identification in the context of tunnel and
underground infrastructure. By combining DAS with a feature pyramid network and a
bidirectional long short-term memory (LSTM) network, He et al. (2024) solved obstacles
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presented by complicated geological features and achieved 93.96% accuracy in identifying

third-party threats with fast response times. Though their results were constrained by particular
experimental settings, Liu et al. (2024) used DAS and acoustic emission technologies to
investigate shear deformation and failure in tunnel joints, therefore pinpointing crucial failure

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 causes and offering design recommendations. In another work, He et al. (2023) created an
attention-based multi-scale convolutional neural network (MS-CNN) algorithm with 95.43%

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recognition rate that improved the recognition of weak signals in noisy situations [30]. But its
reliance on high computational resources could hinder its accessibility. These studies so
collectively show significant advancements in tunnel safety monitoring and stress the need of
scalable, resource-efficient solutions to improve practical applicability.

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Although scalability and practical application still present difficulties, recent
developments in DAS highlight its increasing promise in structural damage detection.
Brusamarello et al. (2024) combined DAS with Support Vector Machine (SVM) to classify
damage in multilayer structures with 93% accuracy, therefore proving the efficacy of DAS in
temporal and frequency domain analysis despite their limited study scope to laboratory-scale
applications [26]. Zhang et al. (2024) similarly handled multi-axis strain sensing utilizing

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helical-winding fibers, hence enabling strain field reconstruction for Elastic Reverse Time
Migration (ERTM) [31]. Although their technique shows creativity, its computing needs create

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scaling problems for practical uses. Niu et al. (2023) under a modified resonant column test
proved the validity of DAS for long-term monitoring using ambient vibrations and underlined
its dependability in assessing small-strain stiffness [32]. Its limited usefulness, then, is limited
by its dependence on modest signal excitation.
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Soriano-Amat et al. (2023) suggested a reasonably affordable time-expanded φOTDR
approach with 3 cm resolution, fit for localized strain sensing, to improve field fitability. The
method's limited sensing range (20 m) limits its usage in large-scale structural monitoring even
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with its cost and accuracy [33]. By combining acoustic emission and digital image correlation
(DIC) technologies, Holsamudrkar and Banerjee (2024) also successfully filled in gaps in
monitoring fiber-reinforced cementitious matrix (FRCM) [34]. Their method provides important
new perspectives on damage progression by increasing flexural capacity with mechanical
anchors. To improve its adaptability to various settings, although, more investigation of
environmental effects and scalability is required. While stressing important areas for
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development in scalability, sensing range, and field adaptability for more general uses, these
investigations improve DAS's competency in damage categorizing, strain reconstruction, and
stiffness monitoring.
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Turning now to traffic vibration monitoring, creative ideas improving data accuracy and
system efficiency have greatly progressed this field. To improve DAS performance for strain
and vibration detection, Karapanagiotis et al. (2023) showed how machine learning especially
artificial neural networks (ANNs) and convolutional neural networks (CNNs) was integrated
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[35]. This method allowed real-time monitoring, lower strain errors, and increase sensing
distances to 100 km. Although these developments highlight DAS's capacity for extensive
monitoring, their computational complexity could restrict their scalability in some machine
learning methods. Three fiber optic configurations cement-bonded fibers on roadsides,
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uncoupled fibers, and subterranean conduits with an eye toward the deployment of DAS for
traffic vibration monitoring by An et al. (2023) were compared [36]. Their results showed that
because of improved coupling with the ground, cement-bonded fibers produced the best signal
quality, therefore highlighting the need of deployment methods in ensuring data dependability.
Still, the research's reliance on specific test environments could limit its applicability in more
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general settings.

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 Preventing failures depends on constant monitoring of subsurface stability including
sinkholes and pipelines. As shown by Jena et al., (2024) the team created an optical fiber

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seismic sensor for early sinkhole detection, sensing subsurface acoustic modes and
frequency shifts brought on by structural changes [37]. Analyzing spectral fluctuations in the
micro-seismic noise spectrum allowed their approach to detect instability episodes and offer
early warnings before collapse. Potential for lowering sinkhole-related risks and comparable

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failures was shown by the polarization-based single-mode fiber sensor. Likewise, Xia et al.
(2023) presented a quantitative approach for real-time pipeline leakage assessment based on
fiber optic DAS [38]. With a prediction error of less than 4%, their model faithfully connected
supply pressure, leakage hole size, and position to flow rates and phase changes in light. The
most important determinant turned out to be leaking hole size. Both research underline how
flexible fiber optic sensors are for early-warning systems in subsurface monitoring. Jena et al.

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concentrated on structural void development and collapse; Xia et al. worked on pipeline
integrity and leak dynamics. Though further study is needed to improve deployment tactics

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and scalability for more general uses, these methods provide dependable tools for monitoring
critical infrastructure.

Fiber optic sensing technologies show great ability in detecting subsurface changes
based on geotechnical and structural monitoring. Alekseev et al. (2023) for example presented
er
a phase-sensitive optical time-domain reflectometer (φ-OTDM) designed for seismic wave and
ground impact detection, so enhancing signal linearity and lowering coherence requirements
[39]. Li et al. (2023) used DAS for seismic microzonation in metropolitan areas, using
telecommunication fibers and frequency-wavenumber filtering to enhance data quality, despite
pe
challenges including fiber-ground coupling and short recording durations [40]. In another
study, She et al. (2024) focused on the monitoring of coal seam roof failures, employing
parallel resistivity methods and optical fiber strain sensing to identify fracture zones [41]. Their
combination of resistivity anomalies with strain sensing offers both qualitative and quantitative
understanding of mining-induced fractures, therefore overcoming the constraints of single-
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method techniques. Their approach's dependability was verified by laboratory and field data,
so precisely gauging caving zones and fracture sites in deep mining projects.
Techniques for distributed strain sensing and imaging have increased the options for structural
health surveillance.
tn

Using low-frequency circuits and widely accessible components, Soriano-Amat et al.

(2023) suggested a time-expanded φOTDR (TE-φOTDR) system obtaining centimetre-level
spatial resolution and acoustic sample rates up to 200 Hz [33]. The technology's efficacy in
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more general applications may be restricted by its limited sensing range of only 20 meters,
despite its affordability and compact size. A weak fiber Bragg grating (FBG) array was
combined with a chirped pulse OTDR system by Wang et al. (2023) to detect strain variations
in steel I-beams under impact loads [42]. This method improved SNRs by increasing Rayleigh
reflection, thereby facilitating low-frequency, dispersed sensing with reduced measurement
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uncertainty in comparison to conventional strain gauges and optical frequency domain

reflectometry (OFDR) devices. Despite their superior accuracy and cost-efficiency, both
systems are limited in their ability to monitor infrastructure on a larger scale due to their
scalability and range limitations. These developments justify the utilization of distributed
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sensing technologies for structural analysis by offering precise, dependable measurements

with real-time capabilities.

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 Understanding the behaviour of composite and specialized materials and spotting
deterioration in many uses depend on constant monitoring of them. Yang et al. investigated,

ed
under uniaxial load, the compressive strength and acoustic emission behaviour of plant-
fiber/magnesium oxychloride cement composites in 2023 Their findings revealed that fiber
type affected strength and brittleness; bamboo scrap composites shown concentrated AE
energy and more brittleness, whereas wheat straw composites displayed distributed energy

iew
release and higher ductility. SEM investigation revealed the different bonding strengths of the
matrix and fibres. Investigating guided wave scattering in carbon fiber reinforced polymer
panels, Hervin and Fromme (2023) found considerable directional energy scattering impacted
by anisotropy and fiber orientation [43]. Whereas artificial inserts produced omnidirectional
scattering, forward scattering prevailed in delamination. These works open the path for better
structural health monitoring methods by stressing the need of maximizing fiber-matrix

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interactions for bio-composites and considering anisotropy in advanced composites.

In this civil engineering and structural health monitoring theme, findings show how DAS

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has made major strides in strain sensing, infrastructure monitoring, and structural safety. DAS
has demonstrated efficacy in high-temperature and corrosive settings by utilizing advanced
material coatings and computational techniques, effectively tackling issues such as weak
signal recognition and damage detection with high precision. Advanced machine learning
er
methodologies and distributed strain sensing technologies, including φ-OTDR and chirped
pulse OTDR, permit accurate, real-time monitoring of tunnels, traffic vibrations, and pipelines;
yet, challenges related to scalability and sensing range persist. In early-warning systems, DAS
has demonstrated exceptional dependability in identifying sinkholes and pipeline leaks,
pe
providing precise forecasts for structural voids and leak behaviour. Moreover, its applications
in advanced composites and material behaviour research yield insights into enhancing fiber-
matrix interactions and evaluating damage in civil constructions. These innovations highlight
DAS's transformative capacity for scalable, cost-efficient, and high-resolution monitoring
solutions; however, ongoing research into field adaptability, computational efficiency, and
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material durability is essential for wider implementation in various civil engineering

applications.
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Theme 2: Environmental and Oceanographic Applications

DAS is being more and more used in environmental and oceanographic research partly
because of its capacity to perform continuous, wide area sensing in remote and dynamic
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environments. Without new infrastructure, DAS enables the monitoring of underwater events
including marine activities, seismic disturbances, and environmental changes by detecting
acoustic signals and physical changes along fiber-optic cables. This method has shown
success in tracking minute variations in oceanographic data, therefore supporting the
evaluation of ecosystem health and environmental threat detection. A vital instrument for
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tackling issues in marine and environmental research, enhanced processing methods now
enable DAS to offer more precise and consistent results. Key studies in environmental and
oceanographic applications, including coastal and nearshore wave monitoring, marine seismic
imaging and subsurface characterization, oceanographic process monitoring, environmental
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hazard and volcanic surveillance, soil and surface property analysis, hydroacoustic
surveillance and underwater target detection, urban and ground motion monitoring, climate

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 and polar studies, and energy and resource management conducted across multiple regions,
are compiled in Table 2.

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Table 2 Environmental and Oceanographic Applications

No Authors Year Title and Reference Scope and Application Country

iew
Reconstruction of Nearshore
Monitoring coastal wave
Surface Gravity Wave
1 Meulé S. et al. 2024 dynamics and surface France
Heights from Distributed
gravity waves.
Acoustic Sensing Data
Measuring hydrodynamics
Monitoring
and exploring nearshore
hydrodynamics, wave United

v
2 Glover H.E. et al. 2024 processes using distributed
reflection, and shoreline States
sensing of fiber-optic cable
processes.

re
strain
Surface distributed acoustic
sensing for high-resolution High-resolution near-
Busanello G. et near-surface surface seismic and United
3 2024
al. characterization: Results
er environmental States
from a 3D onshore field characterization.
experiment
Direction-Finding Study of a
Underwater target
1.7 mm Diameter Towed
4 Wu S. et al. 2024 detection for unmanned China
pe
Hydrophone Array Based on
vehicles.
UWFBG
Distributed Acoustic Sensing
to Monitor Ground Ground motion and
5 Lu X. et al. 2024 Germany
Motion/Movement at Multi- earthquake monitoring.
Frequency Bands
ot

Characterizing South Pole

Monitoring firn density for United
6 Yang Y. et al. 2024 Firn Structure with Fiber
climate change studies. States
Optic Sensing
High resolution seafloor
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thermometry for internal Seafloor temperature and

Pelaez Quiñones
7 2023 wave and upwelling ocean process France
J.D. et al.
monitoring using Distributed monitoring.
Acoustic Sensing
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Distributed acoustic sensing

Near-surface seismic Ireland &
for seismic surface wave
8 Trafford A. et al. 2024 data collection in marine United
data acquisition in an
environments. Kingdom
intertidal environment
Subsurface Imaging Using
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Interferometry of Distributed
Acoustic Sensing Ambient Urban subsurface
Mirzanejad M. et United
9 2024 Noise Measurement along a imaging using ambient
al. States
Dark Fiber Line: A Case seismic noise and DAS.
Study in Downtown Reno,
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Nevada
Using Vehicle-Induced DAS Monitoring near-surface United
10 Yuan S. et al. 2024
Signals for Near-Surface soil properties using States

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 Characterization with High vehicle-induced seismic
Spatiotemporal Resolution waves.

ed
Fully distributed fiber-optic
High-resolution marine
streamer with small channel
11 Chen J. et al. 2024 seismic imaging for China
spacing for marine seismic
reservoir exploration.
acquisition
Belgium,

iew
Monitoring underwater United
Monitoring volcanic gas
12 Caudron C. et al. 2024 volcano degassing using States,
emissions underwater.
fiber-optic sensing Germany
& France
Tidally modulated seismic
velocity changes observed Seafloor seismic velocity
Chamarczuk M. United

v
13 2024 using submarine dark fiber monitoring affected by
et al. States
and the virtual-source tidal loading.
method

re
Inversion method for soil
Real-time soil moisture
moisture content based on a
14 Shang Y. et al. 2023 monitoring in large China
distributed fiber optic
agricultural areas.
acoustic sensing system
High-performance towing
er
cable hydrophone array with
Marine exploration and
15 Yan G. et al. 2023 an improved ultra-sensitive China
target localization.
fiber-optic distributed
pe
acoustic sensing system
Fully distributed
hydroacoustic sensing
Underwater acoustic
16 Chen J. et al. 2023 based on ultra-highly China
surveillance.
sensitive and lightweight
fiber-optic hydrophone cable
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Application of a Distributed
Seismic surveys for
Acoustic Sensor for Seismic
Alekseev A.E. et geological analysis in Russian
17 2023 Surveys in Shallow Waters
al. shallow marine Federation
with Fiber-Optic Bottom-Laid
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environments.
Streamer
A Methodology for In-Well
Multiphase Flow
Measuring multiphase
Measurement with
18 Ünalmis Ö.H. 2023 flow in wells for Taiwan
Strategically Positioned
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environmental studies.
Local and/or Distributed
Acoustic Sensors
Distributed Acoustic Sensing
Based on Microtremor
Identifying near-surface
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Survey Method for Near-

