POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY

OF THE PHILIPPINES
Department of Business Teacher Education
College of Education
Main Campus

EDUC 011
The Child and Adolescent Learner
and Learning Principles

Bachelor of Technology and

Livelihood Education Major in
Industrial Arts 1-1
0
The Child and Adolescent Learner
and Learning Principles
(EDUC 011)

Bachelor of Technology and Livelihood Education Major in Industrial Arts 1-1

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this learning module may be

reproduced, used in any form, or by any means graphic, electronic, or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or information storage and
retrieval system without written permission from the authors and the
University.

Published and distributed by:

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

Anonas St. Sta. Mesa Manila

www.pup.edu.ph
[email protected]
Tel. No.: 5335-1787 local 215

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 THE VMPGO

VISION
PUP: The National Polytechnic University (PUP: Pambansang Politeknikong
Unibersidad).

MISSION
Ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education and promoting lifelong learning
opportunities through a re-engineered polytechnic university by committing to:
• provide democratized access to educational opportunities for the holistic
development of individuals with global perspective
• offer industry-oriented curricula that produce highly-skilled professionals with
managerial and technical capabilities and a strong sense of public service for
nation building
• embed a culture of research and innovation
• continuously develop faculty and employees with the highest level of
professionalism
• engage public and private institutions and other stakeholders for the attainment of
social development goal establish a strong presence and impact in the
international academic community

SHARED VALUES AND PRINCIPLES

1. Integrity and Accountability
2. Nationalism
3. Sense of Service
4. Passion for Learning and Innovation
5. Inclusivity
6. Respect for Human Rights and the Environment
7. Excellence
8. Democracy

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COLLEGE GOALS
The College of Education recognizes its crucial role in shaping society's
educational landscape by equipping students with the necessary skills and knowledge to
succeed in their teaching careers. In order to achieve this, the College has established a
set of goals that guide its activities and programs, including:
1. Learner-Focused Instruction
2. International comparability of Curricula
3. Empowered Faculty
4. Research Excellence
5. Strengthened Community Engagement
6. Responsive Governance and Management
7. Expanded collaborative Partnership and Networks
8. Sustainable Technology Service
9. Empowered Stakeholders
10. Dynamic Learning Environment

PROGRAM DESCRIPTION
The BTLED, a four-year program, is geared towards producing highly competent
technology and livelihood education professionals who meet the standards set by
Philippine TVET-Trainers-Assessors Qualifications Framework (PTTQF). It considers the
role of technology and entrepreneurship in societal economic growth through the
instillation of creative and critical thinking skills; values of self-reliance, independence,
culturally sensitive practices, ethical values, technological skills and other adequate and
relevant competencies in the area of technology and livelihood education specifically
those who intend to teach grades 4 to 8 students.

COURSE DESCRIPTION
The Bachelor of Technology and Livelihood Education Major in Industrial Arts
course can be correlated with The Child and Adolescent Learner and Learning Principles
by understanding developmental stages, learning theories, and effective teaching
strategies. Moreover, learning principles can be integrated to create effective and

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engaging learning experiences. This course also emphasizes by applying professional
teaching principles and integrating interdisciplinary themes to promote creativity, critical
thinking, communication, and collaboration within the attributes of learning in
technological fields and practices. Additionally, students will assist the development of a
welcoming and encouraging learning environment and encourage the moral and
responsible practice of teaching.

INSTITUTIONAL LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

1. Critical and Creative Thinking. Graduates use their rational and reflective thinking
as well as innovative abilities to life situations in order to push boundaries, realize
possibilities, and deepen their interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, and/or
transdisciplinary understanding of the world.
2. Effective Communication. Graduates apply the four macro skills in communication
(reading, writing, listening, and speaking), through conventional and digital means,
and are able to use these skills in solving problems, making decisions, and
articulating thoughts when engaging with people in various circumstances.
3. Strong Service Orientation. Graduates exemplify strong commitment to service
excellence for the people, the clientele, industry and other sectors.
4. Adept and Responsible Use or Development of Technology. Graduates
demonstrate optimized and responsible use of state-of-the-art technologies of their
profession. They possess digital learning abilities, including technical, numerical,
and/or technopreneurial skills.
5. Passion for Lifelong Learning. Graduates perform and function in society by taking
responsibility in their quest for further improvement through lifelong learning.
6. Leadership and Organizational Skills. Graduates assume leadership roles and
become leading professionals in their respective disciplines by equipping them
with appropriate organizational skills.
7. Personal and Professional Ethics. Graduates manifest integrity and adherence to
moral and ethical principles in their personal and professional circumstances.

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 8. Resilience and Agility. Graduates demonstrate flexibility and the growth mindset
to adapt and thrive in the volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous (VUCA)
environment.
9. National and Global Responsiveness. Graduates exhibit a deep sense of
nationalism as it complements the need to live as part of the global community
where diversity is respected. They promote and fulfill various advocacies for
human and social development.

PROGRAM LEARNING OUTCOMES (PLOS)

At the end of the semester, the students are expected to:

A. Demonstrate the competencies required of the Philippine TVET Trainers

Assessors Qualifications Framework (PTTQF);
B. Demonstrate broad and coherent, meaningful knowledge and skills in technology
and livelihood education;
C. Apply with minimal supervision specialized knowledge and skills in technology and
livelihood education;
D. Demonstrate higher level literacy, communication, numeracy, critical thinking,
learning skills needed for higher learning;
E. Manifest a deep and principled understanding of the learning processes and the
role of the teacher in facilitating these processes in their students;
F. Show a deep and principled understanding of how educational processes relate to
larger historical, social, cultural, and political processes;
G. Apply a wide range of teaching process skills (including curriculum development,
lesson planning, materials development, educational assessment, and teaching
approaches; and
H. Reflect on the relationships among the teaching process skills, the learning
processing in the students, the nature of the content/subject matter, and other
factors affecting educational processes in order to constantly improve their
teaching knowledge, skills and practice.

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COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES (CLOS)
At the end of the semester, the students are expected to:

1. Describe the fundamental ideas pertaining to children's and adolescents' learning

and development.
2. Determine the physical, emotional, social, and cognitive traits of students at
various developmental stages.
3. Examine different learning theories and their applications to the instruction of kids
and teenagers.
4. Use student-centered approaches that emphasize the variety of needs and skills
of your students.
5. Use effective teaching techniques to encourage critical thinking and active student
participation.
6. Create interesting and developmentally appropriate learning opportunities for kids
and teenagers.
7. Utilize a variety of evaluation methods and instruments to measure and analyze
students' learning progress.
8. Describe the role that self-control and motivation have in students' learning.

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 PREFACE
The course titled “The Child and Adolescent Learner and Learning Principles” focuses and emphasizes
current study and theory on biological, linguistic, cognitive, social, and emotional dimensions on development. This
course introduces essential concepts and studies by various proponents allowing learners to understand the
significance and importance of development within children and adolescents in our society.

Concepts and Issues on Human Development - The lesson gives an overview of the major human development
concepts like the stages, principles, and the dynamic nature of development during infancy through adolescence. The
discussion on some important contemporary issues relevant to human development, such as nature, nurture, continuity,
discontinuity, and individual differences in development, is also included in the lesson.

Heredity and Environment - This lesson tells how heredity and the environment interact to shape the child's
development—physical, cognitive, emotional, and social. It includes the influences of genetic factors needing the
context, like family influence, cultural factors, socioeconomic status, and environmental stimulation, that affect learning
development.

Development Theories and Other Relevant Theories - This is the lesson that introduces some great theories of
development - including Piaget's cognitive development theory, Erikson's psychosocial stages, Vygotsky's sociocultural
perspective, and Skinner's behaviorism—as well as how these would apply in real-life situations regarding education
and parenting.

Parenthood, Prenatal Development, and Birth - Among other things, it will address what most abstracts lay this
challenge on parenthood. It also mentions how parents arguably have the greatest influence in shaping one's child
development and throws light on prenatal development (stages of development: germinal, embryonic, and fetal), factors
affecting the growth of the unborn (nutrition, maternal health, and environmental-associated risk), and the process of
childbirth.

Infancy and Toddlerhood - This lesson is about all of the rapid growth and changes that psychology recognizes as
part of life during the first two years. Developmental topics include the emergence of motor skills, sensory and
perceptual systems, language development, emotional attachment, and early cognitive development. The role of
interaction with caregivers and early experiences that shape a child's further learning and behavior would also be
addressed.

Early Childhood (The Preschooler) - This lesson is about preschoolers aged 3-6 years old regarding their physical,
cognitive, and socioemotional development. It will include topics such as language development, independence, play-
based learning, socialization, and developing self-regulation. It will also emphasize how early childhood education,
parenting, and the environment prepare children for formal schooling.

Middle Childhood (The Preschooler) - It explores various aspects of development in Middle Childhood, including
their emotional, cognitive, and physical changes. This module will also discuss how information processing skills affects
child’s cognitive growth. By the end of this module, we aim to provide a deeper understanding of this various
transformative stages and its lasting impact on a child’s future.

Adolescence (The High School Learner) - This lesson provides an insightful exploration of adolescent development,
offering learners the knowledge to understand their own growth and that of their peers. By examining key aspects such
as puberty, cognitive development, moral reasoning, and socio-emotional changes, learners will be equipped to
navigate this critical stage with confidence and awareness.

Factors Affecting Child Development - This lesson explores the key factors influencing child development,
emphasizing the integration of biological, social, and theoretical perspectives. By examining real-life applications,
students will gain practical knowledge to support children's growth in education, parenting, and child care.

By the end of this modules, students should have a holistic understanding of the factors and principles in
shaping young individuals throughout their development. The content of the course is intended to provide knowledge
and skills to future educators. In understanding Child and Adolescent Development deals with effective developmental
processes and learns different principles into the unique characteristics of each learner. At the end of semester, this
would help as a guide for the learning process and teaching application.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page 1

The VMPGO 2

Preface 7

Table of Contents 8

OBE Course Syllabus 10

UNIT I
Lesson 1: Concepts and Issues on Human Development

a. Introduction 17
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 17
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 18
d. Link to Video Recording 29
e. Activity 30

Lesson 2: Heredity and Environment

a. Introduction 34
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 34
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 34
d. Link to Video Recording 48
e. Activity 49
f. Rubrics of Activity 52

Lesson 3: Developmental Theories and Other Relevant Theories

a. Introduction 54
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 54
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 55
d. Link to Video Recording 95
e. Activity 96
f. Rubrics of Activity 97

Lesson 4: Parenthood, Prenatal Development and Birth

a. Introduction 99
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 99
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 100
d. Link to Video Recording 109
e. Activity 110

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 f. Rubrics of Activity 110

Lesson 5: Infancy and Toddlerhood

a. Introduction 111
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 111
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 112
d. Link to Video Recording 136
e. Activity 137
f. Rubrics of Activity 138

Lesson 6: Early Childhood (The Preschooler)

a. Introduction 139
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 140
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 140
d. Activity 166
e. Rubrics of Activity 168

Lesson 7: Middle Childhood (Primary Schoolers)

a. Introduction 170
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 171
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 171

Lesson 8: Adolescence (The High School Learner)

a. Introduction 207
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 207
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 208
d. Link to Video Presentation 228
e. Activity 229
f. Rubrics of Activity 231

Lesson 9: Adolescence (Factors Affecting Child Development)

a. Introduction 233
b. Learning Objectives/Outcomes 233
c. Presentation/Discussion of the Lesson 233
d. Link to Video Presentation 248
e. Activity 249

f. Reference List 250

g. Certificate of Approval for

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COURSE SYLLABUS

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 UNIT I

Lesson 1
Concepts and Issues on Human Development

INTRODUCTION
Have you ever wondered, why you became what you are now or have you ever
asked yourself? Why are you different from other people? Have you noticed your
development throughout your life even from your childhood to early adulthood? Ever
thought about what your life will be when you get adult or old? In this module, you will
learn and find the answers in such questions. This is all about human development - it’s
essential concepts, approaches, and issues. It includes stages of development and
related developmental tasks, issues regarding human development, and the rights of
every child and young person.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this module, you will be able to do these:
• Define human development and other related significant terms such as childhood
and adolescence.
• Enumerate the different developmental stages and developmental tasks.
• Reflect on the various issues on human development.
• Apply the rights of children.

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LESSON DISCUSSION
Meaning, Concepts and Approaches of Human Development
First and foremost, you should know the definition of
human development, which is the major topic of this
module. As the words human (as human being, either
as a man nor a child) and development (as growth and
progress). Thus, a known scholar in the field of
Developmental Psychology, such as John W. Santrock. For
Santrock, development is defined as a pattern of movement or
change that begins at conception and continues throughout
the lifespan; most development involves growth, although it
also includes decline brought by aging, ending with death. This
implies that human development refers to the stability and
changes in physical, cognitive, socio-emotional development
of human conception and lasts throughout the lifespan. Each age and stage in the lifespan
is characterized by its own set of expected characteristics and changes.

Now that term has been defined, there are four major principles of human
development and these are:

1. Development is relatively-orderly.
Human development follows a relatively orderly and predictable sequence. From
infancy to adulthood, physical, cognitive, and motor skills emerge in a structured manner,
allowing individuals to gain control over their bodies and functions progressively. The
orderly nature of development is evident in the way children grow and acquire new skills.
The proximodistal pattern explains why larger muscles in the trunk and arms develop
before finer muscles in the hands and fingers, while the cephalocaudal pattern
describes why growth starts from the head and moves downward.

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2. While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcomes of
development process and the rate of development are likely to vary among
individuals.
While the pattern of development remains similar across individuals, the rate and
outcome of development vary due to genetic, environmental, and personal factors. These
variations highlight the uniqueness of each individual and emphasize the importance of
personalized support and encouragement.

3. Development takes place gradually.

Human development is a gradual and ongoing process that takes place over time,
with each stage building upon previous experiences. Whether in physical growth,
cognitive abilities, emotional maturity, or moral reasoning, individuals progress through
life at their own pace. Recognizing this gradual nature of development helps in providing
appropriate support, patience, and guidance to ensure that individuals reach their full
potential.

4. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of biological,

cognitive and socio-emotional processes.
Biological processes influence physical and brain
growth, cognitive processes shape intelligence and reasoning,
and socio-emotional experiences affect personality and
relationships. These processes do not operate in isolation but
constantly interact, making each individual’s development
unique.

Those are the four principles or concepts of human development. To fully understand
this, you should learn and be familiar with the approaches to use. These are traditional
and life-span. The traditional approach emphasizes extensive changes from birth to
adolescence, followed by a period of stability or no changes in adulthood and declining
in late old age. While life-span approaches, views development as a lifelong process

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means that even adulthood development changes take place encompassing growth
across all stages in life.

German psychologist Paul Baltes, a leading expert on

lifespan development, developed one of the approaches to
studying development called the life-span approach. This
approach is based on several key principles:

1. Development is life-long.
Lifelong development means that development is not completed in infancy or
childhood or at any specific age; it encompasses the entire lifespan, from conception to
death. The study of development traditionally focused almost exclusively on the changes
occurring from conception to adolescence and the gradual decline in old age; it was
believed that the five or six decades after adolescence yielded little to no developmental
change at all.

2. Development is multidimensional.
Baltes' concept of multidimensionality emphasizes that development across the
lifespan is shaped by a complex interaction of various factors, including biological,
cognitive, and socioemotional changes. He argues that an individual's development is
influenced by the dynamic interplay of these elements.

3. Development is plastic.
Plasticity denotes that both characteristics and abilities are changeable and
malleable, focusing on the potentials and limits of the nature of human development. The
notion of plasticity emphasizes that there are many possible developmental outcomes
and that the nature of human development is much more open and pluralistic than
originally implied by traditional views; there is no single pathway that must be taken in an
individual's development across the lifespan.

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 4. Development is contextual.
In Baltes' theory, contextualism emphasizes that development is shaped by
biological and environmental influences that vary based on a person's context, such as
family, school, culture, and profession. He identified three key influences on
development:
• Normative age-graded influences– Biological and social changes linked to age,
like puberty, menopause, starting school, or retirement.
• Normative history-graded influences– Environmental and cultural factors tied to
a specific historical period.
• Nonnormative influences – Unique, unpredictable life events, such as career
achievements, divorce, or personal loss.

5. Development involve growth

Dealing with the evolutionary perspective on human development, including its
directionality and age-differential allocation of developmental resources into the three
major goals of developmental adaptation: growth, maintenance, and regulation. These
goals depend on a person's developmental stage.
Now that you are very much familiar with the meaning, concepts, and approaches
in human development. Proceeding to the next lessons which are all about stages of
development and developmental tasks.

Stages of Development and Developmental tasks

Stages of Development
Erik Erikson was a Danish-German-Jewish child
psychologist who developed the most notable and influential
theories in human development. Erikson’s theory centered on
psychosocial development. The following are the stages of
development:

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1. Prenatal
In Latin, Pre means “before” and Natus means “birth”.
This is the very first stage of development where the
embryo creates basic body structures that will
become a fetus and develop the physical and
neurological factors for survival after birth.

2. Infancy
In Latin, Infantia means “inability to speak” or
“speechless”. Infants will explore the world around
them with their basic senses and rely on who can
keep them safe, and they develop trust based on
whether the caregivers meet their needs or not. The
more needs that are satisfied, the more trusting they
are, the more their needs are neglected, the less
trusting they become.