19 Song A. et al. 2023 faults for seismic hazard China
Surface Active Faults
assessment.
Exploration: A Case Study in
Datong Basin, China
On Beamforming of DAS
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Ambient Noise Recorded in Singapore

Analysing urban seismic
20 Zhao Y. et al. 2023 an Urban Environment and & United
noise for wave modelling.
Rayleigh-To-Love Wave States
Ratio Estimation

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 Distributed acoustic sensing
of ocean-bottom seismo- Monitors ocean-bottom
Taweesintananon Norway &

ed
21 2023 acoustics and distant activities and storm
K. et al. Thailand
storms: A case study from signals.
Svalbard, Norway
Monitoring internal waves United
Williams E.F. et Fiber-Optic Observations of
22 2023 and tides in ocean-bottom States &
al. Internal Waves and Tides

iew
boundary layers. Spain
Understanding surface wave
United
modal content for high-
High-resolution imaging States,
23 Viens L. et al. 2023 resolution imaging of
of submarine sediments. Mexico &
submarine sediments with
Japan
distributed acoustic sensing

v
Geolocalization of Large-
Mapping DAS channels United
Scale DAS Channels Using
24 Biondi E. et al. 2023 for seismic hazard and States &
a GPS-Tracked Moving

re
urban noise monitoring. China
Vehicle
Seismic detection with
distributed acoustic sensors Detecting seismic waves
Arioka T. &
25 2023 using a convolutional neural and tsunamis in ocean- Japan
Nakamura K.
network in the frequency bottom cables.
er
wavenumber spectrum
Near-field target localisation
Locating underwater
based on the distributed
26 Cao W. et al. 2023 targets in shallow waters China
pe
acoustic sensing optical fibre
for marine monitoring.
in shallow water

Monitoring coastal waves is crucial for understanding dynamic oceanic processes and
their impacts on coastal areas. Meulé et al. (2024) significantly advanced the reconstruction
ot

of surface gravity wave heights by constructing a transfer function that connects wave
kinematics to strain signals, demonstrating consistent reliability across various sea conditions
[44]. This innovation reduces dependence on conventional offshore sensors, providing a more
economical and scalable alternative. Glover et al. (2024) similarly shown the ability to convert
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subsea cables into dense arrays for hydrodynamic monitoring [45]. Their suggested transfer
function, linking strain to pressure, exhibited accuracy akin to traditional sensors while
expanding its applicability to wave reflection and shoreline surveillance, underscoring its utility
for real-time coastal engineering. Trafford et al. (2024) discovered that armoured cables
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performed effectively under marine stressors in their study of seismic surface wave
investigations in intertidal zones [46]. The study emphasized seismic velocity data while
highlighting the rapid deployment and high-resolution capabilities of this method across
extensive spatial scales, a crucial attribute for dynamic maritime environments. Collectively,
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these studies demonstrate the significant potential of these methodologies for comprehensive,
real-time monitoring by leveraging existing infrastructure to reduce costs and enhance data
coverage, while also underscoring the necessity to improve accuracy, mitigate environmental
noise, and integrate with predictive models for wider application in marine environments and
coastal protection.
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Marine seismic imaging and subsurface characterization provide advanced

methodologies for high-resolution data collection and geological assessment. Busanello et al.
(2024) demonstrated that surface DAS (S-DAS) delivers high-density seismic data at reduced

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 costs relative to conventional approaches, particularly excelling in surface wave inversion and
alignment with electrical resistivity tomography [47]. This underscores its potential for near-

ed
surface applications, albeit it is confined to terrestrial environments. In a related endeavour,
Chen et al. (2024) demonstrated the efficacy of a lightweight, fully distributed fiber-optic
streamer for marine seismic acquisition, achieving remarkable lateral resolution (0.5 m) and
layer reflections at depths exceeding 1.1 s beneath the seabed, thereby validating its

iew
applicability for deep reservoir exploitation [48]. Nonetheless, the stringent structural
specifications for streamer deployment may constrain its adaptability in more severe
conditions. Alekseev et al. (2023) utilized bottom-laid DAS cables in shallow marine seismic
surveys, highlighting their utility for geological seabed investigation; however, the study does
not provide comprehensive quantitative validation compared to traditional approaches [49].
Concerning undersea sediments, Viens et al. (2023) employed ocean-bottom DAS (OBDAS)

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to obtain high-fidelity shear wave velocity profiles, revealing complex subsurface structures
influenced by sediment accumulation and bathymetry [50]. This emphasizes DAS's capability

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in photographing intricate subsurface structures while also revealing difficulties in data
preprocessing and modal analysis.

Oceanographic monitoring has yielded significant breakthroughs, especially in the

analysis of seabed dynamics and temperature fluctuations. Pelaez Quiñones et al. (2023)
er
illustrated the capability of DAS to identify millikelvin-level temperature anomalies, facilitating
accurate observation of internal waves and upwelling near Toulon, France, while providing a
revolutionary substitute for conventional temperature sensors [51]. Williams et al. (2023)
investigated the internal wave and tide dynamics in boundary layers around the Strait of
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Gibraltar and Gran Canaria utilizing DAS [52]. Their findings demonstrated DAS's sensitivity
to minor temperature fluctuations and tidal pressures, hence reinforcing its significance in
physical oceanography and geophysical monitoring. DAS's adaptability encompasses seismo-
acoustic monitoring in addition to thermal applications. Chamarczuk et al. (2024)
demonstrated its ability to identify tidal modulation of seafloor seismic velocities via subsurface
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dark fibres, offering new insights into sediment stress responses [53]. Taweesintananon et al.
(2023) further illustrated the broadband sensitivity (0.01–20 Hz) of DAS by catching ocean-
bottom loads from remote cyclones and pinpointing storm origins over 13,000 km offshore
[54]. This study emphasized DAS's ability to observe various atmospheric and oceanic
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processes, expanding its use to encompass storm detection and ocean-bottom activities. DAS
provides outstanding spatial and temporal resolution for capturing many oceanic phenomena,
including heat variations and seismic and acoustic occurrences. The technique rectifies critical
shortcomings in traditional monitoring systems, offering significant scientific and
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environmental insights.

DAS provides high-resolution data across vast regions about environmental dangers
and volcanic events. Caudron et al. (2024) demonstrated the efficacy of clustering algorithms
in detecting and categorizing bubble emissions during a study of underwater volcanic
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degassing at the Laacher See volcano in Germany [55]. This method not only documented
the spatial and temporal development of gas seepage patterns but also demonstrated the
potential for wider applications, including methane leak detection and carbon storage
evaluation. Likewise, Song et al. (2023) employed fiber-optic sensing to investigate near-
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surface active faults in the Datong Basin, China, integrating it with microtremor surveys and
supplementary methods such as Brillouin optical time domain reflectometry and distributed
temperature sensing [56]. Despite having lesser resolution for deeper structures than seismic
reflection, the method reliably detected fault locations and near-surface structures,

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 demonstrating its utility for seismic hazard evaluations in urban environments. Arioka and
Nakamura (2023) enhanced applications by utilizing a convolutional neural network to analyze

ed
data from ocean-bottom cables throughout Japan’s Sanriku coast, facilitating the effective
detection of seismic waves and tsunamis, even under low signal-to-noise situations [57].
These studies underscore the adaptability and scalability of fiber-optic sensors in mitigating
various environmental threats.

iew
The characterisation of soil and surface has progressed through the innovative
application of DAS, resulting in high-quality and cost-effective solutions. Yuan et al. (2024)
proposed a technique utilizing vehicle-induced seismic waves, recorded by telecommunication
fibers, to assess near-surface soil characteristics [58]. Through the integration of a Kalman
filter technique, they identified high-quality surface waves associated with vehicle trajectories,
attaining enhanced spatiotemporal resolution relative to ambient noise interferometry. Their

v
approach proficiently detected alterations in soil properties during precipitation, exhibiting
sensitivity to differences in phase velocity and attenuation, rendering it suitable for urban

re
environments. Similarly, Shang et al. (2023) concentrated on real-time monitoring of soil
moisture throughout extensive agricultural regions utilizing Rayleigh scattering signals [59].
By inverting sound velocity data from active seismic sources, they quantified soil moisture
content inside a two-dimensional grid, attaining results with a 7% error margin relative to
er
conventional water cut meters. Yuan et al. focused on urban applications, but Shang et al.
broadened the scope to agricultural surveillance, demonstrating the adaptability of fiber-optic
sensing. Both investigations underscore the possibility for scalable and precise soil
characterization. Nonetheless, issues such as error margins in moisture content calculation
pe
and dependence on external sources for seismic data highlight opportunities for
enhancement. Collectively, these methodologies signify substantial progress in high-
resolution soil monitoring, impacting environmental management and land use planning.

Advanced fiber-optic sensor technologies have improved hydroacoustic surveillance

and target identification. Wu et al. (2024) introduced a 1.7 mm diameter ultra-weak fiber Bragg
ot

grating (UWFBG) hydrophone array for autonomous underwater vehicles, demonstrating

effective auditory direction-finding skills [60]. The system's elevated sensitivity and compact
design render it attractive for prospective underwater applications; nonetheless, its efficacy in
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dynamic marine conditions need additional evaluation. Yan et al. (2023) developed an
ultrasensitive fiber-optic distributed acoustic sensing (uDAS) towing line, exhibiting
exceptional sensitivity and noise reduction during maritime trials [61]. This system successfully
located targets at distances of 5 km and 10 km, demonstrating its potential for lightweight,
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high-performance hydrophone arrays; however, flow noise continues to pose a hurdle for
wider deployments.

Chen et al. (2023) introduced a completely distributed hydroacoustic sensor system

that incorporates a lightweight, multilayer composite cable, building upon these developments
ep

[62]. The system effectively identified and monitored diverse emergency intruders, including
boats and frogmen, during field tests because to its high sensitivity and comprehensive
response capabilities. Although the system demonstrates resilience under diverse loads and
stretching, its application in intricate maritime settings may necessitate additional
enhancement. Cao et al. (2023) utilized phase-sensitive optical time-domain reflectometry (Φ-
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OTDR) to enhance hydroacoustic detection in shallow seas for near-field target localization
[63]. This methodology shown significant accuracy in both simulations and trials, establishing
a basis for enhanced shallow-water monitoring. Collectively, these investigations highlight the

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 capabilities of fiber-optic hydroacoustic systems across many applications, such as
autonomous vehicles, near-field, and deep-sea surveillance. Nonetheless, the enduring

ed
issues of scalability, system optimization, and noise management require continuous
innovation to fully actualize their potential for military and civilian uses.

DAS has become a very efficient instrument for observing urban and terrestrial
movement. According to Lu et al. (2024), a new method utilizing Rayleigh backscattered light

iew
was developed to detect ground motion across several frequency bands [64]. This approach,
primarily focused on seismic and environmental fluctuations, possesses exceptional sensitivity
to vibrations, providing a robust basis for its adaptation to underwater applications. In Reno,
Nevada, Mirzanejad et al. (2024) advanced this concept by employing seismic interferometry
with ambient noise to illustrate the use of DAS in urban subsurface imaging [65]. While not
explicitly hydroacoustic, its efficacy in delineating subsurface characteristics with elevated

v
spatial resolution underscores DAS's versatility in detecting nuanced signals applicable to
marine settings. Zhao et al. (2023) addressed the intricacies of ambient urban seismic noise

re
by creating beamforming techniques to differentiate between Rayleigh and Love waves
captured by DAS systems [66]. Their findings, mostly influenced by Love waves generated by
vehicles, highlight DAS's potential to enhance wave modelling, essential for underwater target
recognition. Biondi et al. (2023) introduced a geolocalization technique for DAS systems that
er
employs seismic data generated by a GPS-tracked vehicle [67]. This novel method enables
swift implementation and adjustment of DAS channels, rendering it especially pertinent for
extensive monitoring in marine settings where prompt installation is crucial. Collectively, these
investigations illustrate the adaptability of DAS in seismic and environmental monitoring, while
pe
providing significant insights for hydroacoustic applications. Nonetheless, issues such as
acoustic interference, calibration precision, and adaptation to aquatic environments must be
resolved to fully use its capabilities for marine target detection and exploration.

The incorporation of DAS in climate and polar research, as well as in energy and
resource monitoring, has yielded creative and effective approaches to tackle significant
ot

environmental issues. Yang et al. (2024) indicated that DAS exhibited its capability for
monitoring firn density at the South Pole by transforming an existing fiber-optic cable into a
seismic array [68]. Their research underscored considerable flaws in previous density-velocity
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correlations and introduced a novel empirical model, accentuating the importance of DAS in
enhancing cryospheric studies through minimal maintenance and constant data acquisition.
This method provides a cost-efficient substitute for conventional core sampling, however its
scalability in various polar regions requires additional investigation. In energy monitoring,
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Ünalmis (2023) introduced an innovative system for quantifying multiphase flows in wells,
utilizing DAS and optical flowmeters to measure phase fractions and flow rates [69]. The
project established a flexible, modular framework for incorporating existing optical
infrastructure into resource monitoring systems through the strategic placement of sensors.
The system offers a revolutionary alternative for effective well monitoring; yet, its reliance on
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accurate calibration and adjustment to diverse well conditions may hinder wider use. These
studies collectively highlight the adaptability of DAS in addressing intricate environmental and
energy issues. Integrating the methodologies may enable concurrent observation of
cryospheric and resource systems, thereby improving our comprehension of global climate
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dynamics and optimizing resource management. Nevertheless, the amalgamation of these

systems necessitates the resolution of technological constraints, including calibration
intricacies and environmental adaptability, to fully realize their promise.