3. Early Childhood
Early childhood is where they will develop
their social skills and language, their
identity taking form as they learn through
interaction. They become more expressive
and assertive to speak out, gaining
confidence if it is treated with a positive
reaction, but may be less likely to raise the
concern when treated improperly.

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4. Middle and Late Childhood
Middle to late childhood continues their
development of personal traits like their motor
skills, cognitive abilities, social recognition,
academic learning, and independence. They
have a need for validation for their
accomplishments and this recognition keeps
them going without having to compare
themselves to their peers. Once it develops into a pattern that it will start causing issues,
lowering their self-esteem and expectations in themselves.

5. Adolescence
In Latin, Adolescence means “to grow up”.
Adolescence focuses on the development of their
identity—their place and purpose in life, wants and
needs, etc. It lays out the foundations of taking care
of oneself and the essential balance of decision-
making for survival or flair. Those who can identify
what they want to move on with confidence and
sense of purpose to pursue their goal, and those stuck in the guidance of parents and
friends may struggle to see who they are.

6. Early Adulthood
Early adulthood is where the stability of
personal and professional skills sets in,
they develop their goals based on their
wants in life and how they will keep that
balance with everything else.
Additionally, this is where relationships are cared for and solidified into something
meaningful while some fall in isolation by themselves.

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7. Middle Adulthood
Middle adulthood contributes to careers,
family, and community through work and
caters for the personal identity that they
have developed over the years. Unique to
every person as all paths divert and
diverge. Those who’d lived felt meaningless
despite their contributions will feel the
stagnation—a halt in their progress.

8. Late Adulthood
Late adulthood is the time of reflection where
they will look to what they have achieved,
whether that is something lost or gained. To
find closure in their final years before death
and look upon their life's legacy. On the
flipside, ultimately falling into despair if they
feel like their life was wasted opportunities.

Developmental Tasks
One of the key contributors to the developmental
tasks concept is Robert J. Havighurst. A scientist
turned educator and humanist, who has profoundly
influenced the world’s understanding of the needs,
aspirations, habits, and conditions of humans in
development throughout life. In addition,
Havighurst defined developmental tasks as one
that “arises at a certain period of our life, the
successful achievement of which leads to
happiness and success with later tasks while failure leads to unhappiness, social
disapproval, and difficulty with later tasks”.

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Some of the development tasks in Infancy and Early Childhood stages (0-5):
• Learning how to walk
• Learning to take or eat solid foods
• Learning how to talk
• Learning how to control the elimination of
body wastes and lastly
• Learning what sex differences and sexual
modesty are.

Some of the development tasks is Middle Childhood stages: (6-12 years):

• Learning what physical skills necessary for
ordinary games
• Building a wholesome attitude toward oneself
• Learning how to get along with age-mates
• Learning an appropriate sex role and
• Developing fundamental skills in reading,
writing and calculating.

Some of the development tasks in Adolescence stages: (13-18 years):

• Achieving a mature relation with both sexes
• Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
• Accepting one’s physique
• Achieving emotional independence of adults
and
• Preparing for marriage and family life.

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Some of the development tasks in Early Adulthood stages: (19-29 years):
• Selecting a mate
• Learning to live with a partner
• Starting a family
• Rearing children and
• Managing a home.

Some of the development tasks in Middle Adulthood stages (30-60 years):

• Helping teenager to become happy and
responsible adults
• Achieving an adult social and civic responsibility
• Satisfactory career achievement
• Developing adult leisure time activities and
• Relating to one’s spouse as a person

Some of the development tasks in Late Maturity stages (61 years and above):
• Adjusting to decreasing strength and health
• Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
• Adjusting to death of spouse
• Establishing relations with one’s own age group
and
• Meeting social and civic obligations.

Issues on Human Development

After learning the different stages of development, we will now go deeper by dealing with
some issues on human development. These are the following:
Nature Nurture
- Nature is the biological inheritance, - While nurture affects people through
and innate since birth. It impacts how environmental factors that impact the person.
our personality is formed and This includes early childhood experiences, the

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 influences how we develop from way they are raised, social relationships and
childhood to adulthood. surrounding culture
Continuity Discontinuity
- refers to the gradual process of - refers to the distinct, abrupt transitions that
human development that occurs over marks a significant developmental shift.
time
Stability Change
- stability refers to the traits, habits, - while change refers to the most fluid and
and behaviors that remain constant flexible traits, habits and behavior in a person’s
throughout a person’s life. life.

Definition of Childhood and Adolescence Childhood

Childhood
This marks the time of early independence and the building of self-development, as they
learn to make their own decisions.

Adolescence
Is the biological, social and psychological change generally affected by puberty
transitioning between childhood into adulthood. It is also known as the traditional stage
of human development.

Rights of Children and Young Persons

To understand and help children better, it is important for every Filipino teacher to be
cognizant of such rights. The provisions of the Code are as follows:

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Right to Dignity and Birth
Every child is inherently endowed with
dignity and worth as a human being from
the moment of conception. Recognized in
medical parlance, every child has the right
to be born well.

Right to a Wholesome Family Life

Every child has the right to grow in a loving, caring, and understanding family
environment. This includes guidance, counseling, and both moral and material security.

Right to Personality Development

Every child has the right to holistic development, enabling them to become a happy,
useful, and active member of society.

Right to Basic Needs and Health

Every child has the right to a balanced diet, adequate clothing, sufficient shelter, proper
medical attention, and all other essential physical needs to ensure a healthy and vigorous
life.

Right to Moral and Character Development

Every child has the right to be raised in an environment that fosters morality and rectitude,
enriching and strengthening their character.

Right to Education and Skill Development

Every child has the right to receive education that aligns with their abilities and supports
the development of their skills for personal and societal improvement.

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Right to Recreation and Leisure
Every child has the right to full opportunities for safe and wholesome recreation and
activities, both individual and social, for the proper use of leisure time.

Right to Protection
Every child has the right to protection from exploitation, harmful influences, hazards, and
other conditions that may hinder physical, mental, emotional, social, and moral
development.

Right to a Safe Community

Every child has the right to live in a society that provides an environment free from harmful
influences, one that fosters good health and the development of positive traits and
attributes.

Right to State Protection and Assistance

If parents or guardians fail or are unable to meet a child's fundamental needs for growth
and development, the child has the right to receive care, assistance, and protection from
the state.

Right to Good Governance

Every child has the right to an efficient and honest government that strengthens their faith
in democracy and instills a sense of morality in public and private affairs.

Right to Freedom and Peaceful Coexistence

Every child has the right to grow as a free individual in an atmosphere of peace,
understanding, tolerance, and universal brotherhood, with a determination to contribute
to society and build for a better world.

LINK TO VIDEO RECORDING

https://youtu.be/y_tc5Mbib-E?si=q3FpXmCa0V-mw4ob

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ACTIVITY
Direction: Encircle the letter which corresponds to the correct answer.
1. It is the definition of human development.
a. pattern of change in life-span
b. pattern of change in conception
c. pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through life-span
d. pattern of change that begins at contraception and continues through the life-span

2. These are the two growth patterns.

a. non-traditional and non-life-span
b. proximodistal and cephalocaudal
c. proximosidtal and cephalocaudal
d. traditional and life-span

3. It is the stage of development where we have a time for work and time for love,
sometimes leaving a little time for anything else.
a. early adulthood (19-27 years)
b. early adulthood (19-29 years)
c. middle adulthood (28-58 years)
d. middle adulthood (30-60 years)

4. It is defined as one that arises at a certain period of our life, the successful achievement
of which leads to happiness and success with later tasks while failure leads to
unhappiness.
a. developmental period
b. developmental reading
c. developmental stages
d. developmental tasks

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5. Which is not a developmental task in the infancy and early childhood stage?
a. learning to talk
b. selecting a mate
c. learning to take solid foods
d. learning concepts and language to describe social and physical reality

6. Which is not an issue in human development?

a. continuity vs. discontinuity
b. man vs. nature
c. nurture vs. nature
d. stability vs. change

7. This is the developmental stage where we learn that life is lived forward but understood
backward.
a. early adulthood
b. late adulthood
c. middle adulthood
d. very late adulthood

8. It refers to time or state of being a child, the early stage in the existence or development
of something.
a. adolescence
b. childhood
c. childish days
d. pre-schooling period

9. It is the period of psychological and social transition between childhood and adulthood.
a. adolescence
b. late adulthood
c. teenage dream
d. teenage pregnancy

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10. “Every child has a right to a well-rounded development of his personality to the end
that he may become a happy, useful and active member of a fraternity”
a. maybe
b. no
c. no comment
d. yes

11. If the child is motivated to do cyber pornography, which right of the child and the young
person is violated?
a. right to an education
b. right to a balanced diet
c. right to full opportunities
d. right to protection against exploitation

12. It is the stage of development ranging from 3 to 5 years.

a. early childhood
b. infancy
c. late childhood
d. middle childhood

13. Which issue on human development means the same as this question: “Are girls less
likely to do well in math because of their being feminine or because of society’s masculine
bias?”
a. continuity vs. discontinuity
b. nature vs. nurture
c. nature vs. society
d. stability vs. change

32
14. If the parents do not send their child to school even if they are capable of doing it,
which right of the child and the young person is violated?
a. right to an education
b. right to a wholesome family life
c. right to care, assistance and protection of state
d. right to a well-rounded development of his personality

15. Which is a developmental task in the late maturity or late adulthood?

a. selecting a mate
b. developing adult’s leisure time activities
c. adjusting to decreasing strength health
d. helping teenage children to become happy and responsible

33
 Lesson 2
Heredity and Environment

INTRODUCTION
Hereditary instructions carried by the chromosomes influence development throughout
life by affecting the sequence of growth, the timing of puberty, and the course of aging. It
is estimated that the genetic information carried in each human cell would fill thousands
of 1000-page books (in fine print). It affects eye color, skin color, and the susceptibility to
some diseases. It underlies maturation and the orderly sequence of motor development.
Exerts considerable influence over body size and shape, height, intelligence, athletic
potential, personality traits, and a host of other details.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
1.State clearly how heredity and environment affect human development.
2.Acquire understanding on the causes of disorders and abnormalities.
3.Conceived varied ways on how to avoid this disorder.

LECTURE DISCUSSION
The basics of genetics

Introduction of Basic Genetics

Genetics is a field of biology that studies how traits are passed from parents to
their offspring. The passing of traits from parents to offspring is known as heredity,
therefore, genetics is the study of heredity. This introduction to genetics takes you through
the basic components of genetics such as DNA, genes, chromosomes and genetic
inheritance. Genetics is built around molecules called DNA. DNA molecules hold all the
genetic information for an organism. It provides cells with the information they need to
perform tasks that allow an organism to grow, survive and reproduce. A gene is one
particular section of a DNA molecule that tells a cell to perform one specific task. Heredity
is what makes children look like their parents. During reproduction, DNA is replicated and
passed from a parent to their offspring. This inheritance of genetic material by offspring

34
influences the appearance and behavior of the offspring. The environment that an
organism lives in can also influence how genes are expressed.

The History of Basic Genetics

Genetics, the study of heredity and variation in living organisms, has a rich
history that spans centuries. It has shaped our understanding of life itself, answering
fundamental questions about how traits are passed down from one generation to the next
and paving the way for modern medicine and biotechnology. Before scientists understood
the role of genes and DNA, people had various theories about how traits were inherited.
The ancient Greeks believed in "pangenesis," which suggested that tiny particles from all
parts of the body were passed onto offspring. In the 17th and 18th centuries, another
popular belief was "preformationist," the idea that a tiny, fully-formed human existed
inside the sperm or egg and simply grew larger over time. This theory also turned out to
be incorrect but marked an important step in the journey toward a more scientific
understanding of reproduction and inheritance.

Gregor Mendel laid the true foundation of modern genetics in the mid-19th
century by conducting groundbreaking experiments on pea plants, leading to the
discovery of predictable patterns of inheritance, known as Mendel's Laws of Inheritance.
The Chromosome Theory of Inheritance, proposed by Thomas Hunt Morgan, showed
that genes are located on chromosomes and that these chromosomes behave in ways
that explain Mendelian inheritance.

The discovery of DNA as genetic material was made in the 1940s and 1950s,
with experiments by Oswald Avery, Alfred Hershey, and Martha Chase confirming that
DNA, not proteins, was the hereditary material. The Double Helix and the Genetic Code
discovery in 1953 revealed the structure of DNA as a double helix, explaining how genetic
information is stored, copied, and passed on. The second half of the 20th century saw
rapid advancements in genetics, including the development of DNA sequencing
techniques in the 1970s, which allowed scientists to read genetic information, leading to
the birth of modern molecular genetics.

35
Genetics Information
Cells are the body’s building blocks. Many different types of cells have different
functions. They make up all of your body’s organs and tissues. Nearly every cell in a
person’s body has the same deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. DNA is the hereditary
material in humans and almost all other organisms. Most DNA is located in the cell
nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be
found in the mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA).

DNA contains the code for building and maintaining an organism. The code is spelled
out in the order, or sequence, of four chemical bases—adenine (A), cytosine (C),
guanine (G), and thymine (T)—in the same way that letters of the alphabet come
together to form words, sentences, and paragraphs. Human DNA consists of about
three billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all
people.
DNA bases pair with each other—A with T, C with G—to form units called base pairs.
Each base is attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule. Together,
base, sugar, and phosphate are called a nucleotide. Nucleotides are arranged in two
long strands that form a spiral called a double helix. The structure of the double helix
is like a ladder, with base pairs running through the middle like rungs and sugar and
phosphate molecules along the outside.
Genes are small sections of the long chain of DNA. They are the basic physical and
functional units of heredity. In humans, genes vary in size from a few hundred DNA
bases to more than two million bases. The Human Genome Project has estimated
that humans have between 20,000 and 25,000 genes. Every person has two copies
of each gene, one inherited from each parent. Most genes are the same in all people,
but a small number of genes (less than one percent of the total) are slightly different
between people. Alleles are forms of the same gene with small differences in their
sequence of DNA bases. These small differences contribute to each person’s unique
features.
Genes act as instructions to make molecules called proteins. To function correctly,
each cell depends on thousands of proteins to do their jobs in the right places at the
right times. Sometimes changes in a gene, called mutations, prevent one or more of

36
these proteins from working properly. This may cause cells or organs to change or
lose their function, which can lead to a disease. Mutations, rather than genes
themselves, cause disease. For example, when people say that someone has “the
cystic fibrosis gene,” they are usually referring to a mutated version of the CFTR gene,
which causes the disease. All people, including those without cystic fibrosis, have a
version of the CFTR gene.
Sections of DNA form genes, and many genes together form chromosomes. People
inherit two sets of chromosomes (one from each parent), which is why every person
has two copies of each gene. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes.

Why Genetics Matters

Genetics isn’t just about what we look like. It plays a huge role in medicine
(understanding inherited diseases), science (studying evolution and mutations),
and biotechnology (creating genetically modified crops to improve food
production).
In short, genetics helps us understand how life works, why we are the way we are,
and how we can use science to improve health, agriculture, and even the future of
humanity.
https://youtu.be/b93KDVQIvl8?si=XFkmR3-dPYpsQ6Mx

37
 Genetic Disorders and Abnormalities
A genetic disorder is a disease caused in whole or in part by a change in the DNA
sequence away from the normal sequence. Genetic disorders can be caused by a
mutation in one gene (monogenic disorder), by mutations in multiple genes (multifactorial
inheritance disorder), by a combination of gene mutations and environmental factors, or
by damage to chromosomes (changes in the number or structure of entire chromosomes,
the structures that carry genes).

Genetic Disorders and Abnormalities history:

In 1902, an epidemiological study published in The Lancet by Archibald E Garrod
proposed a recessive mode of transmission of alkaptonuria in which Gregor Mendel's
principles operated. This milestone signaled the establishment of a connection between
an ailment in man and the laws of inheritance promulgated by Mendel in 1865. From this
time, the unfolding of genetic diseases exploded and was synonymized with the corpus
Mendelian Inheritance in Man catalog, which had grown to over 10,000 entries
enumerating monogenic traits and diseases. The statistical discoveries of Mendel,
elaborated using the garden pea, were made at the time when one lone scholar could
discover laws of universal biological significance.
The history of genetic diseases did not begin with the rediscovery of Mendel's laws at the
dawn of the 20th century. Early paintings, sketches, and sculptures show people
collapsing or deformed by genetic conditions like achondroplasia, Robert's syndrome, an
unfortunate hermaphroditism, and neurofibromatosis. The X-linked bleeding disorder in
Queen Victoria's family had been heard of long before. The Talmud remembers the
disease; in the Middle Ages it was named "Passio flux sanguinis"; and it was in the 19th
century that J.L. Schoenlein coined the term "dendrophilia" - a term then altered to the
currently meaningless "hemophilia." There existed some valuable clinical observations
before the Mendelian era. For example, in 1866, the British physician J. Langdon Down
published a classification of mental retardation, which he divided into racial types such as
Caucasian, Ethiopian, Malaysian, and Mongolian. The first three types were not
nosologically convincing and quickly fell into oblivion. In contrast, Down's mongoloid
idiocy, currently called Down syndrome, became firmly established as a well-defined

38
disorder, 93 years after Down's publishing, in 1959, when Lejeune and colleagues
discovered the cause of this syndrome-an extra, tiny chromosome 21.

Genetic Disorders:
These are diseases or conditions caused by alterations in the genes or chromosomes.
They can be inherited (passed down from one generation to the next) or result from
mutations that occur during a person's lifetime. Some common genetic disorders include:
1. Cystic Fibrosis: A hereditary disorder that affects the lungs and digestive system,
leading to difficulty breathing and digesting food.
2. Down Syndrome: A condition caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21,
leading to intellectual disabilities and characteristic physical features.
3. Sickle Cell Anemia: A genetic condition where red blood cells become shaped
like a crescent, leading to anemia and other health issues.
4. Huntington's Disease: A progressive brain disorder caused by a mutation in a
single gene, leading to motor and cognitive decline.
5. Hemophilia: A genetic disorder that affects the blood's ability to clot properly.
https://youtu.be/Jsuu1KR_hho?si=BZDlQGkX-b63nb2X

39
Genetic abnormalities refer to any changes or mutations in the structure or number of
genes or chromosomes, which can lead to various health conditions or developmental
issues. These abnormalities can be inherited or occur spontaneously during a person’s
lifetime. They often disrupt normal biological processes and can affect physical
appearance, organ function, cognitive abilities, or overall health.
To break it down, here are the primary types of genetic abnormalities:
1. Chromosomal Abnormalities: These involve
changes in the number or structure of chromosomes.
Humans typically have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs), and
when there’s a deviation from this, it can lead to disorders.
For example:

a. Down Syndrome: Caused by an extra copy of

chromosome 21 (trisomy 21), leading to intellectual
disabilities and physical traits such as a flat face and short
stature.

b. Turner Syndrome: Occurs when one of the X

chromosomes is missing or incomplete, affecting female
development and causing issues like infertility or heart
problems

40
 Point Mutations: These are small changes in the sequence of nucleotides (the
building blocks of DNA). A single nucleotide swap can sometimes change how a
gene functions, causing disease:

● For example, a point mutation in the hemoglobin gene causes sickle cell
anemia, where the red blood cells become abnormally shaped, leading to pain,
anemia, and other health issues.
Copy Number Variations (CNVs): These are large-scale genetic alterations
where sections of the DNA are either duplicated or deleted. CNVs can lead to
developmental and health problems, as the extra or missing genetic material can
disrupt normal gene function. For instance, CNVs are implicated in some forms of
autism and intellectual disabilities.
Mosaicism: This refers to a situation
where not all cells in the body have the
same genetic makeup. Some cells may
have normal chromosomes, while others
may have mutations. This can result in
varying expression of a genetic disorder,
depending on which cells are affected. For
example, a person with mosaic Down
syndrome may have some cells with an extra chromosome 21 and others with the
typical number, leading to milder symptoms.

41
 Genetic abnormalities can be inherited from one or both parents, or they can arise
due to errors during DNA replication or environmental factors. They may result in
minor health issues or more severe conditions depending on the nature of the
genetic change.

https://youtu.be/DCBHAFeJNOs?si=LFDTka2ueSKG4upG

Causes of Genetic Disorders and Abnormalities:

1. Inherited Mutations: Passed down from one or both parents. These can be
dominant (only one mutated gene is needed for the disorder to occur) or recessive
(both mutated genes are needed).
2. De Novo Mutations: These mutations occur for the first time in a person, meaning
they are not inherited from parents but arise spontaneously in the genetic material.
3. Environmental Factors: Certain environmental influences like exposure to toxins,
radiation, or infections during pregnancy can lead to genetic mutations or
abnormalities.
4. Random Errors in Cell Division: During the process of cell division, sometimes
mistakes occur, leading to genetic mutations or changes that result in genetic
disorders.

Diagnosis and Treatment:

Genetic disorders can often be diagnosed through genetic testing, which involves
analyzing a person's DNA. In some cases, prenatal testing can identify genetic disorders
before birth. Treatment options depend on the specific disorder and may include
medications, gene therapy, lifestyle changes, or surgery.
Some genetic disorders are manageable with treatment, while others may have no cure
but can be managed through supportive care. Genetic counseling can also help families
understand the risk of inherited conditions and make informed decisions.

42
 The genetics of human trait

The study of how our genes affect the traits we express and inherit. It looks at how
our genes—the basic building blocks of heredity—determine our behavior, appearance,
and even our vulnerability to specific illnesses.
Put more simply, it's about realizing how our distinct characteristics are determined by
our DNA blueprint. This study looks at how genes are inherited from parents, how they
interact with one another and the environment, and how they ultimately determine our
identities.

Exploring the Genetics of Human Traits

The study of human genetics has revealed how genes influence a wide range of
traits. Here are some examples:
fingerprints

-
All single person's fingerprints are unique, which is why they have long been used as a
way to identify individuals. The factors influencing an individual's fingerprint patterns are
surprisingly poorly understood. Research indicates that both genetic and environmental
factors contribute to this complex trait, as they do to many others.
Dermatoglyphs, which are patterns of skin ridges on the pads of the fingers, are
the basis for an individual's fingerprints. The soles of the feet, the palms of the hands,
and the toes all have these ridges. The specifics of each pattern are unique, even though
the fundamental whorl, arch, and loop patterns may be comparable.

43
Eye color

-Eye color is determined by genetic variations in the iris, a structure surrounding

the pupil, which controls light intake. The color ranges from light blue to dark brown, with
brown being the most common worldwide. Lighter colors, like blue and green, are mostly
European. The amount and quality of melanin in the iris directly influence eye color.

Intelligence

-A
complex attribute that is impacted by both genetic and environmental factors, much like
the majority of human behavior and cognition. The fact that intelligence can be defined
and measured in a variety of ways makes it difficult to study. The majority of definitions
of intelligence include the capacity to adjust to shifting circumstances and learn from past
experiences. The ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, and
comprehend complicated concepts are all components of intelligence. The intelligence
quotient (IQ), a measure of intelligence, is used in many studies.

44
Handedness

-Refers to the preference to use one hand for tasks like writing or throwing. In
Western countries, 85-90% of people are right-handed and 10-15% left-handed. Hand
preference develops before birth and is consistent throughout life. It likely arises from
right-left asymmetry, a developmental process involving brain differences. Mixed-
handedness and ambidextrousness are rare.

Probability of having twins

-Conceiving twins is a complex trait influenced by genetic and environmental

factors. Monozygotic twins, or identical twins, occur when a single egg cell fertilizes a
sperm cell, splitting into two embryos early in development. These twins occur in 3-4 per
1,000 births worldwide. While most cases are not genetic, some families have reported
larger-than-expected MZ twins.

45
Hair

-The thickness of individual hair strands and the type of hair—straight, wavy, or
curly—seem to be largely determined by genetic factors. According to studies, people
from different ethnic backgrounds have different genes that affect their hair thickness and
texture. For instance, differences in hair thickness in Asian populations have been linked
to normal variations (polymorphisms) in two genes, EDAR and FGFR2.
Hair color is determined by the amount of a pigment called melanin in hair. An
abundance of one type of melanin, called eumelanin, gives people black or brown hair.
An abundance of another pigment, called pheomelanin, gives people red hair.The type
and amount of melanin in hair is determined by many genes, although little is known about
most of them. The best-studied hair-color gene in humans is called MC1R.

Height

-
About 80% of an individual's height is determined by inherited DNA sequence variants,
but their exact genes and effects are only partially understood. Most individuals' height is
controlled by a combination of genetic variants and environmental factors, with over 700
known variants. Some affect cartilage in growth plates, while others remain unknown.

46
Moles

-
Common in fair skin individuals, are overgrowths of melanocytes. Their genetic factors
are not well understood, and they are usually benign. Scientists have not extensively
studied moles, and a tendency to develop moles appears inherited.

Facial dimples

-
-Dimples, indentations on the cheeks, are a dominant genetic trait that occurs in
families and is believed to be inherited. However, some researchers argue that there is
no proof of inherited dimples. Dimples can occur in both or one cheek, and can be caused
by baby fat loss. They can last until adolescence or young adulthood, and can occur in
successive generations of a family.

47
Athletic performance

- A complex trait that is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Many
physical traits help determine an individual’s athletic ability, primarily the strength of
muscles used for movement (skeletal muscles) and the predominant type of fibers that
compose them.

Longevity

-Environmental factors, lifestyle choices, and genetics all affect how long a person
lives. With notable advancements in the availability of food and clean water, improved
housing and living conditions, decreased exposure to infectious diseases, and access to
healthcare, environmental improvements starting in the 1900s significantly increased the
average life expectancy. The most important were advancements in public health that
decreased premature death by lowering infant mortality, raising childhood survival rates,
and preventing infection and communicable diseases.

48
Temperament

-
Behavioral traits like sociability (either shy or outgoing), emotionality (either laid-back or
quick to react), activity level (either high or low energy), attention level (either focused or
easily distracted), and persistence (either determined or easily discouraged) are all
examples of temperament. These illustrations show a range of shared traits, all of which
could be useful in particular situations. A person's temperament doesn't really change,
especially as they get older.

LINK TO VIDEO-BASED RECORDING:

https://youtu.be/NxnYZK3zczw?si=iaferOhsLpuXTU0z
https://youtu.be/Y0629XX5Zew?si=LrINCAM8Diy-L_Lr

49
ACTIVITY
Identification: Read the questions carefully and identify the correct answer. Write your
answers on the space provided or in your notebook

1. Who is known as the "Father of Genetics" for his work with pea plants?
2. What term describes different forms of the same gene that contribute to unique
traits?
3. What scientist used fruit flies to demonstrate that genes are located on
chromosomes?
4. What molecule carries genetic information in humans and almost all organism
5. What hereditary bleeding disorder was present in Queen Victoria’s family?
6. Who proposed the recessive mode of transmission of alkaptonuria in 1902?
7. What genetic disorder, previously called "mongoloid idiocy," was later renamed
after its discoverer?
8. What are the overgrowths of melanocytes that are more common in fair-skinned
individuals?
9. What are the patterns of skin ridges on the pads of the fingers called?
10. What is the dominant genetic trait that causes indentations on the cheeks when
smiling?

Answer the following question in essay type (2 points each).

1. Explain what Genetics is.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

50
 2. Explain what a Gene is.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

3. Explain what DNA is.

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

4. What is “Pangenesis ” and what does this theory suggest?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

5. Explain what is a genetic disorder and name at least 3 genetic disorders and its
effects on the human body.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

51
 RUBRICS OF ACTIVITY
Needs
Satisfactory (3
Criteria Excellent (5 pts) Good (4 pts) Improvement (2 Incomplete (1 pt)
pts)
pts)
Clearly describes
Describes a
a specific
memory with Memory is
childhood Memory is shared
Memory Description some details, unclear or
memory with but lacks detail No memory is shared.
(Clarity & Detail) but could be missing key
vivid details, and depth.
more details.
emotions, and
specific.
context.
Strong and
Connects
accurate Some connection
memory to
Connection to Theory connection to a to theory, but Weak or unclear
theory No theory is
(Application of Piaget, relevant child lacks strong connection to
correctly but mentioned.
Erikson, Vygotsky, etc.) development explanation or theory.
could use
theory, with clear accuracy.
more depth.
explanation.
Thoughtful
reflection with Good
Some reflection,
Reflection & Analysis deep insights reflection, but Minimal reflection
but lacks depth No reflection or
(Critical Thinking & into how the analysis with little
and personal analysis.
Personal Insight) experience could be analysis.
insight.
impacted deeper.
development.
Well-organized
with a clear
Organized Somewhat
Organization & Clarity introduction,
but may have organized but has Disorganized or
(Structure & Flow of body, and No clear structure.
minor issues structural difficult to follow.
Ideas) conclusion. Easy
with flow. weaknesses.
to read and
follow.
Grammar & Minor errors, Some grammar or Frequent
Writing is clear, Numerous errors
Mechanics (Spelling, but they do spelling mistakes grammar errors
polished, and make it difficult to
Punctuation, Sentence not affect that slightly affect that interfere with
free of errors. understand.
Structure) readability. understanding. clarity.

52
Scoring Guide (Total: 25 points)
🔹 22-25 points (Excellent) – Outstanding work with strong theory connections and
deep reflection.
🔹 18-21 points (Good) – Solid effort, but some areas need more depth or clarity.

🔹 14-17 points (Satisfactory) – Meets basic requirements but lacks detail, depth, or
clear structure.
🔹 10-13 points (Needs Improvement) – Weak connection to theory and little reflection;
needs significant improvement.
🔹 Below 10 points (Incomplete) – Missing key elements or lacks effort.

53
 Lesson 3
Developmental Theories and Other Relevant Theories

INTRODUCTION
Understanding how humans grow, learn, and change over time is critical in fields
such as education, psychology, and child development. This lesson explores a variety of
developmental and psychological theories that provide insights into how people develop
cognitively, emotionally, and socially from infancy to adulthood.

Developmental theories explain the various stages and patterns of human

development, as well as the factors that impact behavior and how people adapt to their
surroundings. These frameworks offer vital direction to educators and other professionals
who interact with children and adults, allowing them to respond to developmental needs
more effectively.

These theories provide insight into internal processes such as emotional

regulation, building one's identity, moral reasoning, and learning styles. Each theory
brings a distinct perspective, addressing the significance of biology, the unconscious
mind, personal experiences, culture, social interaction, and environmental systems. By
studying these theories, learners gain a greater understanding of the complexities of
human development and are better equipped to apply theoretical knowledge in real-life
settings, particularly in supporting growth, learning, and well-being at all stages of life.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to:
1. Analyze key developmental theories by identifying their main concepts, stages,
and components.
2. Compare and contrast how each theory explains human development across
physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional aspects.
3. Apply these theories to real-life situations and personal experiences.

54
 4. Evaluate the relevance and implications of each theory in educational and
developmental contexts.

LESSON DISCUSSION
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory revolutionized the field of psychology and
laid the foundation for modern-day psychotherapy. This theory emphasizes the
unconscious mind, internal conflicts, and the impact of childhood experiences on
behavior. According to Freud, human behavior is greatly influenced by dynamic,
unconscious processes, many of which stem from early life experiences.
Sigmund Freud (1856–
1939) was an Austrian neurologist,
and the founding father of
psychoanalysis, a method for
treating mental illness and a theory
explaining human behavior. He
formulated an in-depth theory of
human psychology, which aimed to
explain how unconscious motives
and conflicts influence our
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Freud began his career in neurology, but his exploration of hysteria and the
unconscious mind led him to develop therapeutic techniques such as talk therapy, dream
interpretation, and the concept of defense mechanisms. His work substantially influenced
domains beyond psychology, including art, literature, and popular culture.

I. Freud’s Structure of the Human Mind

Sigmund Freud proposed two influential models to explain the inner workings of
the human mind:

55
 1. The Topographical Model was an early
framework that classified the mind into three
levels of consciousness.

2. The Structural Model is a later development that

conceptualizes the mind in terms of three dynamic mental
forces: Id, Ego, and Superego.

Freud's Topographical Model likens the human mind to an iceberg, with only a
small portion visible above the surface. This model separates mental life into three
regions:

The Conscious The Preconscious The Unconscious

● The part of the mind ● Contains memories ● The largest and

we are aware of. and information that most powerful part of
● Includes current are not currently in the mind.
thoughts, awareness, but can ● Holds thoughts,
perceptions, and be accessed if memories, desires,
feelings. needed. and feelings that are
● Limited in capacity ● Acts as a buffer repressed because
and easily between the they are too
influenced by what's conscious and threatening or
happening in the unconscious. painful to be
present.

56
 consciously
acknowledged.
● This area influences
behavior in powerful,
often unrecognized
ways.

Later, Freud presented a more structured model of the mind that better depicted
his original ideas about conscious and unconscious processes (Gaztambide, 2021). This
Structural Model of the human mind includes three distinct but interconnected
components: the Id, the Ego, and the Superego. These are not physical areas of the
brain, but conceptual components that explain how the mind processes thoughts,
motivations, and emotions. Each part has a significant impact on behavior and
personality.

Freud's paradigm highlights the dynamic interplay of these components, implying

that most of human behavior results from conflicts and compromises between them.

57
 THE ID THE EGO THE SUPEREGO
(The Primitive Instincts) (The Rational Mediator) (The Moral Compass)

The most basic and Develops from the Id during The last component of
instinctual part of the early childhood as the child personality to develop,
psyche. interacts with the real world. typically around age 5.

Present from birth and Operates on the reality Represents the internalized
entirely unconscious. principle, meaning it aims to moral standards and ideals
satisfy the Id’s desires in acquired from parents,
realistic and socially caregivers, and society.
acceptable ways.

Driven by the pleasure Unlike the Id, the Ego Operates at all levels of
principle, which seeks functions in all three levels consciousness but is
immediate gratification of of awareness: conscious, largely unconscious.
needs, desires, and preconscious, and
impulses—regardless of unconscious.
the consequences or
reality.