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 The transformative role of DAS in advancing the monitoring and management of
environmental and marine systems is underscored by the findings of theme 2: environmental

ed
and oceanographic applications. DAS has exhibited exceptional capabilities in the detection
of ocean currents, underwater seismic activity, and environmental changes with high
spatiotemporal resolution. This is achieved by utilizing its capacity to transform existing
infrastructure, such as subsea communication cables, into distributed sensor arrays. This

iew
repurposing offers scalable and cost-effective solutions for the real-time monitoring of
oceanographic phenomena. The precision of environmental data collection has been
improved, and the detection of faint acoustic signals has been improved by advanced signal
processing techniques, such as coherence-based denoising and phase correlation. Moreover,
the integration of DAS into multi-sensor frameworks has facilitated the detailed mapping of
underwater features and enhanced the surveillance of marine ecosystems, including the

v
identification of geohazards and the monitoring of sediment transport. DAS's adaptability to a
variety of environmental and oceanographic scenarios is emphasized by these innovations,

re
which promote sustainable resource management and advance research into climate-related
challenges. DAS continues to revolutionize environmental monitoring by providing scalable,
precise, and efficient instruments that address critical challenges in oceanographic research
and conservation, despite the presence of issues such as signal distortion and optimization
for diverse marine environments. er
Theme 3: Oil and Gas Industry Applications
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In the oil and gas sector, DAS has become a crucial technology for maintaining operational
safety and efficiency. Its capacity for real-time surveillance of pipelines and wells facilitates
the prompt identification of problems such as leaks, obstructions, and structural deterioration,
thereby reducing threats to both the environment and infrastructure. DAS systems are utilized
to enhance production operations by observing flow dynamics and detecting anomalies in
ot

underground reservoirs. The technology's ability for extensive and ongoing surveillance
renders it especially advantageous in distant and hazardous areas, where conventional
sensors may be unfeasible. Improvements in DAS have increased its accuracy and
responsiveness, reinforcing its importance in preserving the integrity and sustainability of oil
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and gas operations. Table 3 delineates significant studies in oil and gas applications,
illustrating the varied functionalities of DAS in pipeline monitoring and leak detection, hydraulic
fracturing and production oversight, CO2 storage and geothermal applications, seismic
monitoring and subsurface imaging, gas influx and multiphase flow assessment, as well as
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sophisticated DAS data processing and analysis.

Table 3 Oil and Gas Industry Applications

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No Authors Year Title and Reference Scope and Application Country

Geophysical Monitoring
CO2 storage monitoring
Li C. & Technologies for the Entire Life
1 2024 and interlayer strain China
Zhang X. Cycle of CO2 Geological
detection.
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Sequestration
Evaluation of Fluid Distribution
Sakaida S. Monitoring fluid United
2 2024 and Perforation Erosion in
et al. distribution and States
Multistage Fracture Treatment

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 perforation erosion in
hydraulic fracturing.

ed
DAS microseismic reflection 3D imaging of fractures
imaging for hydraulic fracture and fault networks United
3 Ma Y. et al. 2024
and fault lineament during hydraulic States
characterization fracturing.
Research on the processing Real-time monitoring of

iew
Gan L. et and interpretation methods of CO2 injection and
4 2024 China
al. distributed fiber optic vibration optimization in oil and
signal logging injection profiles gas.
Signal propagation from
portable active seismic source Continuous monitoring
Tsuji T. et
5 2024 (PASS) to km-scale borehole of CO2 reservoirs with Japan
al.

v
DAS for continuous monitoring portable DAS systems.
of CO2 storage site
Application of pipeline leakage

re
detection based on distributed Real-time pipeline
Duan Y. et
6 2024 optical fiber acoustic sensor leakage detection and China
al.
system and convolutional sound wave analysis.
neural network
Feasibility Study of Anisotropic
er
Full-Waveform Inversion with Subsurface imaging for Canada,
DAS Data in a Vertical Seismic CO2 storage using United
7 Qu L. et al. 2024
Profile Configuration at the anisotropic waveform States &
pe
Newell County Facility, Alberta, inversion. China
Canada
Integration of distributed
Microseismic monitoring
Azzola J. et acoustic sensing for real-time
8 2023 in geothermal fields for Germany
al. seismic monitoring of a
risk mitigation.
geothermal field
ot

Characterization of Gas–Liquid
Gas-liquid flow
Two-Phase Slug Flow Using United
9 Ali S. et al. 2024 monitoring in pipelines
Distributed Acoustic Sensing in States
using DAS.
Horizontal Pipes
tn

Experimental Investigation of
Low-Frequency Distributed Hydraulic fracture
Reid T. et United
10 2024 Acoustic Sensor Responses to propagation monitoring
al. States
Two Parallel Propagating with low-frequency DAS.
Fractures
rin

Multi-Sensor Seismic
Processing Approach Using Italy,
CO2 storage and
Bellezza C. Geophones and HWC DAS in Netherlands
11 2024 geothermal reservoir
et al. the Monitoring of CO2 Storage & United
monitoring.
ep

at the Hellisheiði Geothermal Kingdom

Field in Iceland
Seismic Magnitude Estimation Seismic magnitude
Nayak A. et Using Low-Frequency Strain estimation in oil wells United
12 2024
al. Amplitudes Recorded by DAS using low-frequency States
Pr

Arrays at Far-Field Distances DAS.

Quantitative monitoring
Mjehovich Quantitative Analysis of United
13 2024 of hydraulic fracture
J. et al. Hydraulic Fracturing Test Site 2 States
geometry and efficiency.

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 Completion Designs Using
Crosswell Strain Measurement

ed
Gas leakage physical
simulation and its distributed
optical fiber sensing Gas leakage monitoring
Zou X. et
14 2024 experiments in the casing in underground gas China
al.
annulus of injection-production storage systems.

iew
pipe column for underground
gas storage
Optical phase mode analysis
method for pipeline bolt Early detection of bolt
15 Ma T. et al. 2024 looseness identification using looseness in pipeline China
distributed optical fiber acoustic joints.

v
sensing
Improved gas influx distribution
estimation using interfacial area Monitoring gas influx

re
Wei C. et transport equation (IATE) dynamics in high- United
16 2024
al. enabled two-fluid model: An pressure drilling States
advanced modeling and full- environments.
scale experimental study
Estimation of rock physics
er
properties via full waveform
inversion of vertical seismic
Seismic data inversion
Canada,
United
17 Hu Q. et al. 2024 for CO2 reservoir
profile data recorded by States &
property monitoring.
pe
accelerometer and fibre-optic Switzerland
sensors
Deepwater seismic United
Development of a subsea
Van Gestel imaging for reservoir States &
18 2024 distributed acoustic sensing
J.-P. et al. exploration using subsea United
acquisition system
DAS. Kingdom
ot

Research on Very-Low- Monitoring low-

Ruan C. et Frequency Hydroacoustic frequency acoustic
19 2023 China
al. Acoustic Velocity Sensor Based signals for hydrocarbon
on DFB Fiber Laser exploration.
tn

United
New wiggles from old cables: Processing DAS data for States,
Bachrach
20 2023 Data processing and imaging offshore subsurface United
R. et al.
considerations imaging. Kingdom &
Norway
rin

Method of precise sensing Accurate pipeline

Peng Y. et
21 2023 channel positioning for ϕ- monitoring and leakage China
al.
OTDR-based DAS detection using DAS.
300 km ultralong fiber optic
Long-distance
ep

Fan C. et DAS system based on optimally

22 2023 monitoring of pipeline China
al. designed bidirectional EDFA
and railway safety.
relays
The Effect of the Method of
Downhole Deployment on
Optimizing seismic data
Pr

Gurevich B. Distributed Acoustic Sensor

23 2023 acquisition in borehole Australia
et al. Measurements: Field
applications.
Experiments and Numerical
Simulations

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 Detection of Gas Pipeline
Leakage Using Distributed
Detecting and locating

ed
Zhang S. et Optical Fiber Sensors: Multi-
24 2023 pipeline leaks under China
al. Physics Analysis of Leakage-
various soil conditions.
Fiber Coupling Mechanism in
Soil Environment
Investigation of the effects of

iew
surrounding media on the
distributed acoustic sensing of Optimizing DAS for oil
Hendi S. et
25 2023 a helically wound fibre-optic and gas exploration in Canada
al.
cable with application to the geological conditions.
New Afton deposit, British
Columbia

v
The Modeling of Two-way
Coupled Transient Multiphase
Flow and Heat Transfer during Managing heat transfer

re
Wei C. et United
26 2023 Gas Influx Management using and gas influx during
al. States
Fiber Optic Distributed high-pressure drilling.
Temperature Sensing
Measurements
Field assessment of elastic full

Eaid M.V.
er
waveform inversion of
combined accelerometer and
Monitoring CO2 storage Canada &
27 2023 reservoirs and United
et al. distributed acoustic sensing
subsurface imaging. States
pe
data in a vertical seismic profile
configuration
Well-scale experimental and
Monitoring gas flow United
Tabjula J.L. numerical modeling studies of
28 2023 dynamics during well States &
et al. gas bullheading using fiber-
control operations. India
optic DAS and DTS
ot

Evaluating Stimulation
Effectiveness with Permanent Characterizing hydraulic
Cipolla C. United
29 2023 Optical Fiber and Sealed fractures and improving
et al. States
Wellbore Pressure Monitoring: well efficiency.
tn

Bakken Shale Case Study

Pilot-scale testing of natural gas
Detecting leaks and flow
Lalam N. et pipeline monitoring based on United
30 2023 variations in natural gas
al. phase-OTDR and enhanced States
pipelines.
scatter optical fiber cable
rin

Moment tensor inversion of Analysing micro-cracks

Bader M. et United
31 2023 perforation shots using in reservoirs using
al. States
distributed acoustic sensing perforation data.
A novel velocity band energy United
Pipeline monitoring and
Ekechukwu workflow for fiber-optic DAS States &
ep

32 2023 multiphase flow

G.K. et al. interpretation and multiphase United
characterization.
flow characterization Kingdom
Experimental Study on Sand
Detection and Monitoring Using Monitoring sand
Shetty R. et United
Pr

33 2023 Distributed Acoustic Sensing for migration and flow

al. States
Multiphase Flow in Horizontal conditions in pipelines.
Pipes

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 Evaluation of Parent Well
Depletion Effects on Fracture Analysing fracture

ed
Srinivasan Geometry Based on Low- geometry and depletion United
34 2023
A. et al. Frequency Distributed Acoustic effects in hydraulic States
Sensing in Hydraulic Fracture fracturing.
Test Site-2
Quasi-Distributed Fiber Sensor-

iew
Based Approach for Pipeline
Detecting pipeline
Zhang P. et Health Monitoring: Generating United
35 2023 damage and classifying
al. and Analyzing Physics-Based States
events using DAS data.
Simulation Datasets for
Classification

v
In pipeline monitoring and leak detection, DAS has become a transforming tool
addressing issues in many settings and operational scenarios. By overcoming noise

re
interference and thereby attaining an identification accuracy of 88.15%, Duan et al. (2024)
presented a complete ensemble empirical mode decomposition with adaptive noise signal
processing framework for underwater pipelines, which precisely recorded leakage features
[70]. Zhang S. et al. (2023), who concentrated on the soil-pipeline interaction and underlined
er
how soil features, including viscous resistance, affect DAS sensitivity, so offering practical
advice for ideal sensor location, complement this development [71]. Emphasizing the flexibility
of DAS to different soil environments, Peng et al. (2023) created creative measures including
the skewness of the amplitude-channel curve (SACC) and the relative shift of the amplitude
pe
peak (RSAP), to better the localization of pipeline vibrations [72]. Ma T. et al. (2024) proposed
a new technique for identifying bolt looseness in pipelines, hence extending DAS applications
[73]. Early mechanical flaws made possible by this method helped to prevent significant leaks
and show DAS's value in non-destructive evaluation. Apart from leakage detection, DAS
provides real-time monitoring features for challenging pipeline dynamics. Ali et al. (2024), for
ot

example, demonstrated DAS's capacity to describe gas-liquid two-phase slug flow, therefore
offering a non-intrusive and reasonably priced means of real-time flow monitoring [74].

In order to precisely identify temperature and acoustic changes resulting from leaks,
tn

Zou et al. (2024) combined DAS with distributed temperature sensors to track high-pressure
gas leakage in underground storage facilities [75]. In another development, Lalam et al. (2023)
improved DAS performance by using Rayleigh-enhanced fiber cables, hence enhancing
vibration detection during pilot-scale testing for natural gas pipelines [76]. Furthermore,
rin

proving strong performance even in noisy surroundings, Zhang P. et al. (2023) extended DAS
applications via a simulation-based technique for mechanical damage in pipes [77].
Notwithstanding these developments, integrating DAS with hybrid sensing technologies and
machine learning algorithms is essential to solve still unresolved issues in accuracy,
scalability, and cost-effectiveness. These studies taken together highlight DAS's importance
ep

as a pillar of pipeline safety and operational effectiveness as well as help to open the path for
next field advancements.