It houses the life instincts Serves as the mediator Divided into 2 Subsystems:
(Eros)—such as hunger, between the Id’s demands, - The Conscience:
thirst, and sex—and the the Superego’s moral punishes immoral or
death instincts judgments, and the unacceptable
(Thanatos)—such as demands of external reality. behavior through
aggression and destruction. guilt.
- The Ego Ideal:
rewards good
behavior with

58
 feelings of pride and
self-worth.

Irrational and impulsive, Employs defense Strives for perfection, not

responding directly to mechanisms to manage pleasure or practicality.
internal urges. anxiety caused by internal
conflicts.

II. Conflict Within the Mind

Freud argued that human behavior arises from internal psychological conflict,
particularly between the demands of the Id, the constraints of the Superego, and the
mediating role of the Ego. These conflicts are frequently unconscious and result in
psychic stress (Cherry, 2024).

How Conflict Works:

● The Id demands instant gratification of instinctual drives.
● The Superego imposes strict moral rules and expectations.
● The Ego must find a realistic compromise between these opposing forces, while
also responding to external reality.
When these parts are in conflict,
● The Ego experiences anxiety and often uses defense mechanisms to cope.
● These conflicts can influence dreams, slips of the tongue ("Freudian slips"), and
even psychological disorders if unresolved (Cherry, 2024).

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III. Psychosexual Stages of Development
Sigmund Freud believed that personality develops through a series of childhood
stages in which the Id's pleasure-seeking energies become focused on specific
erogenous zones. This theory is known as the Psychosexual Stages of Development.

Freud proposed that psychological development in childhood takes place in a

series of fixed stages, each defined by the pleasure focus of libido (sexual energy). How
a person navigates these stages significantly influences their adult personality and
behavior. If conflicts at any stage are not resolved, it can lead to fixation, affecting later
life behaviors and emotional health (McLeod, 2024 & Cherry, 2025).

1. Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year):

● Erogenous zone: The child seeks pleasure from the Mouth (e.g., sucking, biting)
● The infant's pleasure centers around the mouth. The mouth is vital for eating and
exploring the world, and is the primary interaction point for gratification.
According to Freud, if an infant’s oral needs are not met or are overindulged, they may
become fixated at this stage, leading to oral behaviors in adulthood like smoking,
overeating, nail-biting, or sarcasm

2. Anal Stage (1–3 years):

● Erogenous zone: The child seeks pleasure from the Anus (e.g., withholding, and
expelling feces)

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 ● The child’s focus of pleasure shifts to the anus. During this time, children learn to
control bodily functions, especially elimination.
Freud believed that the way parents handle toilet training influences the development of
orderliness or messiness. Too much pressure may lead to anal-retentive traits
(perfectionism, obsessiveness), while too little can result in anal-expulsive traits
(messiness, disorganization) (McLeod, 2024).

3. Phallic Stage (3–6 years)

● Erogenous zone: The child seeks pleasure from the Genitals (e.g., Exploration of
genitals, development of sexual identity).
● Children become aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets the stage for the
Oedipus Complex in boys and Electra Complex in girls.
During this stage, children feel desire for the opposite-sex parent and jealousy toward the
same-sex parent. This internal conflict is resolved through identification with the same-
sex parent, shaping gender identity and the development of the Superego (Mcleod, 2024
& Cherry, 2025).

4. Latency Stage (6 to puberty)

● Erogenous zone: Dormant sexual feelings (e.g., Social development, friendships,
learning)
● In this stage, sexual impulses are repressed, allowing children to focus on school,
hobbies, friendships, and developing communication and self-confidence.
Freud viewed this as a period of relative calm, crucial for the development of social and
intellectual skills. There is little to no psychosexual development here (McLeod, 2024).

5. Genital Stage (Puberty onward)

● Erogenous zone: The child seeks pleasure from the Genitals, with mature sexual
interests (e.g., Establishing intimate relationships)
● With the onset of puberty, sexual urges reawaken, and individuals seek mature
romantic relationships.

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IV. Defense Mechanisms
Defense mechanisms are unconscious mental processes that keep people from
feeling anxiety, guilt, shame, or other negative emotions that arise from internal conflict
or external stress. "These mechanisms operate at an unconscious level and help ward
off unpleasant feelings or make good things feel better for the individual" (Cherry, 2024,
p. 6). They allow the Ego to protect the mind from overwhelming stress or emotional
anguish by distorting, denying, or avoiding reality. Below are some of the most well-known
defense mechanisms identified by Sigmund Freud and later expanded upon by his
daughter, Anna Freud:

1. Repression: Unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts, feelings, and impulses;

Often considered the most basic defense mechanism, upon which others are built.
E.g., A person who experienced a traumatic event in childhood may have no
memory of it.
Freud believed repression keeps disturbing or threatening thoughts from becoming
conscious.

2. Denial: Refusing to accept reality or facts and protecting the individual from
uncomfortable truths or painful emotions.
E.g., A smoker refuses to admit that smoking is bad for their health.

3. Projection: Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to someone else.

E.g., A person who is angry at their boss may accuse their boss of being hostile.

4. Displacement: Redirecting emotions from a threatening target to a safer one.

E.g., After a stressful day at work, a person may yell at their family instead of
addressing their boss.

5. Regression: Reverting to behaviors typical of an earlier stage of development when

faced with stress.

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 E.g., An overwhelmed adult may throw a tantrum or seek comfort in childish habits
like cuddling a stuffed toy.

6. Rationalization: Justifying or explaining behaviors or feelings in a seemingly logical

or rational way to avoid the true explanation.
E.g., A student who fails an exam may say, "The test was unfair," rather than
admitting lack of preparation.

7. Sublimation: Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable or

constructive activities.
E.g., A person with aggressive tendencies may become a soldier or a competitive
athlete.
Sublimation is considered one of the most mature and healthy defense mechanisms
because it transforms negative impulses into productive behaviors (Cherry, 2024).

8. Reaction Formation: Behaving in a way that is opposite to one’s true feelings.

E.g., Treating someone you dislike with excessive friendliness to hide true feelings.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development was first introduced by Swiss
psychologist Jean Piaget in regard to how children learn and think in different capacities
as they age. Cognitive development is structured in four stages, according to Piaget. Each
stage brings developmentally appropriate new cognitive skills that assist them in making
sense of their surroundings. This theory is significant as it shows how children's

63
intellectual abilities develop as well as the implications in the field of education and human
development (Piaget, 1952).

`Jean Piaget is a Swiss psychologist (1896-1980) known for pioneering work on

children's cognitive development. He developed the theory of genetic epistemology,
emphasizing how children build knowledge through interaction with their environment. He
placed great importance on the role of education in shaping youth. In 1934, as the director
of the International Bureau of Education, according to him,
education is key to enhancing the cognitive abilities of
young people. He founded the International Center for
Genetic Epistemology in 1955, which became a hub for
research and innovation in developmental psychology.

Piaget was also a key founder of constructivist

theory, influencing how education systems understand
child learning. By the late 20th century, he became one of
the most cited psychologists, second only to B.F. Skinner.
His theories continue to have a profound impact on
education and psychology, and he is recognized as one of the key contributors to our
understanding of how children learn and how their cognitive abilities develop.

I. Stages of Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory

Stage Age Range Key Feature

Sensorimotor Stage Birth to 2 Years Children mainly depend on

their senses and actions to
learn about the world at this
stage. They learn that
objects continue to exist
even when out of sight.

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 Children this age also start
to create mental images of
objects and can act with
purpose (e.g., looking for a
toy they misplaced)

Preoperational Stage 2 to 7 Years Children start to use

symbols, such as words
and images, to represent
objects. They are also quite
egocentric, lacking the
ability to think logically or
understand other people’s
viewpoints. Children this
age have not mastered
conservation, which is the
understanding of volume,
mass, and number
regardless of shape.

Concrete Operational 7 to 11 Years Children are capable of

Stage more logical thought. They
can comprehend that
pouring water into different
shaped containers does not
change the volume of
water. They can also
categorize people and
objects by certain traits and
understand order. The
ability to think abstractly is

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 still beyond their
comprehension, and so as
in the previous stages, they
can only reason with
physical objects.

Formal Operational Above 12 Years The ability to think

Stage abstractly and
hypothetically develops
during this stage.
Adolescents can now solve
complex problems and are
capable of considering
future possibilities.

II. Other Important Concepts Introduced by Piaget

A. Schemas and Constructivism
Piaget argued that children actively learn about the world through interaction,
which is central to the theory of constructivism. In this process, children construct
schemas—cognitive frameworks that help them understand how the world operates
(Waite-Stupiansky, 2017). It is developed through organization, where children group
items based on shared characteristics, forming categories.

B. Adaptation
Piaget described adaptation as the way children adjust their existing schemas in
response to new information. Adaptation occurs in 2 primary ways:
● Assimilation: Refers to the process where children fit new information into their
existing schemas.
For example, if a child has a schema of a dog as a "woof," they might refer
to a cat as a "woof" as well when first encountering one.

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 ● Accommodation: Occurs when children change their schemas to incorporate new
information.
In the same example, when the child learns that cats and dogs are different,
they modify their schema, calling cats "cats" and dogs "woofs."

An infant may develop a schema about a rattle: when shaken, it produces a noise. These
schemas are dynamic, not fixed. As children gain new experiences, they refine or update
their schemas based on the new information they encounter (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017).
This ongoing process of adjusting their cognitive structures marks the progression of
cognitive development, as schemas evolve and adapt to the child’s experiences.

C. Equilibrium
Piaget’s biological background influenced his idea of equilibrium, which mirrors the
concept of homeostasis in biology (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017). Piaget proposed that
cognitive development is aimed toward achieving equilibrium. When children encounter
information that doesn’t align with their current schemas, they experience disequilibrium,
a state of imbalance that motivates them to adapt their thinking. This ongoing cycle of
assimilation and accommodation helps children reach a balanced understanding of their
world.

III. Factors that Influence How Children Learn and Grow

Children's growth and learning are influenced by a wide range of factors, both
internal and external. These factors work together in complex ways to shape their
cognitive, emotional, social, and physical development. Each of these influences
contributes to the overall development of a child, and they all interact in different ways
throughout their growth.

● Genetic and Biological Factors - Children's biological makeup plays a significant

role in their learning and development. Genetics influence intelligence, physical
abilities, and even temperament. Brain development, motor skills, and sensory
processing are also largely determined by genetic factors.

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 ● Family and Parenting - Family support and parenting style are integral in shaping
a child’s development. The way parents raise and interact with their children can
significantly impact their cognitive, emotional, and social growth.

● Social and Peer Influences - Peers, teachers, and other social influences also
play an important role. Children develop social skills, emotional intelligence, and
learning strategies from their interactions with others.

● Environmental Factors - The environment in which children grow up—whether

it's at home, in school, or in their community—has a profound impact on their
learning.

● Emotional and Psychological Factors - Emotions and psychological states are

deeply connected to how children process and retain information.
● Experiences and Play - Hands-on experiences and play are vital for learning.
Through play, children develop cognitive skills, creativity, and problem-solving
abilities.

IV. Practical Applications in Education

Piaget's theory of cognitive development provides valuable insights into how
children learn and grow at different stages of their cognitive abilities. His stages, including
the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages,
help educators understand when children are ready for certain types of learning (Piaget,
1952). For example, children in the preoperational stage may struggle with abstract
concepts but can grasp basic number concepts through hands-on activities like counting
objects or sorting items (Piaget, 1952). By aligning educational content with the child's
developmental stage, educators can ensure more effective learning experiences.

Piaget's emphasis on active learning highlights the importance of children

engaging with their environment to build knowledge (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017). This

68
approach encourages exploration, problem-solving, and experimentation, which are
essential for cognitive growth. In line with Piaget’s constructivist theory, educators can
create classrooms where children actively construct their own understanding through
interaction and collaboration, fostering deeper learning and critical thinking skills (Waite-
Stupiansky, 2017).

V. Real-Life Examples of Piaget’s Theory

The following examples below illustrate Piaget's theory of cognitive development
in action, showcasing real-life applications for each stage.

These examples highlight how Piaget’s stages of cognitive development manifest

in everyday experiences, illustrating his theory’s practical application in understanding
children’s cognitive growth.

In the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), an infant may demonstrate object

permanence by searching for a toy hidden under a blanket, showcasing their
understanding that objects continue to exist even when not visible.

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 In the preoperational stage (ages 2-7), a child might struggle with conservation,
such as believing that a taller glass of liquid contains more liquid than a shorter, wider
one, illustrating their limited understanding of volume conservation.

Moving into the concrete operational stage (ages 7-11), children can successfully
perform tasks like classifying objects based on multiple attributes or solving simple math
problems, reflecting their ability to think logically about concrete situations.

Finally, in the formal operational stage (ages 12 and up), adolescents begin to
engage in abstract thinking, considering hypothetical situations and developing problem-
solving skills that are not tied to concrete experiences.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development

Erik Erikson's theory of Psychosocial Development presents a comprehensive
framework for understanding human growth, outlining eight distinct stages that span an
individual's entire lifespan. Each stage is characterized by a specific psychosocial crisis,
which serves as a critical turning point in personal development. Successfully navigating
these crises is essential for progressing through the stages, as positive resolutions foster
a healthy personality and the development of key virtues. Conversely, failing to resolve
these challenges can have lasting negative impacts on an individual's self-perception and
their future interactions with the world. This theory emphasizes the importance of
addressing and overcoming these psychosocial challenges to ensure optimal personal
growth and well-being throughout life.
Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a German-American
psychoanalyst and developmental psychologist best
known for his theory of psychosocial development and for
coining the term identity crisis. Born in Frankfurt,
Germany, Erikson trained under Anna Freud at the
Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute. He immigrated to the
United States in 1933 due to the rise of Nazism and held
academic positions at institutions like Yale, Harvard, and

70
Berkeley. Although he lacked a formal university degree, Erikson became one of the most
influential psychologists of the 20th century, ranking 12th on the American Psychological
Association’s list of eminent psychologists. His work emphasized the interplay between
psychological development and cultural, social, and environmental factors.

Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Development Theory is a broad psychoanalytic

framework that outlines eight life stages from infancy to adulthood. Each stage involves
a distinct psychosocial challenge that profoundly impacts an individual's personality and
growth. Overcoming these challenges successfully results in the development of key
virtues, leading to a well-rounded and capable person. However, failing to address these
challenges can lead to personal struggles and maladjustment later in life.

I. Stages of Erikson’s Theory of Development

STAGE BASIC CONFLICT VIRTUE DESCRIPTION

Infancy Trust vs. Mistrust Hope During this initial stage,

0 - 1 year infants develop a sense of
trust based on the
reliability and consistency
of their caregivers.

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Early Autonomy vs. Will As toddlers gain
Childhood Shame/Doubt independence, they assert
1 - 3 years their autonomy by making
choices and exploring their
environment.

Play Age Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose Preschoolers begin to

3 - 6 years initiate activities and assert
their power and control
over their environment.

School Age Industry vs. Inferiority Competence School-age children

7 - 11 years develop a sense of
competence and pride
through academic and
social achievements.

Adolescence Identity vs. Confusion Fidelity Adolescents explore their

12 - 18 years identity and values to
develop a sense of self.

Early Intimacy vs. Isolation Love Young adults form intimate

Adulthood relationships and develop
19 - 29 years a sense of connection and
belonging.

Middle Age Generativity vs. Care Middle-aged adults

30 - 64 years Stagnation contribute to society and
future generations through
work, family, and
community involvement.

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 Old Age Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom Older adults reflect on their
65 onward lives and develop a sense
of satisfaction and
acceptance.

II. How Each Stage Relates to Socio-Emotional Development

● Infancy (0-24 months): Infants form trust and bond with caregivers, laying the
foundation for future relationships. Their emotions arise from physical sensations,
and they rely on caregivers for comfort and trust-building.

● Toddlerhood (2-3 years): Toddlers assert independence, express emotions

intensely, and begin learning basic social skills like sharing and communication.
They require a balance of exploration and safety.

● Preschool Age (3-5 years): Children develop empathy, engage in group play, and
improve emotional expression. They use language to manage feelings and
conflicts, supported by trusted adults.

● Infancy (0-24 months): Infants form trust and bond with caregivers, laying the
foundation for future relationships. Their emotions arise from physical sensations,
and they rely on caregivers for comfort and trust-building.

● Toddlerhood (2-3 years): Toddlers assert independence, express emotions

intensely, and begin learning basic social skills like sharing and communication.
They require a balance of exploration and safety.

● Preschool Age (3-5 years): Children develop empathy, engage in group play, and
improve emotional expression. They use language to manage feelings and
conflicts, supported by trusted adults.

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III. Real-Life Examples of Psychosocial Development

Trust vs. Mistrust: The foundation of trust is

laid.

Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt: Independence

is asserted.

Initiative vs. Guilt: Self-confidence grows

through initiative.

Industry vs. Inferiority: Competence is

developed.

74
 Identity vs. Role Confusion: A clear identity is
formed.

Intimacy vs. Isolation: Meaningful

relationships are established.

Generativity vs. Stagnation: Contributions to

society are made.

Integrity vs. Despair: Life is reflected upon with

integrity.

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IV. Educational Implications of Erikson’s Theory
Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory has significant educational implications, as it
provides a framework for understanding the developmental needs of children and
adolescents.