DAS provides precise data on fracture dynamics and treatment performance, thereby
enhancing hydraulic fracturing and production monitoring. According to Sakaida et al. (2024),
Pr

the integration of distributed temperature sensing and DAS can be beneficial in the
assessment of stage isolation and the mapping of fluid distribution during multistage fracturing
[78]. Their findings underscored the necessity of optimizing injection velocities and fluid

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 volumes to achieve homogeneous fluid distribution, thereby reducing perforation erosion and
enhancing treatment outcomes. Ma et al. (2024) expanded the scope of DAS applications by

ed
employing microseismic reflection imaging to generate three-dimensional models of complex
fracture networks [79]. This high-resolution imaging provided significant new perspectives on
fault lineaments and fracture geometry, surpassing traditional planar models. The utility of
Low-Frequency DAS (LF-DAS) in identifying strain fluctuations related to propagating

iew
fractures was also confirmed by Reid et al. (2024) [80]. This was achieved through
experimental simulations, which exposed complex fracture growth patterns and their
interactions with the surrounding environment.

Additionally investigated to enhance completion designs and efficiency are advanced

DAS approaches. Using LF-DAS data, Mjehovich et al. (2024) quantified fracture geometry
and assessed completion design performance, therefore highlighting the value of measures

v
like fracture density and width [81]. Their findings focused on the effects on hydraulic
stimulation efficiency of stage length and perforation cluster spacing. To investigate fracture

re
geometry and near-wellbore behaviour, Cipolla et al. (2023) used DAS integrated with sealed
wellbore pressure monitoring, so demonstrating the possibility to lower expenses while
preserving diagnostic accuracy [82]. Using a green's function-based inversion algorithm,
Srinivasan et al. (2023) examined hydraulic fracturing stages' fracture widths and depletion
er
impacts, so showing how reservoir depletion affects fracture propagation and proppant
distribution [83]. With real-time monitoring and actionable data to improve reservoir
management, this field of research highlight DAS's transforming impact in hydraulic fracturing.
Still, DAS's scalability and connection with reasonably priced monitoring systems provide
pe
obstacles for more general industry acceptance.

In monitoring CO2 storage and geothermal uses, DAS has shown to be a key
technology allowing accurate and reasonably priced study of subsurface activity. Emphasizing
interlayer strain monitoring to evaluate injection volumes, diffusion paths, and reservoir
variability, Li and Zhang (2024) underlined DAS's part in supporting seismic and logging
ot

techniques for CO2 geological sequestration [84]. Similarly, Tsuji et al. (2024) created a
portable active seismic source (PASS) combined with DAS to accomplish continuous reservoir
monitoring, so proving its ability to improve spatial and temporal resolution for subsurface CO2
tn

monitoring [85]. By including helically wrapped cables with geophones for time-lapse
monitoring and so capturing CO2 injection and its effects on geothermal reservoirs, Bellezza
et al. (2024) enhanced the application of DAS in geothermal areas [86]. These developments
highlight DAS's adaptability in offering high-resolution monitoring over a range of
rin

circumstances and sizes, therefore opening the path for sustainable energy policies.

Integration of DAS technology with full-waveform inversion (FWI) for subsurface

imaging and property prediction marks still another development in this field. Resolving CO2
injection zones and lithology with increased accuracy over isotropic models, Qu et al. (2024)
ep

used anisotropic FWI with DAS data in a vertical seismic profile configuration [87]. Using DAS
and accelerometer data to forecast reservoir porosity and lithology, Hu et al. (2024) integrated
elastic FWI with Bayesian rock physics inversion, however difficulties in DAS complementarity
were highlighted [88]. Likewise, Eaid et al. (2023) refined FWI algorithms to include DAS data
in its strain form, hence improving the resolution of CO2 storage site models [89]. These
Pr

studies underline DAS's contribution to promote geothermal energy applications and CO2
monitoring, but they also stress the importance of integrating complementary technologies to
get beyond operational complexity and data constraints.

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 With creative technologies that offer great spatial resolution and effective data
collecting techniques, seismic monitoring and subsurface imaging have evolved dramatically.

ed
Emphasizing its efficiency in urban contexts with high noise levels, Azzola et al. (2023) showed
the viability of employing DAS for real-time microseismic monitoring in a geothermal field [90].
Their six-month field test demonstrated DAS's ability to identify seismic occurrences
overlooked by conventional techniques, therefore stressing its importance in improving

iew
seismic networks. In a related work, Nayak et al. (2024) established a semi-empirical approach
employing low-frequency DAS data, obtaining results consistent with traditional geophones
[91]. This invention broadens DAS uses to fracture control and earthquake magnitude
estimation. Crucially for reservoir management, Van Gestel et al. (2024) verified subsea DAS
systems for seismic imaging in deepwater reservoirs, proving their ability for high-frequency
imaging and time-lapse monitoring [92].

v
DAS is also integrating with conventional seismic methods to tackle special difficulties,
so advancing it. Emphasizing their fit with legacy communication cables for high-quality

re
seismic images, Bachrach et al. (2023) examined DAS data processing for offshore
subsurface imaging [93]. Using downhole DAS deployment techniques, Gurevich et al. (2023)
investigated data quality and found cemented cables produced best results [94]. Their results
underscore the need of deployment techniques in optimizing DAS efficiency. Bader et al.
er
(2023) concurrently presented a moment tensor inversion technique employing DAS data to
examine micro-cracks caused by perforation shots, therefore connecting seismic patterns with
stimulation efficiency [95]. These studies greatly highlight DAS's ability to revolutionize seismic
monitoring; nonetheless, additional research is needed on problems such noise management,
pe
hardware optimization, and interaction with complementing technologies.

With current developments in fiber-optic sensing technologies so important, gas inflow

and multiphase flow monitoring are absolutely vital for improving safety and efficiency in
wellbore and pipeline operations. Using an advanced modelling framework including the
interfacial area transfer equation, Wei et al. (2024) predicted gas inflow behaviours during
ot

managed pressure drilling (MPD) [96]. Through full-scale experiments and careful simulation
of gas dispersion and slip velocities, their work verified this method. Emphasizing the need of
include distributed temperature sensing and DAS data for high-pressure, high-temperature
tn

(HPHT) scenarios, Wei et al. (2023) investigated two-way coupled transient multiphase flow
and heat transfer models [97]. This strategy closed important gaps in conventional modelling
techniques by increasing the accuracy of fluid temperature and gas inflow behaviour
projections. These advances taken together highlight the growing relevance of DAS in
rin

providing precise, real-time information for risk reduction and performance optimization in
complex flow environments.

Using DAS and DTS technology to track gas slug dynamics in experimental wellbores,
Tabjula et al. (2023) expanded DAS applications to bullheading activities [98]. Supported by
ep

numerical simulations, their results improved counter-current flow scenario modelling and
gave new understanding of gas displacement velocities. Tracking gas-liquid interfaces and
gas void fractions, Ekechukwu et al. (2023) showed a velocity band energy (VBE) approach
for characterizing multiphase flows, hence proving their value [99]. Shetty et al. (2023) have
investigated DAS for tracking sand migration patterns in horizontal pipelines and identifying
Pr

sand infiltration in their work using frequency band energy profiles revealed sand slide
velocities and migration dynamics, therefore guiding focused sand control techniques [100].
These studies underline the critical relevance of fiber-optic sensing in monitoring gas entry

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 and multiphase flow, although further commercial use depends on future improvement of
modelling approaches and signal processing.

ed
DAS system performance in many applications depends on advanced data processing
methods. By means of wavefront energy compensation, Gaussian filtering, and wavelet
threshold denoising techniques, Gan et al. (2024) tackled the issues of weak signals and noise
interference in DAS applications for CO2 injection wells [101]. Their method efficiently restored

iew
amplitude signals and enhanced CO2 injection volume calculations by means of comparative
analysis with neutron activation logging results, so illustrating the possibility of optimal data
processing for effective resource management. Using bidirectional erbium-doped fiber
amplifiers (EDFA) for multispan relay amplification, Fan et al. (2023) created an ultralong DAS
system with a sensing distance of 300.2km with a high SNR and excellent strain resolution
[102]. With signal deterioration a critical issue in long distance pipeline and railway monitoring,

v
this development increases DAS usefulness.

re
In the field of low-frequency signal detection, Ruan et al. (2023) presented a
hydroacoustic velocity sensor based on a distributed-feedback (DFB) fiber laser, so allowing
high-sensitivity underwater acoustic signal monitoring [103]. This invention increases DAS's
applicability in low-frequency settings, such hydrocarbon prospecting. With helically coiled
cables, Hendi et al. (2023) aimed to maximize DAS performance for seismic research, hence
er
addressing off-axial strain detection constraints [104]. Their results emphasized the impact of
incident angles and surrounding media, therefore offering useful information for cable
deployment under various geological environments. Combined, these studies underscore the
pe
significance of sophisticated DAS processing methods in overcoming obstacles such as signal
loss, noise, and environmental influences, as well as in extending the technology's application
across a variety of industries.

The findings for this theme of applications in the oil and gas industry highlight the
critical role that DAS plays in hydraulic fracturing, pipeline surveillance, and subsurface
ot

resource management. DAS has exhibited remarkable precision in leak detection, structural
integrity monitoring, and flow dynamics evaluation via sophisticated signal processing
methods, including CEEMDAN frameworks and Rayleigh-enhanced fibres. The incorporation
of distributed temperature sensing has facilitated accurate monitoring of gas inflow, fluid
tn

dispersion, and fracture network dynamics, hence enhanced resource exploitation and
reducing hazards. In geothermal and CO2 sequestration applications, DAS facilitates
sustainable energy initiatives by improving spatial and temporal resolution for subsurface
monitoring. DAS's capability to operate in high-pressure, multiphase flow conditions highlights
rin

its adaptability and efficiency in intricate operational contexts. Notwithstanding difficulties in

scalability and hybrid integration, these developments position DAS as an essential instrument
for improving safety, efficiency, and sustainability in the oil and gas sector.
ep

Theme 4: Seismic and Geophysical Monitoring

DAS serves as a crucial instrument for seismic and geophysical monitoring, offering
exceptional spatial coverage and real-time data acquisition to discover and assess ground
Pr

vibrations. Table 4 delineates significant studies in seismic and geophysical monitoring,

illustrating the varied applications of DAS in earthquake detection and hazard evaluation,
urban seismic surveillance and subsurface imaging, and volcanic activity monitoring,

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 alongside progress in DAS data processing, noise attenuation, and seismic signal localization.
The table also delineates the nations in which these studies were performed, illustrating the

ed
worldwide research initiatives in employing DAS for geophysical and infrastructural
monitoring.

iew
Table 4 Seismic and Geophysical Monitoring

No Authors Year Title and Reference Scope and Application Country

An Open-Access Data Set of
Active-Source and Passive-
Abbas A. et Geophysical exploration United
1 2024 Wavefield DAS and Nodal
al. and subsurface imaging. States
Seismometer Measurements at

v
the Newberry Florida Site
Complex spatial distribution of
Italy,

re
onset amplitude and waveform Seismic waveform and
2 Bozzi E. et al. 2024 France &
correlation: case studies from amplitude analysis.
Switzerland
different DAS experiments
Depth calibration of distributed Depth calibration for
Dean T. &
3 2024 acoustic sensing data using seismic profiles using Australia
Bona A.
er
well log ties
Surrounding ambient features
DAS.

analysis of existing Ambient noise and

4 Zhan Y. et al. 2024 China
communication optical cable by geophysical monitoring.
pe
using DAS Big-Data
Array analysis of seismo- Monitoring volcanic
Biagioli F. et France &
5 2024 volcanic activity with distributed activity for eruption
al. Italy
acoustic sensing forecasting.
Multi-source wavefield
reconstruction of distributed
ot

Saengduean Cost-efficient seismic United

6 2024 acoustic sensing data using
P. et al. wavefield reconstruction. States
compressive sensing and
seismic interferometry
tn

Smart Fiber-Optic Distributed

Acoustic Sensing (sDAS) with Ground event detection
7 Wu H. et al. 2024 Multitask Learning for Time- and localization in smart China
Efficient Ground Listening cities.
Applications
rin

Full-waveform simulation of Simulating DAS cable-

Celli N.L. et
8 2024 DAS records, response and ground coupling for Ireland
al.
cable-ground coupling seismic studies.
DAS-VSP coupled noise
Noise reduction in vertical
9 Xu J.-X. et al. 2024 suppression based on U-Net China
ep

seismic profiles (VSP).

network
Pre-Failure Strain Localization
in Siliclastic Rocks: A Strain localization and Switzerland
Bianchi P. et
10 2024 Comparative Study of seismic preparatory &
al.
Laboratory and Numerical studies. Singapore
Pr

Approaches

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 Spatial-Dependent Spectral
Response of Acousto-Optic Spectral response

ed
11 Sun S. et al. 2024 Tunable Filters with analysis for optical China
Inhomogeneous Acoustic systems.
Distribution
2-D Phase Unwrapping in DAS
Enhanced phase
Based on Transport-of-
12 Sun J. et al. 2024 unwrapping for seismic China

iew
Intensity-Equation: Principle,
DAS data.
Algorithm and Field Test
Ultrasonic Lamb wave
detection using a fiber-optic Ultrasonic flaw detection
13 Liu C. et al. 2024 China
quasi-distributed acoustic using fiber-optic sensing.
sensing system

v
Ultra-high extinction ratio
optical pulse generation with a Enhanced seismic signal
14 Shen Y. et al. 2024 thin film lithium niobate detection with high China

re
modulator for distributed sensitivity.
acoustic sensing
HD-TMA: A New Fast Template
Matching Algorithm Earthquake monitoring
15 Lv H. et al. 2024 Implementation for Linear DAS using optimized DAS China
er
Array Data and Its Optimization
Strategies
template matching.

Illuminating Urban Near-

Urban near-surface
pe
Lei Y. & Surface with Distributed
16 2024 imaging using multimodal China
Wang B. Acoustic Sensing Multimodal
noise.
Noise Surface-Wave Imaging
Submarine DAS for
Igel, J. K., Challenges in Submarine Fiber- seismic monitoring and Switzerlan
17 2024
Klaasen et al. Optic Earthquake Monitoring wavefield reconstruction d & Greece
ot

in volcanic regions.
Near-Surface 2D Imaging via
Seismic site
Yust M.B.S. FWI of DAS Data: An United
18 2023 characterization with DAS
tn

et al. Examination on the Impacts of States

and FWI.
FWI Starting Model
Measurement of the Acoustic
Relaxation Absorption CO2 acoustic absorption
19 Shen K. et al. 2023 Spectrum of CO2 Using a spectrum measurement China
rin

Distributed Bragg Reflector for seismic studies.

Fiber Laser
Flexible Hollow Core Fiber
Monitoring trace gases
Zhang B. et Photoacoustic Gas Sensor
20 2023 for seismic and China
al. Based on Embedded Acoustic
ep

environmental studies.
Resonant Structure
Characterization of Aquifer
Poroelastic Response to Subsurface fluid storage United
Becker M.W.
21 2023 Impulse and Oscillatory Well and geomechanical States &
et al.
Pressure Using Distributed behavior monitoring. Australia
Pr

Acoustic Sensing

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 Near-Surface Structure
Investigation Using Ambient
Shallow fault investigation

ed
Noise in the Water
22 Shao J. et al. 2023 and subsurface China
Environment Recorded by
geological analysis.
Fiber-Optic Distributed Acoustic
Sensing
The break of earthquake Imaging high-frequency
United

iew
23 Li J. et al. 2023 asperities imaged by distributed rupture dynamics in
States
acoustic sensing earthquakes.
Developing a distributed
High-resolution seismic
Pandey A. et acoustic sensing seismic land United
24 2023 imaging with DAS land
al. streamer: Concept and States
streamers.
validation

v
Trans-dimensional inversion of
multimode seismic surface Subsurface fault imaging
25 Qu L. et al. 2023 wave data from a trenched with multimodal seismic Canada

re
distributed acoustic sensing data.
survey
Rapid Surface Deployment of a Rapid earthquake hazard
Mjehovich J. United
26 2023 DAS System for Earthquake and aftershock
et al. States
Hazard Assessment monitoring.
er
Sound source direction-of-
arrival estimation method for Localizing sound sources
27 Luo Z. et al. 2023 microphone array based on using fiber Bragg grating China
pe
ultra-weak fiber Bragg grating DAS.
distributed acoustic sensor
Joint denoising and
classification network:
Low-SNR microseismic
Application to microseismic
28 Wu S. et al. 2023 event detection using China
event detection in hydraulic
deep learning.
ot

fracturing distributed acoustic

sensing monitoring
Mode-Walk-off Interferometry Position-resolved strain
Costa L. et United
29 2023 for Position-Resolved Optical sensing for geophysical
tn

al. States
Fiber Sensing applications.
Multi-Disciplinary Monitoring
Networks for Mesoscale Monitoring geothermal
Plenkers K. Switzerland
30 2023 Underground Experiments: reservoirs and mesoscale
et al. & Germany
Advances in the Bedretto experiments.
rin

Reservoir Project
Seismic monitoring of rockfalls Rockfall detection and China &
31 Xie T. et al. 2023 using distributed acoustic monitoring using seismic United
sensing signals. States
ep

Imaging distributed acoustic

sensing-to-geophone CO2 storage reservoir
United
32 Ma Y. et al. 2023 conversion data: A field imaging using DAS-
States
application to CO2 geophone conversion.
sequestration data
Pr

Distributed Acoustic Sensing of

Monitoring seismic waves
Okamoto T. Seismic Wave Using Optical
33 2023 with high spatial Japan
et al. Frequency Domain
resolution.
Reflectometry

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 Enhancing earthquake
United
detection from distributed Enhanced earthquake
States,

ed
34 Chen Y. et al. 2023 acoustic sensing data by detection with DAS
China &
coherency measure and filtering techniques.
Egypt
moving-rank-reduction filtering
Self-Supervised Denoising for
Distributed Acoustic Sensing Improving seismic data

iew
35 Zhao Y. et al. 2023 Vertical Seismic Profile Data denoising for clearer China
via Improved Blind Spot event analysis.
Network
Distributed fiber mountain
Seismic response
seismic monitoring and steady-
36 Yang J. et al. 2023 monitoring for geological China
state analysis under natural
disaster warnings.

v
earthquakes
Machine Learning Estimation of
Enhancing phase
Aitkulov A. et the Phase at the Fading Points Italy &

re
37 2023 detection for geophysical
al. of an OFDR-Based Distributed Switzerland
sensing.
Sensor
Time-Delay Estimation of
Accurate time-delay
Microseismic DAS Data Using
38 Wu S. et al. 2023 estimation for seismic China
Band-Limited Phase-Only
er
Correlation
monitoring.

How the Material

Characteristics of Optical Infrastructure monitoring
pe
39 Jiang K. et al. 2023 Fibers and Soil Influence the through cable-soil China
Measurement Results of interaction analysis.
Distributed Acoustic Sensing
Distributed acoustic sensing for
Urban seismic imaging
Jiang W. et shallow structure imaging using
40 2023 and shallow structure China
al. mechanical noise: A case study
analysis.
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in Guangzhou, China

By means of creative approaches for high spatiotemporal resolution, DAS has greatly
tn

increased earthquake detection and hazard assessment. Lv et al. (2024) presented the HD-
TMA algorithm, an improved template matching method for DAS data that, on CPU platforms,
lowers computational expenses by forty times [105]. Applied to the Ms. 6.9 Menyuan
earthquake in 2022, this approach proved strong in detection and increased efficiency with
neural networks for event library building. Building on this advancement, Li et al. (2023) image
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high-frequency rupture dynamics of the 2021 Antelope Valley earthquake using DAS [106].
Their identification of fault asperities and their cascading rupture consequences by using a
100-kilometer fiber cable as a seismic array advanced knowledge of earthquake physics. All
of these advances emphasize how important DAS is to altering seismic monitoring by means
ep

of precise, reasonably priced, scalable techniques for estimating earthquake hazards and
understanding rupture dynamics.

DAS has shown great promise in urban subsurface imaging and seismic hazard
monitoring, providing high-resolution, reasonably priced solutions for difficult situations. The
Pr

quick deployment of DAS arrays for earthquake and aftershock hazard assessment using
untrenched surface fiber installations, which approach shear-wave velocity (VS30) data similar
to traditional methods, was demonstrated by Mjehovich J. et al. (2023) [107]. By creating a

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 coherence-based denoising framework, Chen et al. (2023) substantially improved DAS
performance and greatly increased SNRs for the detection of weak signals from nearby or

ed
distant earthquakes [108]. By lowering waveform distortions and increasing signal recognition
accuracy, Wu et al.'s band-limited phase-only correlation (POC) methodology for time-delay
estimation outperformed conventional methods [109]. DAS has revolutionized urban
subsurface imaging in addition to seismic hazard monitoring. For example, Zhan et al. (2024)

iew
used existing communication optical cables to create continuous sensor arrays, demonstrating
the potential of DAS for large-scale urban geophysics [110]. Through their effective extraction
of ambient noise features from a 36-kilometer road network, they were able to map urban
features and conduct in-depth geophysical signal analysis.

When taken as a whole, these studies demonstrate how DAS has revolutionized
seismic wavefield imaging, earthquake hazard assessment, and urban subsurface modelling.

v
DAS continues to close important gaps in seismic and geophysical technologies by tackling
issues like sensor deployment optimization and signal processing efficiency, especially in

re
densely populated and logistically complicated metropolitan environments. Using a reused
telecommunication cable, Lei and Wang (2024) extracted multimodal dispersion curves and
identified subsurface sediment thinning trends in a related investigation using DAS for near-
surface imaging in Hefei [111]. Emphasizing DAS's potential for deep structural mapping, the
er
study also found blind faults using sophisticated interferometric approaches. In 2D site
characterization, Yust et al. (2023) also used DAS with full-waveform inversion to show how
model selection affects subsurface imaging accuracy [112]. Despite limits in fiber-ground
coupling, Pandey et al. (2023) presented a DAS land streamer system for high-density seismic
pe
data gathering, which attained better spatial resolution than geophones [113]. Jiang et al.
(2023) finally reinforced DAS's relevance in shallow structure imaging by extracting shear-
wave velocity profiles along a building site using mechanical noise as a seismic source [114].
These investigations all demonstrate how DAS is transforming urban seismic monitoring and
subsurface imaging, providing imaginative, scalable approaches to further urban geophysical
ot

research.

Monitoring rockfall, geothermal, and volcanic activity is essential for understanding

geological dangers and managing natural resources effectively. Biagioli et al. (2024)
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successfully located recurrent seismic sources close to active craters by using DAS to track
volcanic explosions and tremors at Stromboli volcano [115]. This highlights DAS's capacity for
continuous monitoring in spite of challenges like high noise levels and ground-to-fiber coupling
inefficiencies. Similar to this, Igel et al. (2024) used a 45 km dark fiber between Santorini and
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Ios to show how undersea DAS can be used for seismic monitoring and wavefield
reconstruction in volcanic zones [116]. By recording more than 1,000 seismic events and
examining microseisms, their work offered vital insights into tracking volcanic and seismic
activity along the Kolumbo volcanic complex. In order to improve hazard assessment in
underwater volcanic environments, their work suggested creative alternatives including
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employing several cables and integrating DAS with conventional seismometers, despite
obstacles like complex cable geometries, coupling problems, and medium heterogeneity. As
part of the Bedretto Reservoir Project in geothermal research, Plenkers et al. (2023) integrated
DAS into a multi-sensor network, generating high-resolution subsurface imaging and
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effectively managing hazards in extensive trials [117]. Additionally, Xie et al. (2023) showed
how fiber topologies affect signal quality by confirming DAS's capacity to recognize seismic
signals connected to block motions for rockfall monitoring [118]. These studies demonstrate
DAS as a strong instrument for furthering hazard mitigation and natural resource exploitation,

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 notwithstanding enduring problems including fiber coupling inefficiencies and system
optimization.

ed
Using its special features for extensive spatial sampling and strain-rate measurements,
DAS has greatly advanced seismic wavefield reconstruction and imaging. Bozzi et al. (2024)
investigated P-wave amplitude variability and waveform correlations, so stressing the
difficulties signal polarization and homogenous coupling in DAS arrays present causes create

iew
[119]. This paper emphasizes how important adaptive data selection techniques are for
improving seismic monitoring accuracy. Saengduean et al. (2024) presented compressive
sensing techniques in a complementary approach to enhance wavefield reconstruction, so
lowering data storage needs and obtaining a 5–10 dB improvement in signal recovery, so
proving the cost-effectiveness of the method for broad DAS applications [120]. Building on
these developments, Celli et al. (2024) examined the important function of cable-ground

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coupling and showed how stiffness differences affect signal amplification and phase delays
[121]. Their modelling approach offers direction on how best to maximize DAS installations for

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seismic research. These developments taken together show DAS's increasing ability to solve
conventional seismic monitoring difficulties by providing scalable, effective, and exact
methods for reconstructing complicated wavefields and so upgrading seismic imaging
technology. er
Concurrent with these developments in phase accuracy and data integration, DAS's
value in seismic imaging is increasing. By use of a two-dimensional phase unwrapping
algorithm proposed by Sun et al. (2024), noise-induced errors are greatly reduced, hence
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enhancing the accuracy of seismic data interpretation [122]. By use of multimodal surface
wave inversion, Qu et al. (2023) generated high-density subsurface velocity profiles, so
resolving both shallow and deep formations [123]. Aitkulov et al. (2023) improved optical
frequency domain reflectometry by 5.1 dB by using machine learning to improve phase
identification at fading spots [124]. To bridge the gap between DAS and conventional seismic
technologies, Ma et al. (2023) introduced DAS-to-geophysical conversion approaches [125].
ot

These developments demonstrate the revolutionary potential of DAS for seismic wavefield
imaging and reconstruction, but they also highlight the necessity of enhancing data processing
techniques and optimizing sensor coupling to fully realize its potential.
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Providing sophisticated capabilities for subsurface and structural analysis, DAS has
shown to be a successful technology for geological monitoring and infrastructure. DAS fiber-
optic cables collected seismic waves from both active and passive sources, hence Abbas et
al. (2024) showed the possibility of DAS for subsurface imaging at the Newberry Florida site
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[126]. Emphasizing its use for investigating subsurface abnormalities including karstic voids,
the study highlighted the great spatial density of DAS arrays relative to conventional nodal
seismometers. In a water setting, Shao et al. (2023) similarly investigated near-surface
structures using DAS in conjunction with ambient noise interferometry [127]. The inversion of
ep

dispersion curves produced shear-wave velocity models compatible with geological data,
therefore demonstrating DAS's efficiency in shallow fault and subsurface studies. Using DAS
for mountain seismic monitoring, Yang et al. (2023) found both steady-state and unsteady-
state reactions to natural earthquakes [128]. Their approach improved the extent of DAS in
disaster early warning systems by proving high accuracy and simplicity of use to follow
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geological disaster evolution, including landslides. These studies taken together show the
revolutionary possibilities of DAS in providing high-resolution, real-time data for geological

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 exploration and disaster risk management, therefore opening the door to the creation of safer
and better-informed infrastructure.

ed
DAS has great promise for structural and material monitoring in addition to geophysical
uses. By use of DAS, Becker et al. (2023) investigated fluid injection effects by measuring
aquifer poroelastic responses, therefore exposing intricate strain distribution patterns
challenging accepted hydromechanical models [129]. Lighter and more flexible cables

iew
increase signal detection, according to Jiang et al. (2023), who investigated how soil and cable
qualities affect DAS sensitivity [130]. These realizations provide a basis for maximizing DAS
installations in infrastructure monitoring. By combining creative sensing technologies with
strong data processing, DAS has generally stretched the bounds of subsurface and structural
monitoring, so addressing important issues in geological and engineering environments. To
fully use its possibilities, nevertheless, more improvement in coupling methods and

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deployment techniques is absolutely necessary.