A. Stage-Specific Teaching Strategies: Erikson's stages emphasize the importance of

addressing psychosocial conflicts at different ages. For example:
● In the Industry vs. Inferiority stage (ages 6–12), educators should encourage
students to develop competence through tasks that promote skill-building and
achievement. Activities like group projects, creative assignments, and problem-
solving tasks can foster a sense of industry.
● In the Identity vs. Role Confusion stage (adolescence), teachers can support
identity development by encouraging self-expression, critical thinking, and
exploration of personal goals and values.

B. Building Trust and Autonomy: In early childhood stages like Trust vs. Mistrust (0–2
years) and Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (2–4 years), caregivers and educators should
create a safe, consistent, and nurturing environment to help children develop trust and
independence.

C. Promoting Initiative and Creativity: During the Initiative vs. Guilt stage (ages 3–6),
children benefit from opportunities to take initiative in learning activities, such as choosing
tasks or leading small projects. This helps them develop confidence in their abilities while
learning to balance ambition with responsibility.

D. Supporting Adolescents' Identity Formation: Teachers play a crucial role in helping

adolescents navigate the Identity vs. Role Confusion stage by providing opportunities for
self-discovery through extracurricular activities, mentorship programs, or discussions
about future careers and societal roles.

76
E. Addressing Emotional and Social Challenges: Erikson's theory highlights the
importance of addressing emotional well-being alongside academic growth. Teachers
should be sensitive to students' social challenges, especially during adolescence, by
fostering an inclusive environment that supports peer relationships and emotional
resilience.

F. Individualized Learning Approaches: Recognizing that children progress through

stages at different rates, educators should adopt flexible teaching methods tailored to
individual needs. This includes differentiated instruction and personalized feedback to
help students overcome feelings of inferiority or confusion.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Moral development with regards to Kholberg’s point of view, he bases his
evaluation of people's moral judgments on how they defend their moral judgments at
these three levels (preconventional, conventional, and postconventional). From the
lowest to the highest degree, there are three degrees, all of which are stable yet respond
substantively with various forms of moral reasoning. The first level (preconventional),
which comprises the first two phases (obedience and punishment; individual interests),
has as its main goal avoiding punishment and achieving pleasure. At the second level
(conventional), which encompasses the third and fourth phases (interpersonal; authority),
the person's motivation is focused on expectations and relationships with others. At this
level, people are primarily driven to follow the directives of those in higher positions in
order to get acceptance and social approval from others. At the third and final
(postconventional) level, the person forms an independent moral idea, and while making
moral decisions, he frequently makes reference to a universal set of principles (such
justice and fairness) (Yılmaz. O, Bahçekapili. G. H, Sevi. B. 2019; referenced by Ahmeti,
K and Ramadani, N, 2020).

77
 Lawrence Kohlberg, born in 1927 in Bronxville,
New York, was the youngest of four children in a family
that later experienced divorce. He graduated from
Phillips Academy in 1945, served in the U.S. merchant
navy, and briefly aided Jewish refugees entering
Palestine before earning his B.A. and Ph.D. in
psychology from the University of Chicago in 1958.
Kohlberg was inspired by Jean Piaget’s work on
children's moral reasoning and went on to develop his
own six-stage theory of moral development, based on how children responded to moral
dilemmas.

His theory is divided into three levels: preconventional (stages 1–2), where morality
is based on avoiding punishment or gaining rewards; conventional (stages 3–4), where
actions are judged by social approval and law; and postconventional (stages 5–6), where
individuals follow abstract principles such as justice and equality, though stage 6 is rarely
achieved. His work had a major impact in psychology and education, especially for
emphasizing cognitive development at a time dominated by behaviorist thought.
However, it was criticized by psychologist Carol Gilligan for overlooking the moral
development of girls. After contracting a parasitic infection during research in Belize in
1971, Kohlberg struggled with health issues and depression, eventually taking his own
life in 1987.

I. Levels and Stages of Moral Development and Its Characteristics

The stages of moral development proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg in 1958 are a
thorough step theory of moral development that is based on Jean Piaget's theory of moral
judgment for children (1932). Kohlberg's theory is cognitive in character, concentrating
on the thought process involved in determining the rightness or wrongness of a behavior.
Therefore, the theoretical focus is on how one chooses to respond to a moral problem
rather than what one chooses or does.

78
 The progression is based on how people defend their moral decisions, moving
from avoiding punishment to upholding universal ethical principles. According to the
hypothesis he developed, moral reasoning develops in six stages from childhood to
adulthood. Law and order, the social contract, good boy nice girl, obedience and
punishment, and universal ethical principles. Kohlberg's thesis is based on these three
levels and six stages of moral development.

LEVELS CHARACTERISTICS STAGES CHARACTERISTICS

Preconventional Morality is governed Stage 1: Behavior is influenced

Level by outside forces at Punishment/ by outcomes or
the preconventional Obedience consequences of their
level. People follow the Orientation actions. To escape
rules set out by those punishment, the
in positions of power in person will obey.
order to stay out of
Stage 2: Consequences once
trouble or get rewards.
Instrumental again determine
According to this
Purpose behavior. The person
viewpoint, doing what
Orientation concentrates on
one can get away with
obtaining benefits,
or what one finds
rewards or achieving
personally fulfilling is
personal needs.
what is right.

Conventional Individual adherence Stage 3: Good Social approval

Level to social norms is still Boy/ Nice Girl determines behavior.
valued at a Orientation By being a "good

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 conventional level. But person," the person
interactions with other hopes to keep or gain
people and societal the love and respect
structures become of others.
more important than
Stage 4: Law Behavior is
self-interest. To gain
and Order determined by laws
their approval or
Orientation and rules of society.
preserve social order,
The person now
the person tries to
considers a broader
follow the rules
viewpoint, namely the
established by others,
laws of society.
including parents,
Making moral
classmates, and the
decisions involves
government.
more than just taking
personal relationships
into account. The
person feels that
social order is
maintained by laws
and regulations,
which is something
that should be
preserved.

Postconventional The person Stage 5: Social Behavior is

or Principled transcends the Contract determined by
Level viewpoint of their own Orientation individual rights. The
society when they person sees laws and
reach the regulations as
postconventional adaptable

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level. Abstract ideals instruments for
and principles that are accomplishing
applicable in all societal objectives.
contexts and That is, regulations
civilizations are used can be broken under
to describe morality. the appropriate
The person makes an circumstances.
effort to consider every Alternatives should be
person's point of view. taken into
consideration when
laws do not benefit
individuals and are in
conflict with both
individual rights and
the interests of the
majority.

Stage 6: This is the highest

Universal functioning level,
Ethical Principle according to
Orientation Kohlberg. But he
stated that certain
people will never be
able to accomplish so.
At this point, one's
own self-selected
ethical rules of
conscience determine
the proper course of
behavior. These ideas
are universally

81
 applicable and
abstract. This kind of
thinking involves
considering the
viewpoints of all
individuals or groups
that the choice may
have an impact on.

II. Real-Life Applications of Kohlberg’s Theory

The image below shows the concrete course of moral development and
showcases some real-life applications in every stage.

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III. Educational Implications of Kohlberg’s Theory
1. Moral Dilemma Discussions - Teachers may assist students improve their moral
reasoning skills by using hypothetical moral problems to spark debates in which
they must weigh opposing viewpoints and defend their choices.
2. Stage Appropriate Instructions - Teachers might adapt talks and activities to
suitably challenge students' thinking without overwhelming them by taking into
account their present level of moral development.
3. Perspective-Taking - For pupils to acquire empathy and comprehend difficult
ethical issues, it is essential to encourage them to think about the viewpoints of
those engaged in a moral dilemma.
4. Role-Playing Activities - Students can practice applying moral reasoning to real-
life problems by using role-playing scenarios.
5. Addressing Real-World Issues - Class discussions that are connected to current
ethical challenges in society help students better appreciate the significance of
moral development in their lives.

The following 4 needs are met by the components of a moral classroom

environment:
1. Autonomy
2. Belonging
3. Competence
4. Fairness

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT

Yelling Gold stars

Taking away recess Certificate of recognition

Removing privileges Teacher calling out model behaviour

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Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory

The work of Lev Vygotsky (1934, 1978)

has become the foundation for much of the research
and theory on cognitive development, particularly
through what is now known as sociocultural theory.
Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes that cognitive
development is not just an individual process but a
socially mediated one, deeply influenced by culture and
social interactions. Unlike other cognitive theories that
focus on independent exploration, Vygotsky argued
that learning occurs through collaborative dialogues
with more knowledgeable individuals, such as parents,
teachers, and peers. He introduced key concepts such as culture-specific tools, private
speech, and the zone of proximal development (ZPD)—the gap between what a learner
can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance.

A central idea in Vygotsky’s theory is the role of the More Knowledgeable Other
(MKO)—someone with a higher level of ability or understanding who helps the learner
acquire new skills. The MKO could be a teacher, parent, sibling, or even a peer who
provides support through modeling, instruction, and scaffolding.

Vygotsky strongly believed that community and culture play a central role in
shaping thought and learning. Through social interaction, children internalize cultural
values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies, making meaning of the world around
them. This perspective has had a lasting impact on education, highlighting the importance
of social collaboration in learning and cognitive development.

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 I. Piaget vs. Vygotsky: Key Differences
Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky are two of the most influential figures in
developmental psychology, both offering distinct perspectives on how children acquire
knowledge. While Piaget emphasized the role of independent exploration and universal
stages of development, Vygotsky focused on the importance of social interaction and
cultural influence in shaping cognitive growth. This comparison highlights the key
differences between their theories.

ASPECT PIAGET VYGOTSKY

View on Cognitive development precedes Learning precedes and

Development & learning. drives development.
Learning

Role of Social Social interaction is secondary to Social interaction is

Interaction cognitive development; peers essential; learning occurs
are important for perspective- through guided
taking. participation within the
Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD).

Stages of Cognitive development follows No fixed stages; cognitive

Development universal stages (sensorimotor, development varies
preoperational, concrete based on cultural and
operational, formal operational). social experiences.

Cultural Influence Cognitive development is largely Cognitive development is

independent of culture. heavily influenced by
culture and environment.

Role of Language Thought drives language Language and thought

development; egocentric speech are initially separate but
(private speech) disappears over merge; private speech

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 time. evolves into inner speech,
aiding cognition.

Learning Process Children learn through Learning occurs through

independent exploration and scaffolding, where adults
active discovery. or more knowledgeable
peers provide support.

Key Mechanism Assimilation and Internalization of cultural

of Development accommodation—children tools—knowledge is co-
construct knowledge through constructed through
hands-on experiences. social interaction.

By analyzing these differences, it becomes clear that while Piaget and Vygotsky
both recognized children as active learners, their perspectives on how learning occurs
and what drives development are fundamentally distinct.

II. The Zone of Proximal Development

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), introduced by Lev Vygotsky, refers to
the gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with
the guidance of a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO), such as a teacher, mentor, or peer.
It highlights the importance of social interaction and collaboration in cognitive
development.

According to Vygotsky (1987), the distance between the actual developmental

level as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential
development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in
collaboration with more capable peers. This means that learning happens most effectively
when students are challenged but also supported, making ZPD the optimal zone for

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instruction. Tasks within this zone push learners to expand their abilities while preventing
frustration.

A. Key Aspects of the ZPD

● Assisted Learning & Scaffolding - A learner receives temporary support
(scaffolding) from an MKO, which is gradually removed as they gain
independence.
● Social & Cultural Influence - Learning is shaped by interactions with others,
particularly within a cultural context.
● Dynamic and Expanding - The ZPD is not static; it evolves as the learner develops
new skills.
B. ZPD as a Motivational and Effective Zone
The ZPD is not just about cognitive growth; it also plays a role in motivation and
emotional development:
● Tasks within the ZPD are optimally challenging, making learning engaging rather
than overwhelming.
● Successfully working within the ZPD boosts confidence and encourages further
learning.
● The social environment within the ZPD fosters a sense of trust, collaboration, and
belonging in a learning community.
Example: A child struggling with math problems may improve significantly when a teacher
provides step-by-step guidance, asks leading questions, or encourages peer discussion.

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Over time, the child internalizes these problem-solving strategies and becomes
independent.

C. Internalization and the Role of Language

A major component of ZPD is internalization—where external guidance transforms
into independent thought. This happens through:
● Dialogue with the MKO → Self-guided inner speech → Independent mastery
● Learners absorb knowledge from their environment, making it a personal cognitive
tool.
● Over time, what they once needed help with becomes something they can do on
their own.

The Zone of Proximal Development is a fundamental concept in education,

shaping modern teaching methods, assessments, and classroom collaboration. It
emphasizes that learning is most effective when challenges are just beyond a learner’s
current ability but attainable with support. By scaffolding learning, teachers and peers
help students bridge the gap between what they know now and what they will master
tomorrow.

III. Vygotsky’s Concept of More Knowledgeable Other

The More Knowledgeable Other

(MKO) is a central concept in
Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural
theory of cognitive development.
It refers to someone who
possesses a higher level of
knowledge, skill, or experience
in a particular domain than the learner and can assist in their learning process.

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 The MKO plays a crucial role in helping the learner progress within their Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD)—the gap between what they can do independently and
what they can achieve with guidance. By providing scaffolding, the MKO enables the
learner to internalize new skills and knowledge until they can perform tasks
independently.

A. Who Can Be an MKO?

While people often assume that the MKO must be a teacher or adult, Vygotsky
emphasized that the MKO is not limited to formal educators. Instead, the MKO can take
various forms, including:
● Teachers - Provide structured learning experiences and instruction.
● Parents and Caregivers - Guide children in everyday tasks and cultural knowledge.
● Peers - More knowledgeable classmates or friends can assist with learning.
● Siblings - Older siblings often help younger ones learn skills and social norms.
● Technology & Media - In modern learning, digital tools such as educational apps,
tutorials, and AI-based systems can act as MKOs.

B. How the MKO Supports Learning?

The MKO helps learners through scaffolding, which involves providing temporary
assistance that is gradually reduced as the learner gains independence. Some ways the
MKO supports learning include:
● Breaking down tasks - Making complex concepts simpler and more manageable.
● Modeling skills - Demonstrating how to complete a task.
● Providing feedback - Correcting mistakes and reinforcing correct approaches.
● Encouraging reflection - Prompting learners to think critically about their actions.
● Motivating the learner - Encouraging persistence and effort in challenging tasks.
Example: A child learning to ride a bike. At first, a parent (MKO) holds the bike, providing
guidance on balancing and pedaling. As the child becomes more confident, the parent
gradually reduces assistance until the child can ride independently.

89
 Vygotsky’s concept of the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) emphasizes the
social nature of learning, showing that cognitive development happens through guidance
and interaction with more experienced individuals. The MKO helps learners bridge the
gap between what they currently know and what they can achieve with support, making
it a critical component of effective teaching and learning.

IV. Vygotsky’s Concept of Scaffolding

Scaffolding is the process of breaking down information or skills into smaller, more
manageable pieces to help learners grasp new concepts. He emphasized that students
should be taught at their level of capability, within their Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD), using peer support, instructional strategies, and ongoing assessment. Scaffolding
provides temporary support, much like a physical scaffold in construction. Just as
scaffolds help builders work on a structure until it is strong enough to stand on its own,
educational scaffolding supports students until they develop independence in their
learning. Once students become proficient, the support is gradually removed—a process
known as fading.

Scaffolding is directly connected to Vygotsky’s concept of the ZPD. The ZPD

represents the gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can
accomplish with assistance from a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) (e.g., a teacher or
peer). Scaffolding helps learners bridge this gap, allowing them to engage in more
complex tasks than they could handle alone. Rather than viewing the ZPD as an abstract
idea, Vygotsky considered it the prime area for learning, where learners benefit from
thoughtful guidance provided by peers, teachers, or adults.

A. Key Aspects of Scaffolding

● Breaking Down Tasks - Complex skills or concepts are divided into smaller, more
digestible steps.
● Guided Support - Learners receive clues, prompts, or demonstrations to help them
understand.

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 ● Gradual Independence - Support is slowly reduced as the learner becomes more
competent (fading).
● Active Engagement - Scaffolding encourages learners to actively participate and
construct knowledge.
● Encourages Mastery - The learner eventually internalizes the skill and can perform
it independently.

For Instance,
● Reading Assistance: A teacher helps a child read "cat" by breaking it into sounds
/c/, /a/, and /t/ and guiding them to blend the sounds all together.
● Math Problem-Solving: A teacher first demonstrates how to solve a problem and
provides hints before allowing the student to solve it independently.
● Writing Skills: A student learning to write may start by tracing letters, then copying
words, and finally writing on their own.
● Classroom Discussion: A teacher asks questions to help students analyze a topic
rather than giving direct answers.

Vygotsky’s concept of scaffolding is a powerful teaching strategy that aligns with

his theory of the Zone of Proximal Development. By providing structured support,
modeling strategies, and encouraging gradual independence, scaffolding maximizes
student learning. It ensures that tasks remain challenging yet achievable, fostering both
confidence and mastery.

V. Socialization and Play in Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory highlights the crucial role of social interaction and
play in cognitive and emotional development. He argued that children learn best in a
social environment, where they engage in meaningful interactions with adults and peers.
Play, in particular, serves as a powerful tool for learning, allowing children to explore new
concepts, practice problem-solving, and develop abstract thinking.