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Data processing and noise reduction are additional critical areas of development for
DAS, as they have developed to address obstacles in both seismic and non-seismic
applications. Dean and Bona (2024) developed a depth calibration approach for DAS vertical
seismic profiles (VSPs) by utilizing dynamic time-warping techniques to correlate fiber-optic
measurements with well-log data. This approach significantly improved seismic profile
er
accuracy [131]. Xu et al. (2024) created a noise-suppressing framework based on U-Nets by
integrating self-attention methods to enhance denoising efficiency while preserving signal
integrity [132]. This technology exhibited superior performance in reducing coupled noise in
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DAS VSP data and quicker processing speeds than conventional techniques. Sun et al. (2024)
proposed a computational model to resolve non-uniform acoustic field distributions, thereby
impacting DAS-based imaging systems, by investigating the spatial spectral response of
acousto-optic tunable filters [133]. Additionally, Shen Y. et al. (2024) experimentally
demonstrated ultra-high extinction ratio (ER) optical pulse modulation using a thin-film lithium
niobate electro-optical modulator (TFLN EOM), attaining an ER above 50 dB [134]. During
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pulse modulation, they significantly enhanced the sensitivity of the DAS by neutralizing
relaxation-tail responses using a cascaded Mach–Zehnder interferometer (MZI) structure for
a 2-km single-mode sensing fiber. This method also obtained spatial crosstalk suppression of
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24.9 dB along the fiber, which clearly demonstrates the impact of high ER on enhancing
sensing performance. Combined, these advancements emphasize the critical role of
advanced optical technologies, computational models, and creative algorithms in enhancing
the adaptability, efficiency, and accuracy of DAS applications in seismic imaging and beyond.
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Subsequently, the combination of deep learning methods and machine learning has
transformed DAS data processing yet more. Wu et al. (2023) developed JointNet, an end-to-
end framework for simultaneous denoising and DAS microseismic data classification, under
low SNR situations [135]. To handle spatially linked noise in DAS VSP data, Zhao et al. (2023)
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improved self-supervised denoising algorithms using a blind spot network (BSN) [136]. Using
pixel-shuffle down sampling and signal detail augmentation, their method effectively
suppressed noise while preserving data integrity. Liu et al. (2024) used Lamb waves and
harmonic noise reduction to increase the application range of quasi-distributed acoustic
sensing (Q-DAS), so addressing ultrasonic fault detection in high-frequency environments
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[137]. To further emphasize the adaptability of DAS, Luo et al. (2023) conducted an
investigation into sound source localization using ultra-weak FBG DAS [138]. They combined
convolutional recurrent neural networks to obtain an exact direction-of-arrival estimate. These

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 advancements underscore the transformative potential of advanced signal processing
methods in enhancing the range and efficiency of DAS technology.

ed
Providing creative ways for high-density and scalable sensing, DAS and related
technologies have shown great promise in fluid and gas monitoring. By means of a distributed
Bragg reflector (DBR) fiber laser system, Shen et al. (2023) measured the acoustic relaxation
absorption spectrum of CO2, therefore addressing constraints of conventional ultrasonic

iew
sensors functioning solely at fixed frequencies [139]. With a broad and flat frequency
response, the DBR fiber laser technology remarkably accurately rebuilt the acoustic relaxation
absorption spectrum, thereby obtaining a measurement error of less than 1.32%. This
invention allows exact gas monitoring under dynamic pressure circumstances, therefore
extending DAS applications in CO2 sensing, especially in seismic and environmental
investigations. Based on a leaky hollow core fiber (LHCF) and embedded acoustic resonant

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structure, Zhang et al. (2023) also presented a flexible photoacoustic (PA) gas sensor [140].
With its replaceable LHCF and small design, this system which shows sensitivity for gas

re
detection in seismic and environmental settings, achieved a minimal detection limit of 21.1
ppb for trace acetylene. These works show the transforming power of DAS and associated
technologies in increasing fluid and gas monitoring capability by using advanced fiber
technologies and acoustic sensing ideas. For more general use, nevertheless, more research
er
into scalability and deployment in challenging settings is required.

By means of creative sensing approaches and improved data processing technologies,

DAS has developed seismic signal detection and localization. Wu et al. (2024) for instance
pe
presented a multitask learning (MTL) augmented smart DAS (sDAS) system for the
simultaneous detection and localization of ground events [141]. Over conventional single-task
methods, the system achieved high classification accuracy (up to 99.46%) and location errors
within ±1 meter by using shared knowledge across tasks. This system proved strong against
environmental noise, therefore highlighting DAS's possible real-time uses in smart cities.
Using optical frequency domain reflectometry (OFDR), Okamoto et al. (2023) sensed seismic
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waves along current communications cables, obtaining great spatial resolution and hence
accurate imaging of subterranean facilities [142]. By addressing constraints in standard OTDR
especially in dynamic range and strain measurement for seismic waves, the system advanced
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DAS's function in geophysical sensing. These developments taken together show how DAS
technologies are changing seismic signal detection and localization, offering scalable, exact,
and effective answers for uses ranging from urban infrastructure monitoring to geophysical
research. Further research has broadened DAS's relevance to acoustic localization and strain
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sensing. Bianchi et al. (2024) investigated strain localization in siliciclastic rocks using both
numerical modeling and laboratory methods, therefore exposing spatiotemporal patterns that
predated seismic breakdown [143]. Their efforts improved knowledge of fault mechanics by
proving DAS's capacity to detect preparatory seismic events. Costa et al. (2023) quantified
temperature and stress by means of unidirectional propagation by means of mode-walk-off
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interferometry for position-resolved optical fiber sensing [144]. This approach highlighted
DAS's versatility in many situations by overcoming conventional bidirectional sensing limits.
These developments taken together highlight DAS's transforming power for seismic signal
detection and localization, with continuous research aimed on raising scalability and accuracy.
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Theme 4: Seismic and Geophysical Monitoring underscore DAS's revolutionary

capacity in seismic hazard evaluation, subsurface imaging, and urban geophysics. DAS has
markedly improved earthquake detection, rupture dynamics analysis, and geophysical signal

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 interpretation by the utilization of new algorithms and high spatiotemporal resolution. Its
capacity to reutilize existing communication fibers as sensor arrays facilitates economical and

ed
scalable solutions for urban seismic monitoring and feature mapping. Advanced data
processing methodologies, including coherence-based denoising and phase-only correlation,
have augmented the identification of faint signals and improved waveform recognition
precision, while ambient noise analysis has enabled high-resolution subsurface profiling.

iew
Furthermore, DAS's incorporation into multi-sensor networks for the surveillance of geological
hazards, including volcanic activity and rockfalls, highlights its adaptability and significance in
sustainable resource management. Despite ongoing hurdles in enhancing fiber coupling and
system efficiency, DAS is transforming seismic monitoring through real-time, accurate, and
scalable methods, facilitating better catastrophe preparedness and deeper geophysical
understanding.

v
re
Theme 5: Telecommunications and Infrastructure Security

DAS has become increasingly influential in a variety of industries, such as transportation,

infrastructure security, and telecommunications, by capitalizing on its capacity to detect and
pinpoint disruptions in fiber-optic networks. Real-time monitoring of physical infrastructure is
er
improved by DAS, which detects potential hazards such as unauthorized access, cable
manipulation, or structural disturbances. DAS seamlessly integrates with telecom systems in
fiber optic communication and network monitoring, serving dual purposes: operational
efficiency and asset protection. By improving detection algorithms, DAS offers strong security
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solutions for perimeter and intrusion detection, allowing for high accuracy and flexibility in
challenging situations. In the field of smart transportation and traffic monitoring, DAS's
adaptability is demonstrated through its support of intelligent systems for traffic flow
optimization, load monitoring, and vehicle tracing. Additionally, in critical and structural
infrastructure monitoring, DAS enables the maintenance of critical infrastructure, such as rail
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networks, water perimeters, and utility systems, particularly in high-risk or remote regions.
Finally, the precision and efficiency of DAS are continued to be refined by advancements in
signal processing and noise optimization, which solidify its function as a critical tool for
ensuring the resilience and integrity of contemporary infrastructure systems.
tn

Table 5 Telecommunications and Infrastructure Security

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No Authors Year Title and Reference Scope and Application Country

Deep Learning-Based
Intrusion Detection and
Telecom intrusion
Impulsive Event Classification United
1 Han S. et al. 2024 detection and event
for Distributed Acoustic States
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classification.
Sensing Across Telecom
Networks
The Impact of Quantization Optimizing DAS data
2 Ye Z. et al. 2024 Bits on Coherent Detection processing for China
DAS telecommunication.
Pr

Multi-point fiber optic laser-

Ultrasonic testing for
3 Luo W. et al. 2024 ultrasonic transducer based China
infrastructure monitoring.
on long-period fiber grating

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 Design and Evaluation of
Nur A. & Real-Time Data Storage and Cloud-based DAS data
Ethiopia &

ed
4 Muanenda 2024 Signal Processing in a Long- storage and signal
Italy
Y. Range DAS Using Cloud- processing.
Based Services
Low-Frequency Vibration
Detection Enhancement in Enhancing low-frequency
5 Zhu G. et al. 2024 China

iew
Dual-Pulse das with Single vibration detection in DAS.
AOM
Field Trial of Coexistence and
Simultaneous Switching of Coexistence of DAS and
Wang Z. et United
6 2024 Real-Time Fiber Sensing and telecom networks in dense
al. States
Coherent 400 GbE in a urban environments.

v
Dense Urban Environment
Modified Data Augmentation
Intrusion detection with
Zhang S. et Integration Method for Robust

re
7 2024 improved recognition China
al. Intrusion Events Recognition
models in DAS.
with Fiber Optic DAS System
Spatial Deep Deconvolution
United
Yuan S. et U-Net for Traffic Analyses High-resolution traffic
8 2024 States &
al. with Distributed Acoustic monitoring using DAS.
Sensing
er France

The Performance of
Real-time vehicle tracking
Thomas P.J. Distributed Acoustic Sensing
9 2024 in intelligent transportation Norway
pe
et al. for Tracking the Movement of
systems.
Road Vehicles
DAS Vehicle Signal
Urban traffic monitoring China &
Extraction Using Machine
10 Min R. et al. 2024 using machine learning in United
Learning in Urban Traffic
DAS. States
Monitoring
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GASF-ConvNeXt-TF
Algorithm for Perimeter
Perimeter security China &
Wang Y.-J. Security Disturbance
11 2024 disturbance identification United
et al. Identification Based on
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with DAS. Kingdom

Distributed Optical Fiber
Sensing System
Multiple noise reduction for
distributed acoustic sensing Noise suppression for
Huang T. et
12 2024 data processing through improved DAS signal China
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al.
densely connected residual accuracy.
convolutional networks
Monitoring of heavy loaded Monitoring vehicle loads
13 Ma J. et al. 2024 vehicles based on distributed for intelligent China
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acoustic sensing transportation systems.

Detecting accurate
parametric intrusions using Long-distance intrusion India &
Vikram A. et
14 2023 optical fiber sensors for long- detection in sensitive Saudi
al.
distance data communication areas. Arabia
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system
Compensation of Phase Improving DAS signal
Pineiro E. et
15 2023 Noise Impairments in quality for long-range Spain
al.
Distributed Acoustic Sensors telecom security.

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 Based on Optical Pulse
Compression Time-Domain

ed
Reflectometry
Fiber-Optic
Telecommunication Network
Monitoring urban Russian
Zhirnov A.A. Wells Monitoring by Phase-
16 2023 telecommunication wells Federation
et al. Sensitive Optical Time-
with DAS. & Italy

iew
Domain Reflectometer with
Disturbance Recognition
Human activities classification
based on ϕ-OTDR system by Classifying human
Saleh N.L.
17 2023 utilizing gammatone filter activities for critical Malaysia
et al.
cepstrum coefficient envelope infrastructure protection.

v
using support vector machine
Intelligent water perimeter
security event recognition Securing water perimeters

re
18 Sun M. et al. 2023 based on NAM-MAE and with intelligent event China
distributed optic fiber acoustic recognition.
sensing system
Label-Free Anomaly
Detection Using Distributed Anomaly detection for rail
19 Xie Y. et al. 2023
er
Optical Fiber Acoustic
Sensing
intrusion monitoring.
China

Long-Range Traffic
pe
Monitoring Based on Pulse-
Traffic monitoring and
Corera I. et Compression Distributed
20 2023 vehicle classification in Spain
al. Acoustic Sensing and
smart city infrastructure.
Advanced Vehicle Tracking
and Classification Algorithm
Multiple Event Recognition
ot

Scheme Using Variational Multiple event recognition

21 Fu W. et al. 2023 Mode Decomposition-Based in security systems using China
Hybrid Feature Extraction in DAS.
Fiber Optic das System
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A Dual-Stage-Recognition
Dual-stage intrusion
Network for Distributed
22 He T. et al. 2023 recognition for perimeter China
Optical Fiber Sensing
security.
Perimeter Security System
From Coherent Systems
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Enhancing telecom
Dorize C. et Technology to Advanced
23 2023 networks with advanced France
al. Fiber Sensing for Smart
DAS features.
Network Monitoring
D2-DAS Technology: an
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opportunity to use bre optics Monitoring and securing

Kwik S. et
24 2023 for asset monitoring and power utility assets with Spain
al.
security applications in DAS.
Electric Power Utilities
Embedded Digital Phase Analysing phase noise for
Donadello
Pr

25 2023 Noise Analyzer for Optical telecom network Italy

S. et al.
Frequency Metrology monitoring.

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 The utilization of extant telecommunication infrastructure for dual purposes has
revolutionized infrastructure monitoring through the integration of DAS with fiber-optic

ed
communication networks. The potential of integrating DAS with machine learning techniques
for real-time intrusion detection and impulsive event classification across telecom networks
was demonstrated by Han et al. (2024). They utilized edge computing to assure efficient local
processing. In the same vein, Zhirnov et al. (2023) emphasized the use of φ-OTDR to monitor

iew
telecommunication wells in urban environments, obtaining high classification accuracy
through convolutional neural networks. The emphasis on signal optimization is further
underscored by Ye et al. (2024), who investigated the influence of quantization bits on
coherent detection DAS, thereby offering valuable insights into the optimization of data
processing for high-bandwidth, long-distance applications. These studies collectively
underscore DAS's capacity to improve the operational efficiency and security of

v
telecommunications networks.

DAS's adaptability for multifunctional use cases in network environments is also

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demonstrated by recent advancements. In order to confront the challenge of processing the
immense data volumes produced by long-range sensing applications, Nur and Muanenda
(2024) suggested a cloud-based DAS data management system [145]. Simultaneously, Wang
et al. (2024) verified the seamless integration of sensing and communication systems by
er
demonstrating the coexistence of DAS and high-capacity 400 GbE signals in congested urban
networks [146]. Donadello et al. (2023) introduced compact, cost-effective digital phase noise
analyzers as a result of signal processing improvements, which enabled efficient real-time
optical signal analysis [147]. These advancements, in conjunction with the insights provided
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by Dorize et al. (2023) regarding the integration of coherent systems with DAS for network
monitoring, solidify DAS as a fundamental instrument for smart telecom infrastructure,
providing both precision and scalability for both current and future applications [148].

In a variety of infrastructure systems, DAS technology has become a critical instrument

for improving perimeter and intrusion detection capabilities. A modified data augmentation
ot

integration method was introduced by Zhang et al. (2024) to enhance model generalization
under challenging conditions, including low SNRs and event blending [149]. This method
resulted in a substantial decrease in false alarm rates. In the same vein, Wang et al. (2024)
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created a GASF-ConvNeXt-TF algorithm that converts time-series signals into 2D image

features, thereby obtaining a recognition accuracy of over 99% for multiple disturbance events
in real-world scenarios [150]. These developments illustrate the potential of DAS systems to
utilize machine learning to achieve precise, real-time intrusion detection in dynamic and
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intricate environments.

Further investigation highlights DAS's versatility for real-world security applications.

Vikram et al. (2023) concentrated on optical fiber-based long-distance intrusion detection,
highlighting how resilient it is to environmental influences [151]. Saleh et al. (2023) used φ-
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OTDR to categorize human activities in critical infrastructure settings [152]. They used
sophisticated signal processing techniques to achieve high classification accuracy. Fu et al.
(2023) achieved multipoint and multievent identification with an accuracy of over 98% by
extending DAS capabilities with variational mode decomposition for hybrid feature extraction
[153]. In order to enhance event classification, including human and animal actions, even in
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complex environmental situations, He et al. (2023) developed a dual-stage recognition

network [154]. When taken as a whole, these studies present DAS as a revolutionary option

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 for contemporary perimeter security systems, providing improved precision, scalability, and
resilience in a range of infrastructure environments.

ed
By converting existing fiber-optic networks into large-scale sensing arrays, DAS
technology has shown the potential to revolutionize urban traffic monitoring. In order to
improve the resolution of DAS traffic data, Yuan et al. (2024) created a spatial deep
deconvolution U-Net model that addresses obstacles such as noise contamination and

iew
interference among closely traveling vehicles [155]. Their model was able to generate high-
resolution traffic signal outputs by incorporating advanced regularization techniques and
introducing space-domain vehicle wavelets. This enabled the precise characterization of
vehicles and the monitoring of lane-specific data. In the same vein, Thomas et al. (2024)
investigated the performance of DAS for real-time vehicle tracking and illustrated its ability to
monitor traffic flow and vehicle speed with precision that was influenced by installation factors

v
such as signal quality and cable positioning [156]. These works emphasize DAS's capacity to
offer scalable and low-maintenance solutions for intelligent transportation systems, particularly

re
in urban environments.

The accuracy and adaptability of DAS for traffic and load monitoring in complex
environments have been the focus of additional advancements. A robust framework was
demonstrated by Min et al. (2024), which employed machine learning techniques to extract
er
vehicle signals from noisy urban DAS data [157]. This framework was able to identify vehicle
speed and volume with increased accuracy. In a separate study, Ma et al. (2024) introduced
a φ-OTDR-based load recognition model that distinguishes between light and heavy vehicles
pe
[158]. This model employs innovative feature extraction methods to obtain a real-time
recognition accuracy of 97.81%. Corera et al. (2023) utilized pulse-compression techniques
to accurately classify vehicle types and trajectories over a 40-km fiber-optic network for
automobiles (99.6%) and trucks (85.7%), thereby expanding the scope of DAS applications to
long-range traffic monitoring [159]. Collectively, these studies demonstrate the transformative
potential of DAS in smart transportation, illustrating its ability to optimize traffic flow, improve
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infrastructure utilization, and facilitate the development of smart cities.

Real-time insights into the health and security of vital assets are provided by DAS, a
transformative technology that has emerged for critical and structural infrastructure
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monitoring. A novel fiber-optic ultrasonic transducer for non-destructive testing was proposed
by Luo et al. (2024) [160]. This transducer employs a long-period fiber grating to excite
ultrasonic waves. Their research confirmed the transducer's consistent performance in multi-
point applications, thereby offering a scalable solution for infrastructure monitoring. In a similar
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vein, Sun et al. (2023) implemented Noise Adaptive Mask-Masked Autoencoders (NAM-MAE)
to safeguard water perimeters, thereby overcoming the obstacle of noise interference in
intricate environments [161]. DAS's adaptability to underwater monitoring scenarios was
demonstrated by their method, which obtained 96.6% test accuracy. These developments
ep

emphasize the importance of DAS in the provision of precise and dependable monitoring
across a wide range of applications, including the assessment of structural integrity and the
protection of critical resources.

The potential for proactive maintenance and anomaly detection is further emphasized
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by additional advancements in DAS technology. The detection rate of 91.5% in high-speed

rail intrusion scenarios was achieved by Xie et al. (2023), who introduced a label-free anomaly
detection framework that utilized convolutional autoencoders and clustering algorithms [162].

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 This method effectively mitigated the scarcity of labelled data, thereby facilitating the
development of unsupervised learning applications in critical infrastructure. In the meantime,

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Kwik et al. (2023) investigated the integration of DAS into power utility networks, highlighting
its capacity to monitor mechanical and thermal stimuli along fiber channels while utilizing
existing infrastructure [163]. Their research illustrated the effectiveness of DAS in preventive
maintenance and asset management, thereby reducing the need for reactive interventions. As

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a whole, these studies solidify DAS as a foundational technology for critical and structural
monitoring, providing scalable, efficient, and robust solutions for the preservation of the safety
and operational integrity of necessary infrastructure.

The performance and versatility of DAS systems across a wide range of applications
have been significantly improved by advancements in noise optimization and signal
processing. In order to enhance the detection of low-frequency vibrations, Zhu et al. (2024)

v
developed a novel dual-pulse φ-OTDR scheme that employs weighted averaging and
reference subtraction [164]. The effectiveness of their approach in addressing the persistent

re
challenge of low-frequency noise in DAS applications was demonstrated by a SNR
enhancement of up to 23 dB. In the same vein, Huang et al. (2024) designed a densely
connected residual convolutional denoising network to suppress mixed noise in DAS data
[165]. Their method enhanced SNR by 25.82 dB by utilizing both superficial and deep feature
er
extraction, underscoring the transformative potential of machine learning in the reconstruction
of high-quality DAS signals.

The critical role of signal optimization in improving the sensitivity and range of DAS is
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further illustrated by additional innovations. Pineiro et al. (2023) implemented compensation
techniques based on auxiliary interferometers to resolve phase noise impairments in optical
pulse compression time-domain reflectometry [166]. This enabled measurements to be
conducted at a 100-km range with a 200 pε/√Hz strain sensitivity. The hybrid feature extraction
scheme developed by Fu et al. (2023) for multipoint intrusion detection achieved an overall
recognition accuracy of 98.4% [153]. This scheme was based on variational mode
ot

decomposition (VMD) and was used to extend DAS applications. Donadello et al. (2023)
introduced an embedded digital phase noise analyzer that optimized resource utilization and
reduced computational complexity, thereby contributing to real-time optical signal processing
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[147]. In conjunction, these developments emphasize the significance of precise signal

processing and robust noise mitigation in the expansion of DAS's capabilities, allowing for its
deployment in complex and dynamic environments with unparalleled efficiency and accuracy.

In this theme, DAS has emerged as a transformative technology that address critical
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challenges in network monitoring, intrusion detection, traffic management, and critical

infrastructure systems. DAS seamlessly integrates with communication and monitoring
systems, thereby improving operational efficiency, scalability, and resilience, by utilizing
existing fiber-optic networks. Its adaptability is exemplified by its diverse applications, which
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range from the optimization of traffic flow to the support of smart city development and the
assurance of the safety of critical infrastructure. The precision of DAS in the areas of anomaly
detection, low-frequency vibration monitoring, and noise suppression has been further
enhanced by advancements in signal processing and machine learning. Effective deployment
in complex and dynamic environments is facilitated by these innovations, which also support
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adaptive security and proactive maintenance. Under Theme 5: Telecommunications and

Infrastructure Security, these advancements underscore DAS's critical role in developing

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 infrastructure systems and opening the door to safer, more intelligent, and more sustainable
solutions.

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Theme 6: Signal Processing and Advanced Sensing Techniques

In order to optimize its performance and accommodate a wide range of applications, DAS

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extensively employs sophisticated signal processing techniques. The accuracy and reliability
of DAS systems have been substantially improved by the development of robust algorithms
for data interpretation, feature extraction, and noise reduction. These developments have
allowed DAS to surmount obstacles such as signal degradation over extended distances and
environmental noise interference. DAS's capabilities are further enhanced by the integration
of techniques such as deep learning and machine learning, which are used to classify events,

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detect anomalies, and provide predictive analytics. This theme emphasizes the ongoing
development of signal processing techniques that guarantee that DAS remains a high-

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performing and adaptable technology in a variety of monitoring and sensing domains.

Table 6 Signal Processing and Advanced Sensing Techniques

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No Authors Year Title and Reference Scope and Application Country
Sub-kHz-linewidth broadband-
swept fiber laser based on
Fiber laser innovations
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Rayleigh scattering-enabled
1 Guo X. et al. 2024 for improved sensing China
Brillouin random lasing
and imaging.
oscillation with dynamic tunning
Brillouin gain spectrum
DAS-N2N: machine learning
Lapins S. et Noise reduction in DAS United
2 2024 DAS signal denoising without
al. using machine learning. Kingdom
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clean data
Multi-Dimensional Information
Extraction and Utilization in Multi-dimensional DAS
3 Wu H. et al. 2024 China
Smart Fiber-Optic Distributed target sensing.
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Acoustic Sensor (sDAS)

Study on the burial depth
calculation method for AC
Submarine cable depth
4 Li Q. et al. 2024 submarine cable based on the China
monitoring.
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surface optical fiber monitoring

temperature
Fast and Storage-Optimized
Compressed data and
Shen X. et Compressed Domain Vibration Hong Kong
5 2024 real-time vibration
al. Detection and Classification for & China
detection.
ep

Distributed Acoustic Sensing

A Transformer Network for Advanced phase
Duan J. et
6 2024 Phase Unwrapping in Fiber- unwrapping for fiber- China
al.
Optic Acoustic Sensors optic acoustic sensing.
Intelligent detection and
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recognition of multi-vibration Accurate and real-time

Wang Y.-Y.
7 2024 events based on distributed multi-vibration event China
et al.
acoustic sensor and improved recognition using DAS.
YOLOv8 model

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 Single-shot multi-sensitivity Real-time seismic
Wang Y. et distributed acoustic sensing with monitoring with
8 2024 China

ed
al. hardware envelope retrieving enhanced DAS
acceleration processing.
Achieving precise Advanced signal
multiparameter measurements processing for
Lalam N. et with distributed optical fiber multiparameter United
9 2024

iew
al. sensor using wavelength monitoring of strain, States
diversity and deep neural temperature, and
networks acoustic vibrations.
Multi-source threatening event
Detecting drone
recognition scheme targeting
10 Li D., et al. 2024 intrusions with advanced China
drone intrusion in the fiber optic
DAS signal processing.

v
DAS system
Enhanced underwater
Validation of Packaged Clad-
Sebastian S. sensing using packaged India &

re
11 2023 Etched Fiber Bragg Grating as
et al. FBGs for Switzerland
Underwater Acoustic Sensor
hydroacoustics.
Enhancing the Distributed
Acoustic Sensors’ (DAS) Improving DAS signal- Russian
Turov A.T.
12 2023 Performance by the Simple to-noise ratio with Federation
et al.
er
Noise Reduction Algorithms
Sequential Application
efficient algorithms. & Mexico

Activation Function Dynamic Improving DAS signal

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Turov A.T. Averaging as a Technique for quality with advanced Russian
13 2023
et al. Nonlinear 2D Data Denoising in noise reduction Federation
Distributed Acoustic Sensors techniques.
Multipath Quasi-Distributed
Large-scale vibration
Deng Y. et Acoustic Sensing Based on
14 2023 monitoring in complex China
al. Space Division Multiplexing and
sensing networks.
ot

Time-Gated OFDR
Intensity and phase stacked Event recognition with
Kayan C.E. analysis of a 8-OTDR system advanced signal
15 2023 Turkey
et al. using deep transfer learning and processing in DAS
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recurrent neural networks systems.