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A. The Role of Socialization in Learning
Socialization is central to Vygotsky’s perspective on learning. Through interactions
with caregivers, teachers, and peers, children acquire cultural knowledge, problem-
solving strategies, and self-regulation skills. One of the core ideas in Vygotsky’s theory is
the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)—the gap between what a child can do
independently and what they can achieve with guidance.

B. The Role of Play in Learning

Vygotsky emphasized that play is more than entertainment—it is an essential
learning tool. Through play, children experiment with new ideas, practice self-regulation,
and engage in problem-solving. He believed that play allows children to stretch their
conceptual abilities, fostering cognitive growth and creativity.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

The image illustrates Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, showing how
different environmental systems influence a child’s development. At the center is the child,
surrounded by five layers representing various systems. This Ecological Theory of
Bronfenbrenner highlights how all these interconnected systems work together to shape
the child’s growth.

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Microsystem: The immediate environments that directly affect the child, such as family,
school, and peer groups.

Mesosystem: The interactions between different microsystems, such as the relationship

between a child's home life and school life.

Exosystem: External environments that indirectly affect the child, like a parent's
workplace or local government decisions.

Macrosystem: The broader cultural and societal influences, including values, norms, and
societal structures.

Chronosystem: The dimension of time, considering how life events and transitions, like
moving or societal changes, impact development over time.

The table presented below shows the Influence of Each System on Child’s
Development.

Ecological Systems Influence on Development

Microsystem This system has the strongest and most

immediate impact on a child’s
development. It includes the child’s direct
environment, such as family, school,
friends, and neighborhood. Positive
interactions within these settings promote
the child’s growth, emotional health, and
social skills. For instance, supportive
family relationships and quality schooling
directly influence a child’s learning and
social behavior.

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Mesosystem The Mesosystem connects various
elements of the microsystem. It involves
the relationships between different areas
of the child’s life, such as interactions
between parents and teachers. When
these relationships are collaborative, they
create a more consistent and supportive
environment for the child, aiding in their
development.

Exosystem This system involves external factors that

indirectly affect the child. Examples
include a parent’s workplace, the media, or
community resources. Although the child
might not interact with these systems
directly, they still influence the child’s
development. For instance, a parent’s
work stress may affect their emotional
availability, which in turn affects the child’s
well-being.

Macrosystem The Macrosystem consists of the broader

cultural, societal, and economic factors
that shape a child’s development. These
include national policies, cultural norms,
societal values, and laws. A child’s
development can be influenced by the
prevailing cultural attitudes toward
education, gender, and family structures.

Chronosystem The Chronosystem involves the role of

time, including life changes and historical

94
 events. This system looks at how
transitions, such as moving to a new place,
the death of a loved one, or societal
changes, impact the child’s development.
The child’s ability to adapt to these
changes, like adjusting to a divorce or
societal shifts, can have long-term effects
on their growth.

LINK TO VIDEO RECORDING

Human Growth and Development Theories
Psychoanalytic Theory - What Freud thought of Personality
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
8 Stages of Development by Erik Erikson
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages of Moral Development
Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development in Social Relationships
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems: 5 Forces Impacting Our Lives

95
ACTIVITY
I. Evaluation: Define the following terms using your own understanding from the
lesson you have read.
1. Growth
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Development
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. Anal Stage
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. Sensorimotor Stage
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
5. Adolescence
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
6. Conventional Stage
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
7. Zone of Proximal Development
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

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 8. More Knowledgeable Other
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
9. Scaffolding
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
10. Macrosystem
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

II. Analysis: Create a graphic organizer that presents a descriptive summary of

Physical, Social, and Cognitive Development of an Individual from Infancy to
Toddlerhood, using the Developmental Theories as a foundation.

Rubrics of Activity II

CRITERIA Excellent Proficient Good Fair

(10 pts) (8 pts) (5 pts) (3 pts)

Content Accurate and Mostly accurate Some Major errors or

Accuracy thorough and complete inaccuracies or missing
descriptions for descriptions; missing information;
all 3 domains minor gaps or information; little or no
(physical, theory weak reference to
social, connections. application of theories.
cognitive) using theories.
appropriate
developmental
theories.

Use of Effectively Uses at least Uses theories No clear use of

97
Theories integrates one relevant inconsistently developmental
multiple theory or incorrectly. theories.
relevant appropriately in
theories (e.g., each domain.
Piaget,
Erikson) in all
domains.

Organization Graphic Generally well- Some Poorly

& Clarity organizer is organized and disorganization organized or
well-structured, clear, with or confusing hard to follow.
easy to read, minor layout elements in
and logically issues. layout or
organized by structure.
age and
domain.

Creativity & Visually Visually neat Basic visuals; No visuals or

Visual Appeal engaging with and moderately lacks appeal or disorganized
creative design engaging. effort in design. visuals that
elements; hinder
enhances understanding.
understanding.

Completeness Covers all key Covers most Covers some Incomplete;

stages from stages and stages or major stages or
infancy to domains with domains; some domains
toddlerhood (0– minor important missing.
3 years) in all omissions. information
domains. missing.

Total Score: __ / 50 Points

98
 Lesson 4
Parenthood, Prenatal Development and Birth

INTRODUCTION
Did you ever wonder how the baby was created, and how it developed inside the
mother’s womb? This module will help you to broaden your knowledge about it, first we
will learn about the prenatal environment hazards, the external factors that can negatively
affect the growth and development of a baby in the womb. Second the conception or the
process of becoming pregnant involves fertilization or implantation and the prenatal
development, having the three stages which are the germinal, embryonic and fetal stages.
Third, the birth process is the labor stage that we will learn, which is the dilation stage,
expulsion stage and placental stage, and lastly the newborn, also known as the neonatal
period, the first few weeks of the baby’s life. This module will expand our knowledge about
life and including the baby’s health and medical conditions.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completion of this lesson, you will be able to competently do these:
1. Show one’s knowledge and understanding of conception, prenatal development,
and the birth process.
2. Discuss intelligently the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional development
during infancy and toddlerhood stage.

CONTENT OUTLINE
● Prenatal environment hazards
● Conception and prenatal development
● The birth processes
● The newborn

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LECTURE DISCUSSION

PRENATAL ENVIRONMENT HAZARDS

Prenatal environmental hazards are external factors that can negatively affect the
growth and development of a baby in the womb. These risks may lead to serious
complications such as birth defects, low birth weight, premature birth, stillbirth, or long-
term developmental and cognitive issues.

Some common prenatal hazards include exposure to harmful chemicals and pollution
(like cigarette smoke and air pollution), drug and alcohol use (which can cause birth
defects), infections and diseases (such as rubella and the Zika virus), poor nutrition (lack
of essential nutrients or excessive caffeine intake), and high levels of stress (which may
impact brain development). To ensure a healthy pregnancy, it is important for expectant
mothers to avoid these risks as much as possible.

VID LINK: https://youtu.be/J6XqDRdGScY

100
CONCEPTION AND PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

1. CONCEPTION
Conception is the process where a sperm
cell from a male fertilizes an egg cell (ovum)
from a female, usually in the fallopian tube.
During this process, the genetic material
from the sperm and egg combines to form a
zygote. The zygote contains 46
chromosomes (23 from each parent) that
carry the genetic instructions that will guide
the baby's development, including physical
traits, potential health conditions, and other
genetic characteristics.

2. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
Prenatal development is the journey from a
single fertilized cell to a fully developed baby,
which takes about 40 weeks on average. It is
divided into THREE MAIN STAGES!!

After fertilization, the zygote begins rapid cell division as it travels down the fallopian tube
to the uterus.

It forms a blastocyst, a ball of cells with a fluid-filled cavity.

101
Implantation occurs when the blastocyst embeds itself into the uterine lining, establishing
the early connections needed to nourish the developing embryo.

● Embryonic Stage (3-8 weeks)

The blastocyst develops into an embryo.

Critical systems and structures, such as the heart, brain, spinal cord, and major organs,
begin to form through a process called organogenesis.

During this stage, the embryo is highly vulnerable to teratogens, which are harmful
substances like alcohol, drugs, certain medications, and infections that can cause birth
defects or developmental issues.

● Fetal Stage (9 weeks to birth)

The embryo is now called a fetus.

The focus shifts from forming structures to growth and maturation of organs and systems.

The fetus begins to move, and sensory responses develop.

Video Link: https://youtu.be/wdrtD9cEQwo?si=Hdo_Y3IHNwEyP4FD

THE BIRTH PROCESS

1. First Stage of Labor
- Labor begins and progresses until the cervix is fully dilated to 10 centimeters.
Various methods to induce labor include cervical ripening with prostaglandins,
membrane stripping, amniotomy, and intravenous oxytocin. Contractions intensify
and occur at regular intervals, approximately every 3 to 5 minutes. During the first

102
 stage of labor, serial cervical examinations are performed to assess fetal position,
cervical dilation, and effacement.

a. Latent Phase - The latent phase involves cervical dilation from 0 to 6 cm and is
typically longer and less predictable in terms of the rate of cervical change. In
nulliparous women, it can last up to 20 hours, while in multiparous women, it can
extend up to 14 hours without being considered prolonged. Sedation may lengthen
the duration of this phase

b. Active Phase - This phase involves cervical dilation from 6 cm to full dilation. The
cervix generally dilates at a rate of 1.2 to 1.5 cm per hour

2. Second Stage of Labor

- Labor progresses from full cervical dilation at 10 centimeters to the birth of the
baby, a phase known as the pelvic division. Following complete dilation, the fetus
moves down the vaginal canal with or without maternal pushing. The process
involves seven cardinal movements: the descent, flexion, internal rotation,
extension, external rotation, and expulsion. A prolonged second stage may be
influenced by factors such as pelvic shape, strength of expulsive efforts,
hypertension, diabetes, maternal age, and prior delivery history.

a. Women with previous vaginal deliveries – Their bodies have adapted to the
birthing process, often resulting in a shorter second stage requiring only a brief trial
b. Women without prior vaginal deliveries – The second stage may take longer to
complete
c. Women receiving neuraxial anesthesia – The second stage typically lasts less
than 4 hours for nulliparous women and less than 3 hours for multiparous women

3. Third Stage of Labor

- Labor enters its final stage with the delivery of the fetus and ends with the
expulsion of the placenta. Placental separation from the uterine wall is indicated

103
 by three cardinal signs: a vaginal gush of blood, elongation of the umbilical cord,
and a globular-shaped uterine fundus upon palpation. Management of this stage
includes applying traction to the umbilical cord while simultaneously exerting
fundal pressure to facilitate faster placental delivery.

Third stage involves three components:

1. Giving a drug (a uterotonic) to help contract the uterus
2. Clamping the cord early (usually before, alongside, or immediately after giving the
uterotonic).
3. Traction is applied to the cord with counter‐pressure on the uterus to deliver the
placenta (controlled cord traction).

Mixed management uses some, but not all of the three components. Active management
was introduced to try to reduce severe blood loss at birth.

VIDEO LINK: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=samWyTjFmS8

THE NEWBORN
From birth, newborns begin responding to
their environment. Their reactions such
as being soothed by a parent’s touch or
startling at loud noises are signs of typical
infant development.
Healthcare providers use developmental
milestones to assess whether a baby is
growing and developing as expected.
Since there is a wide range of normal, some infants may reach certain milestones earlier
or later than others. Premature babies may achieve these milestones at a slightly
delayed pace compared to full-term infants.

104
Growth Expectations
Newborns experience rapid growth in the first few weeks of life. While growth rates can
vary, most newborns follow a predictable pattern.

Weight Development
● First Few Days
○ Newborns typically lose 5–10% of their birth weight in the first 2–3 days
due to fluid loss.
○ This is normal and expected as babies adjust to feeding outside the womb.

● First 2 Weeks
○ By about 10–14 days, newborns should regain the lost weight and return to
their birth weight.

● Ongoing Weight Gain

○ After regaining birth weight, newborns gain approximately 1 ounce (28g)
per day or 5–7 ounces (140–200g) per week in the first month.
Length
● At birth:
○ Boys: ~20 inches (50.8 cm)
○ Girls: ~19 ¾ inches (50.2 cm)

● At 1 month:
○ Boys: ~21 ½ inches (54.6 cm)
○ Girls: ~21 inches (53.3 cm)

Head Circumference
● Increases by about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in the first month.

105
Newborn Reflexes
Reflexes are automatic movements that help newborns interact with their environment:

Reflex Description Duration

Root Reflex Baby turns its head and opens its mouth when its Birth to ~4 months
cheek is stroked (helps with feeding).

Suck Reflex Baby starts sucking when the mouth is touched. Develops ~32–36
weeks gestation

Moro Reflex Also called the startle reflex—baby throws arms Birth to ~5–6
and legs outward when startled. months

Tonic Neck Baby turns head to one side, stretching out one Birth to ~6–7
Reflex arm while the other bends ("fencing" position). months

Grasp Baby grips objects placed in the palm. Birth to ~2 months

Reflex

Babinski Toes fan out when the foot sole is stroked. Birth to ~2 years
Reflex

Step Reflex Baby appears to "walk" when held upright with Birth to ~2 m
feet touching a surface.

Factors Influencing Newborn Growth

A newborn’s size at birth and their growth rate in the first few months are influenced by
several biological and environmental factors. While every baby follows a unique growth
pattern, the following factors can impact their overall development.

106
Genetics
Genetic factors play a significant role in determining a baby’s birth weight and growth
rate.
● Parents’ size: Babies born to taller, larger parents tend to have higher birth
weights, while those born to smaller, petite parents are often lighter and shorter at
birth.
● Family history: If there is a pattern of low birth weight or large babies in a family, it
may influence the baby's size.

Gestational Age (Time in the Womb)

The number of weeks a baby spends developing inside the womb has a direct impact on
birth weight and growth.
● Full-Term Babies (37–42 weeks)
○ Have an average birth weight (typically 5.5–8.8 lbs or 2.5–4 kg).
○ Their bodies have had enough time to store nutrients and develop properly.
● Preterm Babies (Born before 37 weeks)
○ Tend to have lower birth weights because they had less time to develop
fat stores and muscle.
○ May experience delayed growth in the first months but often catch up over
time.
● Post-Term Babies (Born after 42 weeks)
○ Some gain extra weight in the womb, leading to larger-than-average
birth sizes.
○ However, if the placenta begins to function poorly after 42 weeks, the baby
might have low birth weight due to reduced nutrients.

Baby’s Health and Medical Conditions

Certain medical conditions before and after birth can impact a newborn’s growth:
● Intrauterine Growth Restriction (IUGR) – A condition where the baby does not
grow properly in the womb due to placental issues, poor nutrition, or maternal
health conditions.

107
 ● Genetic or chromosomal disorders – Conditions like Down syndrome or Turner
syndrome may affect a baby's birth weight and growth rate.
● Congenital infections – Infections such as rubella, cytomegalovirus (CMV), or
toxoplasmosis during pregnancy can lead to low birth weight and growth delays.
● Metabolic disorders – Some babies may have conditions that affect how their
bodies process nutrients, leading to slow weight gain.

Maternal Health During Pregnancy

A mother’s overall health plays a critical role in a baby’s birth weight and early growth.

Health Conditions That May Lead to Lower Birth Weight

● High blood pressure (preeclampsia) – Can reduce blood flow to the baby,
limiting oxygen and nutrient supply.
● Heart disease – May cause poor fetal growth due to reduced oxygen levels.
● Poor maternal nutrition – Can result in low birth weight and slower postnatal
growth.
● Smoking, alcohol, and drug use – These can restrict oxygen supply, leading to
growth restriction (IUGR).

Health Conditions That May Lead to Higher Birth Weight

● Diabetes or gestational diabetes – Can cause excessive fetal growth
(macrosomia), leading to a higher birth weight (over 8.8 lbs or 4 kg).
● Obesity during pregnancy – Increases the likelihood of having a larger-than-
average baby.

108
YouTube link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TtnhsOAG7vI

109
 ACTIVITY
Answer the following items that consist five (5) points each.

1. Distinguish the difference of the prenatal stages; germinal stage, embryonic stage and
the fetal stage.

2. What are the external factors that cause the development of a baby inside the womb?
How can a pregnant woman avoid these risks?

3. Among seven newborn reflexes, choose two and explain how these reflexes occur.

4. Based on your own understanding, how does the process of birth happen? Explain
thoroughly.

5. Pregnant women are prone to different health conditions during pregnancy. As a

student, how can you help them since we are in a society where technology is visible?