Phase correction-based SNR
Improving DAS signal
enhancement for distributed
quality through phase
16 Li C. et al. 2023 acoustic sensing with strong China
correction in noisy
environmental background
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environments.
interference
A recognition method of less
Event recognition using
Huang S. et databases by using decoupling China &
17 2023 machine learning with
al. parallel CNN based on multiple Ireland
smaller databases.
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feature with DAS

A Self-Supervised Deep
Learning Approach for Blind
Van Den Uses deep learning for
Denoising and Waveform
18 Ende M. et 2023 noise reduction in DAS France
Coherence Enhancement in
al. data.
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Distributed Acoustic Sensing

Data

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 Nonlinear Mixture Signal
Separation With the Extended Separates complex

ed
19 Wu H. et al. 2023 Slow Feature Analysis (xSFA) in mixed signals in urban China
Fiber-Optic Distributed Acoustic DAS applications.
Sensor (DAS)
RMCHN: A Residual Modular
Suppresses background
Zhong T. et Cascaded Heterogeneous
20 2023 noise in DAS seismic China

iew
al. Network for Noise Suppression
exploration data.
in DAS-VSP Records
Achieves higher spatial
Enabling Variable High Spatial
resolution for DAS
21 Ge Z. et al. 2023 Resolution Retrieval from a China
sensing using neural
Long Pulse BOTDA Sensor
networks.

v
A multi-scale dense-connection Suppresses DAS noise
Dong X. et
22 2023 denoising network for DAS-VSP to enhance seismic China
al.
records imaging accuracy.

re
Speech Enhancement Based on
Array-Processing-Assisted Enhancing underwater
23 Xu R. et al. 2023 China
Distributed Fiber Acoustic acoustic signals.
Sensing
Advanced Signal Processing in
24
Chen S. et
2023
er
Distributed Acoustic Sensors
Monitoring seismic and
geological activities
China &
al. Based on Submarine Cables for Hong Kong
using submarine DAS.
Seismology Applications
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Dual pulse heterodyne
Hydroacoustic detection
Zhang C. et distributed acoustic sensor
25 2023 and maritime China
al. system employing SOA-based
surveillance.
fiber ring laser
Highly Sensitive Partial
Discharge Ultrasonic Multipoint Detects partial
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26 Qin W. et al. 2023 Detection Using Single Channel discharges in power China
Distributed Feedback Fiber transformers.
Lasers
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The efficiency of DAS systems has been greatly increased by recent developments in
signal augmentation and noise reduction techniques. A machine learning technique called
DAS-N2N was presented by Lapins et al. (2024) [167]. It uses weakly supervised learning to
improve DAS recordings by reducing random noise without the need for labelled training data.
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In seismic applications, our approach shows a lightweight solution that can analyze large
datasets quickly while achieving significant noise reduction and signal clarity. A similar method
for directly processing vibration detection and classification tasks in the compressed domain
was proposed by Shen et al. (2024), who investigated compressive sensing [168]. This
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approach shows promise for large-scale and time-sensitive DAS applications by reducing data
volume by 70% while maintaining good classification accuracy. In order to overcome the
inherent difficulties of DAS noise interference, these studies demonstrate the integration of
sophisticated algorithms and machine learning, opening the door for reliable and expandable
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signal processing solutions.

Turov et al. (2023) and Van Den Ende et al. (2023) developed novel approaches
specifically designed for DAS situations, building on conventional noise reduction techniques.

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 Turov et al. achieved up to 13 dB SNR increase using cost-effective hardware setups by
utilizing dynamic averaging techniques and activation functions [169]. In contrast, Van Den

ed
Ende et al. created a self-supervised deep learning system to eliminate spatially incoherent
noise, making it possible to extract significant signals from datasets that are highly
contaminated [170]. These methods address the algorithmic and hardware constraints of
conventional DAS systems, emphasizing computational efficiency and versatility. By

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guaranteeing dependable and superior data collection in a variety of environmental
circumstances, the reviewed research collectively highlights the crucial role that noise
reduction and signal improvement play in extending the applicability of DAS, from
microseismic monitoring to urban infrastructure assessment.

In the interim, Zhong et al. created the Residual Modular Cascaded Heterogeneous
Network (RMCHN), which employs modular CNNs to improve the recovery of feeble signals

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and reduce background noise [171]. By introducing a multi-scale dense-connection denoising
network (MDD-Net), Dong et al. (2023) made a significant contribution to vertical seismic

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profiling (VSP) applications [172]. This network effectively restores weak signals while
substantially reducing background noise. Finally, Turov et al. (2023) introduced a method that
utilizes activation function dynamic averaging to achieve nonlinear 2D data denoising in DAS
systems [173]. This approach demonstrates substantial SNR enhancements in cost-effective
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set-ups. The diverse strategies employed to improve the noise resilience of DAS are
collectively demonstrated in these contributions, which have substantial implications for
seismic, oceanographic, and urban sensing applications.
pe
Multiple vibration events can now be precisely identified because to developments in
event detection and recognition using DAS. For smart fiber-optic DAS, Wu et al. (2024)
presented a multi-dimensional attention-assisted convolutional neural network (3-D ACNN),
which integrates time, frequency, and spatial inputs to improve accuracy. In target recognition,
our approach performs noticeably better than conventional networks, obtaining nearly flawless
accuracy while preserving computing efficiency [174]. In a similar vein, Wang et al. (2024)
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used an enhanced YOLOv8 model for multi-vibration event identification in real time [175].
Their approach, which made use of sophisticated spatiotemporal features, showed promise
for perimeter security and integrated air-ground monitoring by exhibiting high detection
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accuracy and quick reaction times.

By using deep transfer learning techniques and decoupling parallel CNNs,

respectively, Huang et al. (2023) and Kayan et al. (2023) significantly enhanced event
recognition capabilities. Huang et al. addressed the difficulties of data scarcity in DAS
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applications by concentrating on attaining high accuracy with limited datasets [176]. To

categorize vibration events with remarkable accuracy, Kayan et al. devised a two-stage neural
network that combines CNNs and LSTMs [177]. Last but not least, Li et al. (2024) presented
a hybrid recognition framework for drone intrusion detection that combines CNN, LSTM, and
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self-attention mechanisms [178]. It achieves remarkable accuracy even in challenging

situations with concurrent environmental and human disruptions. Together, these
developments demonstrate how important hybrid models and sophisticated neural network
architectures are to expanding the capabilities of event recognition in DAS systems.
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The field of phase and vibration analysis in DAS has made significant progress, with
an emphasis on the enhancement of signal clarity and measurement accuracy in a variety of
environments. A neural network for phase unwrapping in fiber-optic acoustic sensors was

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 proposed by Duan et al. (2024) [179]. This network effectively addresses phase ambiguity and
enhances the accuracy of dynamic signals. Similar to that, Wang et al. (2024) introduced a

ed
hardware-assisted multi-sensitivity DAS approach, reducing data processing time by 20-fold
while supporting real-time seismic monitoring [180]. Li et al. (2023) improved phase correction
techniques to mitigate signal distortions induced by environmental interference, resulting in a
gain of over 10 dB in SNR [181]. Moreover, Wu et al. (2023) designed an extended delayed

iew
feature analysis method to distinguish nonlinear mixed vibration signals, thereby guaranteeing
the accurate identification of sources in urban environments with intricate noise profiles [182].
The future of DAS is being shaped by innovative algorithms and hardware optimization for
precise vibration and phase analysis across challenging scenarios, as evidenced by these
advancements.

Significant progress has been made in multiparameter and seismic monitoring with

v
DAS, allowing for increased accuracy and dependability in challenging settings. By utilizing
Rayleigh scattering and Brillouin random lasing oscillation, Guo et al. (2024) developed a sub-

re
kHz-linewidth broadband-swept fiber laser that achieved previously unheard-of frequency
noise reduction and coherent signal performance across a range of applications, including
sensing and imaging [183]. Similar to this, Li et al. (2024) created a technique that uses surface
temperature monitoring to determine the burial depth of underwater cables, offering a non-
er
invasive and effective way to maintain cables and conduct geological monitoring [184]. The
versatility of DAS for structural health monitoring is demonstrated by Lalam et al.'s (2024)
investigation of multiparameter sensing employing wavelength diversity and deep neural
networks, which allowed for the simultaneous detection of strain, temperature, and acoustic
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vibrations over long sensing fibres [185]. A Q-DAS system based on time-gated digital optical
frequency-domain reflectometry and space-division multiplexing was presented by Deng et al.
(2023), demonstrating the possibility of extensive network monitoring with low hardware
requirements [186]. Lastly, Chen et al. (2023) highlighted the revolutionary importance of DAS
in marine geology by showcasing sophisticated signal processing algorithms for underwater
ot

DAS, effectively detecting and evaluating seismic activity via submarine cables [187].
Together, these studies highlight how crucial it is to combine cutting-edge algorithms,
hardware optimization, and sophisticated signal processing to improve DAS's capabilities for
multiparameter and seismic monitoring applications.
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Innovative approaches that address particular monitoring needs have led to a

significant improvement in specialized DAS applications. By creating packed clad-etched
FBGs, Sebastian et al. (2023) improved underwater acoustic sensing and achieved previously
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unheard-of sensitivity gains of up to 50 dB for hydroacoustic applications [188]. For Brillouin

Optical Time-Domain Analysis (BOTDA) sensors, Ge et al. (2023) suggested a CNN-based
data processing method that achieves submeter spatial resolution without requiring hardware
changes, an essential feature for urban and industrial internet of things (IoTs) applications
[189]. In order to recover high-fidelity underwater speech sounds, Xu et al. (2023) developed
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a multichannel speech enhancement algorithm combined with DAS, which outperformed

traditional methods like beamforming and wavelet denoising [190]. A dual-pulse heterodyne
DAS system using a semiconductor optical amplifier was demonstrated by Zhang et al. (2023),
offering high-SNR and reasonably priced solutions for hydroacoustic detection and marine
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surveillance [191]. Finally, Qin et al. (2023) demonstrated the possibility of pinpoint fault finding
in high-voltage equipment by designing a distributed feedback fiber laser system for the
extremely sensitive detection of partial discharges in power transformers [192]. The versatility

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 and increasing relevance of DAS in addressing specialized sensing challenges across diverse
disciplines are exemplified by these studies.

ed
In theme 6, the reliability and functionality of DAS systems have been significantly
enhanced by the development of advanced sensing techniques and signal processing
systems. The integration of sophisticated algorithms, hybrid models, and machine learning
has significantly improved the clarity of signals, event detection, and noise reduction. Large-

iew
scale, real-time applications with enhanced SNR and reduced data complexity have been
made possible by techniques such as DAS-N2N, compressive sensing, and modular
convolutional networks. Additionally, the adaptability of DAS in a variety of environments is
demonstrated by the development of multiparameter monitoring and phase analysis
innovations, including neural networks for phase unravelling and multi-sensitivity approaches.
From seismic profiling to urban infrastructure monitoring, these advancements highlight the

v
vital role that interdisciplinary cooperation and ongoing innovation contribute in broadening
the applications of DAS and ensuring its revolutionary influence across industries.

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Conclusion

This systematic review emphasizes the substantial influence and adaptability of DAS
er
technology in a variety of fields, such as environmental monitoring, seismic research, the oil
and gas industry, and civil engineering. DAS has transformed into a transformative sensing
solution that is capable of addressing complex challenges in these disciplines by utilizing the
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unique properties of optical fibres. The review emphasizes critical advancements, including
the integration of AI, sophisticated signal processing techniques, and improved optical fiber
coatings, all of which have significantly improved the precision, scalability, and practical
applications of DAS. The review addressed a variety of research concerns, providing insight
into the current state and future potential of DAS. Initially, it pinpoints the most frequently used
applications of DAS in subsurface imaging, environmental hazard assessment, and
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infrastructure resilience. These use cases illustrate DAS's capacity to monitor critical systems
in real time, providing early warnings for resource mismanagement, environmental disasters,
and infrastructure failures. Secondly, the investigation emphasizes critical technological
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developments that have encouraged the field to advance. DAS has been able to meet the
demands of increasingly complex and diverse applications as a result of innovative signal
processing techniques, including scalable designs and improved noise reduction
mechanisms. These developments have also enhanced its accessibility for a wider range of
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industries to implement it.

In order to completely realize its capabilities, DAS must overcome substantial

obstacles, despite its transformative potential. The review identifies critical obstacles,
including the management of coherent noise and polarization fading, as well as the attainment
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of cost-effective scalability. The pervasive deployment of DAS is significantly restricted by

these constraints, particularly in resource-limited settings. Nevertheless, the investigation also
emphasizes the indispensable function of developing signal processing methodologies,
including AI-driven analytics and phase demodulation, in surmounting these obstacles. These
techniques improve real-time responsiveness, enhance data reliability, and allow DAS to
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produce actionable insights for decision-making. The results underscore the significant
potential of DAS to address critical global issues, such as infrastructure maintenance,
resource optimization, and disaster preparedness. The integration of AI and hybrid sensing

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5111575
 systems is emphasized as a critical area for future research, providing a means to improve
the capabilities of DAS and address current obstacles. These advancements have the

ed
potential to facilitate the development of intelligent sensing applications that are both
sustainable and efficient on a large scale.

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