RUBRICS OF ACTIVITY

CRITERIA EXCELLENT (5pts) GOOD (4pts) SATISFACTORY NEED

(3pts) IMPROVEMENT
(2pts)

Clarity & Clearly expresses thought in Well organized Some ideas are Thoughts are
Organization well-structured and and clear, with a unclear, and scattered, making
engaging manner smooth flow of organization needs it difficult to follow.
ideas minor improvement

Quality of Piece was written in very Piece was Piece had little Piece had no
Writing informative and well written information but information and
organized somewhat poorly organized very poorly
informative and organized
organized

110
 Lesson 5
Infancy and Toddlerhood
INTRODUCTION

Infancy and Toddlerhood are the critical stages of rapid growth and
development of a newborn to around two years old. When this time comes, the babies
will grow quickly, develop motor skills, and they will start to use their senses and explore
the world around them. During the exploration of babies, the development of their brains
will be rapid in remembering things, memorizing, simple problem-solving, and learning
their mother tongue. Then they will start making sounds and eventually basic words to
communicate. Lastly, babies will begin recognizing themselves, expressing their
feelings, interacting with others, and show some indications of empathy. Family
environment and social interactions might affect all the growth and future learning of the
baby. Each milestone, from the baby's first smile to their first words, is part of a larger
journey of discovery and connection to the world.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

1. Explain the physical changes that occur during infancy and toddlerhood, including
brain development, motor skills, and sensory development.
2. Identify and describe the cognitive processes during the sensorimotor stage of
development, including learning, memory, and language acquisition.
3. Analyze socio-emotional development in infants and toddlers, including
attachment, social interactions, and self-identity.
4. Determine the factors that influence an infant's and toddler's development,
including biological, environmental, and social influences.

111
LESSON DISCUSSION

The physical bodies of infants and toddlers show

common growth trends and these trends relate to motor
development. Among them, there are two major trends:
cephalocaudal and proximodistal. The cephalocaudal
indicates a generalized top-to-bottom growth. For example,
infants may develop the ability to use their upper limbs before
they learn to use their lower limbs. Meanwhile, the
proximodistal is the pre-natal growth from 5 months to birth
when the fetus grows from the inside of the body outwards.
https://encrypted-
tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQ5a8_KXx
RAtEhauA065Nx7t63YQqoz6Xfp-w&s

PHYSICAL APPEARANCE
Drastic changes in the body proportion of a person occur in the first several years
of life. Initially, the head makes up about 50% of the entirety of the infant's length while
they are developing inside the womb. At birth, the head is around 25% of an infant’s
overall length. By age 25, it is now about 20% of their length hence, a 2-month-old infant
raising their head would be a great challenge.

HEIGHT AND WEIGHT

Infants' length is measured while lying on their back, and children who can stand
are measured standing up. In the first year, infants grow about 10 inches, with their length
increasing by 30% at 5 months and over 50% at 12 months. Newborns lose 5-8% of their
birth weight in the first days but regain it by 2 weeks. A baby’s weight usually triples during
the first year but slows down in the second year of life.

BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
At birth, the brain is about 25% of its adult size, which is different from the rest of
the body. By age 2, it reaches 75% of its adult weight, 95% by age 6, and is fully grown
by age 7. While most of the brain's 100 to 200 billion neurons are present at birth, they
aren't fully developed.

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 In the first two years, the number of dendrites increases quickly, so by age 2,
each neuron can have thousands. After this growth, the unused connections are
removed, making the active ones stronger. This growth of dendrites is part of
synaptogenesis, where neurons form many new connections. This process, called
Synaptic Blooming, mostly happens in the cortex, the outer part of the brain that controls
thinking and actions.
Another important change is the growth of myelin, a fatty layer around neurons
that helps signals travel faster. Myelin growth continues into adolescence, but it’s most
noticeable in the first few years.
Myelination or myelinization is the process by which the axon are covered
and insulated by layers of fat cells and it increases the speed at which information travels
through the nervous system.

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
The physical motions and coordination of newborns and toddlers, including
muscle growth, reflex refinement, and gross and fine motor abilities, are referred to as
motor development. It equips newborns with the ability to sit, crawl, stand, walk, run, and
leap. It starts with reflexive movements and advances to voluntary behaviors. In order to
ensure that children acquire the physical abilities required for independence and everyday
chores, caregivers and educators must have a thorough understanding of motor
development.

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 Reflexes

The newborn baby is born with some not intention reflexes that help them survive and
prepare for intentional movements and here are some reflexes included:

Sucking Reflex: The sucking reflex allows babies

to instinctively suck when something touches their
lips.

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Rooting Reflex: The rooting reflex is an automatic

oral action to a newborn baby when the corner of the
baby is touched.

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Gripping Reflex: Babies will grasp anything that is

placed on their palm. The strength of this grip is
strong, and most babies can support their entire
weight in their grip.
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Curling Reflex: When the inner sole of a baby’s

foot is stroked the infant responds by curling his or
her toes. When the outer sole of a baby’s foot is

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 stroked, the infant will respond by spreading out
their toes.

Moro Reflex: A baby demonstrates startled

behavior by thrusting its arms outward, as if
grasping for something in response to a sudden
noise or movement.

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Galant Reflex: The galant reflex is shown when an
infant’s middle or lower back is stroked next to the
spinal cord. The baby will respond by curving his or
her body toward the side which is being stroked.

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Tonic Neck Reflex: The tonic neck reflex is cdn.com/content/v1/61029e84aa99d0335a0e9717/d9a8ef93-3ebf-4d40-
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demonstrated in infants who are placed on their

abdomens. Whenever the side the child’s head is
facing, the limbs on that side will straighten, while
the opposite limbs will curl.
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Gross and Fine Motor Skills

Gross motor skills are large muscular groups are used in gross motor abilities to
perform tasks like walking, running, leaping, and crawling. Mobility, balance, coordination,
and general physical activity are all improved by these abilities.

Fine Motor Skills

Using the tiny muscles to make accurate hand and finger movements is known
as fine motor skills. These abilities are necessary for self-care activities including
buttoning garments, writing, eating, and grasping items.

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SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT

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Infants rely heavily on their senses to understand the environment the infants belong to.
Sensory ability develops fast during the first year of their life.

Vision
● Newborns' eyesight is blurry, and they can concentrate best at 8 to 12 inches.
● By two to three months, the baby can identify faces and follow the moving things.
Hearing
● Babies prefer familiar sounds, especially their mother's, and can hear them from
birth.
● Around six months, they start to recognize their name and react to various tones.
Touch and Sensation of Pain
● Necessary for comfort and bonding. From birth, babies are able to sense pain and
react to light contact.
Smell and Taste
● Newborns can detect odors and have a preference for sweet flavors.
● By a few months, they begin to favor meals and scents that they are accustomed
to.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Cognitive Development during infancy and toddlerhood pertains to how an infant
think. It emphasizes the growth in relation to information processing, conceptual
resources, perceptual abilities, language acquisition, and various elements of brain
development. Piaget identified four stages of cognitive development: the sensorimotor,
the preoperational, the concrete operational, and the formal operational stage.

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SENSORIMOTOR STAGE
In this phase, infants develop an awareness of their surroundings by integrating
sensory experiences with physical motor actions. This phase continues from birth until
the age of two. Throughout this phase, behaviors do not exhibit reasoning or logic. Actions
progressively evolve from responding to instinctive reflexes to engaging with their
surroundings, with an objective in focus, and ultimately being capable of symbolizing the
external environment.
Babies enter the world with a restricted set of abilities, yet they utilize those
capabilities to gain further understanding of their surroundings. Although it may appear
that a baby primarily eats and sleeps, their engagement with caregivers and their
environment delivers a significant amount of information that fosters their cognitive
development.

In other terms, infants and young children perceive the world and acquire knowledge
through their sensory experiences and physical movements. Through experimentation,
children learn more about their environment. There are 6 sub-stages within this phase:
● Simple Reflexes (Birth - 6 weeks)
During this time, the infant mainly engages with the environment via innate
reflexes, like sucking, grasping, and looking, instead of intentional actions.
● First habits and primary circular reactions phase (6 weeks - 4 months)
In primary circular reactions, the infant's body is the center of the activities rather
than the environment. These reactions are characterized by the child reiterating
body-focused actions that were initially unintentional but are later repeated for their
enjoyable outcomes. At this phase, demands related to reflexes—like sucking,
gazing, and gripping—prevail, and aspirations for future goals do not surface. An
infant may accidentally suck on their thumb and discover it pleasurable, causing
them to engage in the behavior repeatedly.
● Secondary circular reactions phase (4 - 8 months)
Secondary circular reactions focus on how actions influence the external
environment and extend beyond the infant's physical self.

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 At this point, infants begin to repeat actions that produce engaging or enjoyable
results in their environment and grow increasingly aware of the external world. For
example, a baby might accidentally shake a rattle and then intentionally shake it
again to recreate the sound because it captures their interest. As the child begins
to understand the cause-and-effect dynamics with the objects present in their
surroundings, this phase indicates their growing awareness of and engagement
with their environment.
● Coordination of reactions stage secondary circular (8 - 12 months)
Infants between 8 to 12 months are capable of merging and modifying current
actions to attain a goal, even when the solution is not apparent. They explore by
testing various actions, such as dropping toys from different elevations or placing
shapes into containers in alternative methods. This phase signifies the onset of
purposeful behavior, where children execute actions with a defined aim rather than
merely repeating actions with items.
● Tertiary circular reactions novelty and curiosity (12 - 18 months)
Active object and action experimentation constitutes a part of tertiary circular
reactions (12–18 months).
Apart from merely repeating and generalizing familiar outcomes, tertiary circular
reactions are characterized by the infant's intentional efforts to discover new
properties and consequences related to objects. The infant's behaviors are driven
by a natural curiosity for new experiences and an eagerness to understand the
"how" and "why" of an object's actions.
● Internalization of Schemes (Invention of New Means Through Mental
Combination 18-24 months)
Babies are now capable of forming mental images of objects during substage six.
Their symbolic thoughts start to develop, and it signifies a child's ability to form
mental pictures of things or events that are not yet present.
This advancement enables activities such as pretend play and symbol usage,
reflecting an understanding of object permanence—the notion that objects
continue to exist even when they cannot be seen. A cognitive advancement
referred to as symbolic thought establishes the foundation for subsequent stages

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 of conceptual and abstract thinking.

The sensorimotor stage shows that the development begins from reflexive
behaviors to more refined and more coordinated activities. Throughout the sensorimotor
period, infants seem to know the world only through motor activity and sensory
impressions. Understanding that objects continue to exist when they are hidden from view
is the basic idea of object permanence.

LEARNING AND REMEMBERING

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Infants are capable of learning and retaining information. Studies have shown that both
Skinner's operant conditioning and Pavlov's classical conditioning can be applied to
infants. The phenomenon of not being able to recall events from our early years is referred
to as infantile amnesia, and it affects everyone (Spear, 1979). Generally speaking, we
find it challenging to remember much of what has occurred before we turn five, and it is
quite rare for someone to have many memories from before the age of three. Fivush and
Hammond (1991) suggest that accounts of childhood memories usually consist of
memories of significant events, like the birth of a sibling or the death of a parent.

Some adults, for example, can remember their own hospitalization or the
arrival of a sibling starting at age two, and they might be able to remember a parent's
death or a family's move beginning at age three.

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LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Children typically possess a vocabulary of three to
one hundred words by the age of eighteen months
(Siegler, 1986). Because their vocabulary is limited
at this developmental period, young children often
tend to elaborate on words in their current
vocabulary to describe concepts and objects for
which they have not yet learned a new term. For
example, "doggie" may be used to denote any four-
legged animal. This phenomenon is referred to as an
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in the field of linguistics. Between the ages of 1. 5 and 2. 5, children
start to combine individual words, resulting in two-word expressions. The phrase
telegraphic speech describes these two- or three-word phrases that omit articles and
prepositions but maintain straightforward syntax.

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE (LAD)

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Children learn their first language by building on what they already know, which helps
them identify and categorize things around them. This process begins around 12 months
old. They first create mental images or concepts before using words to express
experiences. The question is whether they keep these earlier concepts or replace them
with language. Recent studies show that both types of representations are kept and can
be used when needed.

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 According to famous linguist Noam Chomsky (1965, 1972), humans possess an
inherent language acquisition device (LAD). This LAD is the metaphorical organ
responsible for acquiring language. Similar to how a heart is designed to circulate blood,
this language acquisition device is equipped to learn language, irrespective of the
linguistic community in which children grow up. This implies that humans are biologically
designed to be capable of learning. Children seem to exhibit an ability to apply the various
rules of language structure to new words and contexts, as well as to cultivate an implicit
comprehension of these rules.

RECEPTIVE AND EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE

The capability to grasp and interpret spoken
language that you either hear or read is referred
to as receptive language, or the "input" of
language. For example, a child’s receptive
language abilities are essential for them to hear
and adhere to directives (such as "put on your
coat"). Typically, children are able to understand
language prior to their ability to express it.
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Receptive language disorders or challenges with
receptive language may be found in children who have difficulties with understanding
language.

Children who have difficulty understanding language may struggle with the following:
● Following directions
● Understanding what gestures mean
● Answering questions
● Identifying objects and pictures
● Reading comprehension
● Understanding a story

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 However, the "output" of language refers to expressive language, which is the
ability to convey your needs and wants either verbally or nonverbally. It is the ability to
articulate thoughts in grammatically correct and understandable words and sentences.
Children who have difficulty conveying their needs and wants may be experiencing an
expressive language disorder or challenges with expressive language. Expressive
language disorders are often identified when young children do not achieve
developmental milestones.

Children who have difficulty producing language may struggle with the following:
● Asking questions
● Naming objects
● Using gestures
● Using facial expressions
● Making comments
● Vocabulary
● Syntax (grammar rules)
● Semantics (word/sentence meaning)
● Morphology (forms of words)

● 0-6 months: utilizes vocalizations, like gurgling, cooing, or babbling, and motions,
such as pointing or stretching arms, to communicate their desires.
● 7-12 months: Replicates sounds produced by others; Refers to particular
individuals using significant terms like "papa" or "mama";; Recognizes animals
through their sounds (e. g. , "meow-meow" for cats); Recognizes objects or
occurrences in the surroundings with environmental sounds (e. g. , "boom" for
thunder).
● 13-18 months: Uses words; communicates using individual words; correctly
answers with "yes" and "no," along with gestures to indicate their desires.
Responds to simple questions with one word.

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 ● 19-24 months: utilizes pronouns and possessive pronouns, conveys their wishes
without utilizing gestures, and strives to communicate, even if they are not readily
comprehensible.

PRE-READING AND PRE-MATH (MATCHING & ROTE SEQUENCING)

Pre-Reading - In simple terms, pre-reading skills are the abilities that a child needs before
they start learning to read. These skills help make learning to read easier when they begin
school. Helping children build these skills is one of the best ways to get them ready for
reading.

Pre-Math - Skills are basic math lessons that young kids learn, like counting numbers
(usually 1 to 10), knowing the order of numbers, and recognizing bigger or smaller
shapes. These skills also help kids learn how to say numbers correctly.

Matching
The child can recognize and match things that are the same, such as colors, shapes, or
objects.
0 - 6 months They can focus on new things, like a rattle or a hanging toy.

7 - 12 months They can match two similar items such as two balls or two
toy cars.

19 - 24 months They can match objects that are the same and match
pictures that are alike.

Rote Sequencing
The child can recite the alphabet and numbers in order. Between 19 to 24 months.
19 - 24 months The child is able to count from 1 to 5 (may take some errors).

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ATTENTION AND ACTIVITY LEVEL
The child is able to focus and control their activity in a way that matches their age.
0 - 6 months They can focus on new things, like a rattle or a hanging toy.

7 - 12 months They explore toys for several minutes, like pulling them
apart, and show interest in picture books. They can also sit
through a full meal without a fuss.

13 - 18 months They might get distracted but can refocus when reminded,
and they don’t like being interrupted while playing.

CONCEPT FORMATION & LOGICAL REASONING

The child learns basic ideas like understanding that objects stay the same even when
they change position (object constancy), recognizing space and time, counting, and
arranging things in order (seriation). They use these ideas to understand how things are
grouped around them.
0 - 6 months The child tries out new toys by banging them or putting them
in their mouth; they look at objects that fall.

7 - 12 months The child looks for objects that are partly hidden and then
looks for objects that are fully hidden.

13 - 18 months The child can tell if something is hot or cold and can give one
object when asked.

19 - 24 months The child can figure out which of two items is shorter, taller,
longer, bigger, or closer.

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MEMORY (EPISODIC & SEMANTIC)
Memory Episodic
The child can remember people they've met, events, and places they've been.
0 - 6 months The child might smile or show recognition when seeing
someone they've met before, even if that person doesn't live
with them.

13 - 18 months The child may react, like smiling, when they recognize a
familiar place outside their home.

19 - 24 months The child can recall a place they've been to before and
recognize it when they go back.

Memory Semantic
The child can remember verbal information in both short-term and long-term memory.
19 - 24 months The child can hum a song they recognize and remember
some of the movements from action songs.

PLANNING, ORGANIZING & CREATIVE THOUGHT

At 19-24 months, children show early signs of higher-order mental abilities, though these
skills are still developing:

Logical Reasoning
The child can understand why certain events happen and make accurate
conclusions by thinking about the facts. Toddlers begin to understand that things exist
even when they can't see them (object permanence). They start to remember where
things belong and can make simple decisions based on what they know.

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Planning and organizing
The child can come up with new ideas or link ideas together. Toddlers begin
trying to do things on their own, like feeding themselves or putting on their clothes.
However, their ability to plan and organize is lacking. It's common for toddlers to need
guidance and support.

Creative Thought
The child can come up with new ideas or connect ideas in different ways.
Toddlers begin trying to do things on their own, like feeding themselves or putting on their
clothes. However, their ability to plan and organize is lacking. It's common for toddlers to
need guidance and support.

SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
According to Cohen et al. (2005) it is the slow and steady process of learning
how to understand feelings, express emotions in a healthy way, and handle different
situations. It also includes learning how to get along with others, make friends, and build
strong relationships. As children grow, they develop the ability to recognize their own
emotions, understand how others feel, and respond to feelings in a positive way.

When does social and emotional development start? It starts right from
birth. Infants learn through social interactions with adults who take care of them, and most
can understand basic social signals. For example, even in their first few hours, babies
turn their heads toward their parents’ voices.
According to Malik & Marwaha (2022) when babies are about 1 to 2 months old,
they reach an important social milestone, they start smiling at people, especially when
their parents talk to them in a playful voice and smells and react to gentle touch. After 2
months, babies begin using different facial expressions such as crying and smiling to
show their feelings in the right situations.
During their first year, babies build strong connections with loving adults, explore
their surroundings by touching and looking, and interact safely with their caregivers,
sharing smiles, and finding comfort in their presence.

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 Understanding the details of social-emotional development in early childhood is
important to building strong relationships and emotional strength, setting the stage for a
child's future social success and mental well-being.
The essential components of social-emotional development include
attachment, social interactions, and self-identity.

ATTACHMENT
Is the emotional connection that develops between an infant and their caregiver,
serving as the means through which the helpless infant’s primary needs are met? This
becomes a role in shaping social, emotional, and cognitive development. Early social
interactions stimulate brain growth and contribute to the foundation of stable relationships
later in life. Also, this functions as an infant’s first coping mechanism, creating a mental
representation of the caregiver that provides comfort during challenging moments as it
enables the infant to feel secure enough to separate from the caregiver and explore their
surroundings without distress.

Attachment Theory

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It was developed by John Bowlby and expanded by Mary Ainsworth. This explains the
deep emotional bonds that form between infants and their caregivers. According to
Bowlby (1969) that attachment is a natural instinct that helps infants survive. He said that

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infants are born with a need to stay close to their main caregiver, usually their mother,
because this keeps them safe and cared for. He also believed that there is a critical
period, usually in the first two or three years of life, when strong attachment bonds need
to form. If a child does not form a secure attachment during this time, they may struggle
with relationships and emotions later in life. He also introduced the idea of the internal
working model, which means that the way a child experiences their first relationships
shapes how they expect relationships to be in the future.
Mary Ainsworth built on Bowlby’s work by conducting the Strange Situation
Experiment in the 1970s. She studied how young children reacted when their caregiver
left the room and then returned. Her study involved a sample of 100 infants between the
ages of 12 and 18 months. Ainsworth believed that an infant’s attachment style depends
on how the caregiver interacts with them early in life. She called this idea the “Maternal
Sensitivity Hypothesis.” A sensitive caregiver is one who understands the infant’s needs
and responds to them quickly and appropriately. According to Ainsworth, this kind of care
is important for a baby to develop a healthy attachment. Based on her observations, she
identified three main types of attachment.
● Secure attachment (Type B): Infants with secure attachment see their caregiver
as a safe and dependable person. This gives them confidence to explore new
places. If separated from their caregiver, they show some distress but calm down
quickly once reunite. 70% of infants had this type of attachment. Caregivers of
securely attached infants are warm and responsive, meeting their child’s needs
consistently. Because of this, these children learn to trust their caregiver will
always return, making them feel safe and secure.
● Insecure-avoidant attachment (Type A): Babies with this attachment style tend
to ignore or avoid their caregiver. They don’t often show any reaction when
separated and do not seek comfort from their caregiver when upset. When the
caregiver returns the baby does not seem very interested in them. Their reaction
to a caregiver and a stranger is quite similar, they keep their distance emotionally
and physically. Around 20% of the infants had this attachment style. Ainsworth
found that these children often have caregivers who are unresponsive or

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 dismissive of their needs. Since the caregiver is usually unavailable or rejected.
The child learns not to rely on them and stops seeking comfort from them.
● Insecure-resistant attachment (Type C): In Ainsworth study, about 10% of
babies showed this attachment style. These babies do not feel secure, even when
their caregiver is around. They tend to be very clingy and are hesitant to explore
surroundings. When separated, they become extremely distressed and are very
wary of strangers. However, when their caregiver returns, they seem unsure of
how to react. They may seek comfort but also show resistance, making it difficult
for the caregiver to console them. This type of attachment is often seen in children
with caregivers who are inconsistent in responding to the child’s needs and other
times ignoring them. Because of this unpredictability, the child becomes anxious
and uncertain about whether they can rely on their caregiver.

Importance of Attachment Theory

Attachment provides infants a sense of security, emotional stability and a
foundation for healthy development. According to Ainsworth et al. (1978) when caregivers
respond with love and care, infants feel safe, learn to manage stress and build trust.
Secure attachment also promotes cognitive growth and social skills, while
insecure attachment can lead to difficulties in relationships and emotional regulation. A
strong bond with a caregiver lays the foundation for a happy and well-adjusted child.

Ways to Promote Healthy Attachment

● Responding to Needs Promptly – Attending to an infant’s cries and signals with
warmth and consistency helps them feel safe and understood (Ainsworth et al.,1978).
● Provide Physical Touch and Comfort –Holding, cuddling and skin-to-skin contact
gives a sense of security and closeness between the caregiver and the infant.
(Feldman ,2017).
● Consistent and Loving Care – Providing a stable, nurturing environment with
predictable routines reassures infants that their caregiver is reliable and always there
for them (Bowlby, 196).

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 ● Engaging in Eye Contact and Communication – Talking, smiling, and making eye
contact can help infants recognize their caregiver’s emotions and strengthen their
emotional connection (Trevarthen, 1998).
● Playing and Interaction – Engaging interactive play, singing, and reading develops
a positive relationship and helps the infant develop trust (Sroufe, 2005).
● Being Emotionally Available – Showing warmth, patience, and sensitivity to an
infant’s feelings teaches them that emotions are valid and can be shared safely
(Schore, 2001).

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS
Social interactions involve how infants and toddlers engage with caregivers and
others in their environment. According to Fletcher (2024) an infant’s need for social
connections is typically met through bonding with their primary caregivers who attends to
their needs, such as feeding and soothing, and interact with them daily. And in turn, a
child with a healthy relationship with the caregivers’ fuels social development, preparing
infants to forge social relationships with others as they grow.

Stages of Social Development

● Infancy (0-2 Years) Building Emotional Bonds: During the first two years of life, babies
naturally seek connection and comfort from caregivers, forming strong emotional bonds.
This attachment helps them feel safe, loved, and supported, shaping their ability to build
relationships and handle emotions. Through back-and-forth interactions like responding
to cries, smiles, and gestures. Caregivers teach babies how to communicate their needs,
since infants can’t manage emotions on their own, they rely on caregivers. Simple
activities, like peek-a-boo, help babies develop social skills and understand their
surroundings. As they approach age two, they begin recognizing themselves in mirrors,
showing early self-awareness and preparing for more complex emotions and social
interactions.
● Toddlerhood and Early Childhood (2-5 Years) The “I Can Do It Myself” stage: The
toddler years are full of curiosity, children rapidly develop language, thinking, and social
skills. They begin to assert their independence, often insisting, “I do it myself!” as they

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 explore their abilities and form their self-identity. This stage also marks the emergence of
empathy, as a toddler starts showing care for others, like offering toys to comfort a sad
friend. However, managing emotions remains a challenge, as they experience strong
feelings but struggle to express or control them. Friendship also begins to form, teaching
toddler’s important social skills like sharing and taking turns. Since every child develops
at their own pace, a supportive and nurturing environment helps them grow confidently.

Social Milestones:
● Smiling in response to others (6-8 weeks)
● Imitating sounds and actions (4-6 months)
● Expressing separation anxiety (8-12 months)
● Engaging in simple social game (12-18 months)
● Playing alongside other children (2-3 years)

SELF-IDENTITY
Self-Identity is how a person sees themselves. It is the role or roles they believe
describe who they are. This identity affects what people think is important, what they
believe in, and how they act. (Hepler et al., 2023)
Self-Identity develops in stages as they grow and interact with surrounds.
Researchers such as Lewis and Brooks-Gunn and Rochat have explored how young
children gradually gain awareness of themselves as separate individuals. Erikson also
emphasized the role of social interaction in shaping self-identity in infants and toddlers.

Stages of Self-Identity Development in Infants and Toddlers

● Differentiation (0-3 months): At birth, infants do not yet have a clear sense of self.
They experience the world as an undifferentiated space where they are closely
connected to their caregivers. According to Rochat (2003), she explains that during
this period, newborns primarily respond to touch, sound, and movement but do not
yet distinguish themselves as separate beings. By two to three months of age, babies
begin to show signs of body differentiation. They react to their own movements and

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 begin to explore their hands and feet. Lewis and Brooks-Gunn (1979) suggest that
these early motor explorations lay the foundation for later self-awareness.
● Self-recognition (4-10 months): As infants gain motor control, they start recognizing
the connection between their own movements and sensory experiences. They begin
to anticipate outcomes of their actions, such as reaching for an object expecting it to
move. Rochat said that during this phase, infants show “perceptual self-awareness,”
meaning they begin to distinguish their own physical presence from the external
environment. This is seen when babies watch their hands move or respond to their
own reflection with curiosity.
● Emergence of Self-Awareness (10-18 months): Around the first year, infants begin
to recognize themselves as unique individuals. Lewin and Brook-Gunn conducted the
famous “Rouge Test,” where a small mark of red lipstick (rouge) was placed on a
child’s forehead without their knowledge. When placed in front of a mirror, children
who touched or attempted to remove the mark demonstrated self-recognition,
indicating that they understood the reflection was their own. Typically, infants under
12 months do not pass this test, but between 15 to 18 months, many toddlers begin
to show signs of recognizing themselves in the mirror, making an important milestone
in self-identity development.
● Development of Self-Concept (18-24 months): By 18 to 24 months, toddlers
develop a stronger sense of self. They begin using personal pronouns such as “me”
and “mine,” demonstrating an understanding of themselves as distinct from others
(Lewis & Brooks-Gunn, 1979). They also assert independence by insisting on doing
things their own such as feeding themselves or choosing what to wear. Erikson (1968)
identified this stage as “autonomy vs shame and doubt”, where toddlers test their
abilities and develop confidence in their own actions.
● Early Self-Definition (2-3 Years): As toddlers enter their second and third years, their
self-concept becomes more developed. They start identifying themselves in terms of
simple descriptors, such as gender, age, or physical attributes (Rochat, 2003). For
example, a child might say “I am a girl” or “I have curly hair”. Additionally, toddlers
begin comparing themselves to others forming an early sense of self-esteem. They

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 start understanding social roles and expectations, learning from caregivers and peers
(Erikson, 1968)

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Emotional development is how we start to feel, show, understand, and manage
emotions from the time we are born. As we grow from childhood to adulthood, these skills
continue to change and improve. Our emotions develop alongside brain growth, thinking
skills, and behavior. They are also shared by the people around us and the culture we
live in. (Trentacosta & Izard, 2016).
From birth, babies have certain natural reflexes. However, many of the emotions
and behaviors they develop come from watching others and learning how to understand
their feelings. This process is called emotional development. While we keep learning
about emotions throughout life, the basics start in infancy. Emotional development not
only affects mental health but also helps babies explore and learn new things. When a
child understands their emotions, they can keep going even when things are hard or ask
for help when needed. (Prakash, 2024).

Emotional Development Stages

● Discovering the World (1 - 3 months old): In the first few months, your baby is
slowly starting to notice the world beyond just eating, sleeping, crying, and diaper
changes. Everything around them is brand new, and they are beginning to take it all
in. They are learning to recognize faces, sounds, and movements, and their little brain
is working hard to understand this new environment. This is the stage where they start
reacting to familiar voices and showing tiny expressions, like a small smile or a curious
stare.
At this stage, infants can:
● See things a little more clearly than before.
● Recognize familiar people and feel comforted by them.
● React positively when touched.
● Feel safe when held and stop crying when picked up.
● Pay attention and focus when hearing voices.

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● Make funny faces or little smiles when someone talks to them.

● Discovering themselves and others (3 - 6 months old): Infants starts to realize that
they are their own little person, separate form everyone else. As they become more
aware of the world and the people around them, they also begin to notice their own
body, especially their hands. You might see them staring at their fingers, grabbing
things, or even putting their hands to their mouth as they explore. Babies also start
feeling more comfortable with familiar face. They may smile more at parents and
caregivers, enjoy being held, and show excitement when they see someone they
recognize. This is a time of growing curiosity, where your baby is learning about
themselves and people around them.
At this stage, infants can:
● Smile more often and even laugh softly when excited.
● Express discomfort in different ways, like crying to ask for cuddles.
● Wave their arms and kick their legs to show excitement or communicate.
● Notice that different people are separate individuals.
● Possibly recognize themselves in a mirror and giggle.
● Look at other babies and feel a sense of connection.
● Respond when they hear their name.

● Exploring and communicating (6 - 9 months old): At this stage, your baby is

becoming more curious about their surroundings and starting to understand basic
communication. They can express a wider range of emotions and also recognize
emotions in others. Infants is learning how people react to different situations and may
try to respond in their own way.
At this stage, infants can:
● Have fun playing peek-a-boo and watching shadow puppets.
● Recognize when you are talking to them and understand some gestures.
● Pick up on emotions, like noticing when you’re angry from your face or tone of
voice and react accordingly.
● Start understanding the idea of ownership and may cry if a toy is taken away.

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 ● Seek comfort from familiar people, especially when strangers are around.
● Soothe themselves by sucking on their thumb or fist

● Understanding Family and Seeking Approval (10 - 12 months old): As babies

are nears their first birthday, they become more familiar with their home and begin
to understand the idea of family. They now express a wider range of emotions,
enjoy doing things on their own, and look for approval from loved ones.
At this stage, infants can:
● Become very attached to caregivers and want to be close all the time.
● Find certain jokes or silly actions funny and try to repeat them.
● Cooperate with you in some activities while refusing to do others.
● Throw tantrums when things don’t go their way.
● Look for your approval when they do something good or clap for themselves.
● Develop a sense of self-esteem and sometimes keep themselves entertained.

Just like physical growth, emotional development happens at its own pace and
varies from one baby to another. Some babies may take longer to develop certain
emotional skills.

EMPATHY DEVELOPMENT
Empathy is important for building good relationships and communicating with
others. It helps us connect with people by understanding their feelings. Empathy means
being able to feel what someone else is going through. It’s like imagining yourself in their
situation and seeing things from their point of view. For example, if someone loses a loved
one, you can picture how painful that must be and share their emotions. (Cherry, 2024)
An example scenario given by Kutner (2016) about a 3-year-old who excitedly
shouts, “Mommy! Look at that man’s big nose!” will likely be gently hushed by their mother
while the man chooses to ignore the comment. However, if an adult were to say
something similar, they might end up in an uncomfortable or even painful situation. This
isn’t just about hood manners. Young children don’t yet fully understand how their words

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can impact other people’s feelings. Unlike adults or even emotionally aware 6-year-olds,
they haven't developed empathy in the same way.

So how do infants develop empathy?

● Emotional Contagion (0-6 months): Even newborns react to the emotions of others.
If one baby starts crying, another baby nearby might start crying too, even though they
don’t understand why (Zahn-Waxler et al., 1992).
● Noticing Emotions (6-12 months): Around this age, babies start to notice when
someone is sad or upset. They may look at a crying person with a concerned
expression, but they don’t yet try to comfort them (Zahn-Waxler et al., 1992).
● Beginning of Helping Behavior (12-24 months): By their first or second birthday,
toddlers start showing signs of true empathy. They may try to comfort someone who
is sad by offering a toy or giving a hug, showing they understand others’ feelings
(Zahn-Waxler et al., 1992).

Link to Video Recording:

Growth and Development of Infants, Toddlers, Preschoolers and School Aged Children
https://youtu.be/JEAR8PlDXXc?si=kC6fpKi0luS6OMRT

Piaget’s Theory Cognitive Development

https://youtu.be/IhcgYgx7aAA?si=dATx4DZIHfrTHLYO

Social & Emotional Milestones for Infants & Toddlers

https://youtu.be/gizdtjaSzdM?si=cGae9-u_yL3hHw8V

The Attachment Theory: How Childhood Affects Life

https://youtu.be/WjOowWxOXCg?si=k0nfvygq0mz1QWQT

8 Stages of Development by Erik Erikson

https://youtu.be/aYCBdZLCDBQ?si=i7Nksnss1-sFGJIP

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ACTIVITY
Directions: Answer the following questions thoughtfully and thoroughly. Provide specific
examples where necessary. Your responses will be graded based on accuracy, depth,
clarity, and completeness.

Q for Cognitive – What activities can be done by the primary caregivers in order to
support the cognitive development of the infants?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Q for Social – Why is it important for the primary caregivers to do baby talk?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Q for Physical – (1) What are the common reflexes?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
(2) Why are reflexes important in the development of infants?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Q for Emotional – What is skin to skin contact and how does it affect the emotional
development of the infants?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

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______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Rubrics for activity:

Criteria 3 Points 2 Point 1 Points
Accuracy Response is accurate Response is Response is
and demonstrates somewhat accurate mostly incorrect or
understanding. but has minor errors. lacks relevant
information.
Depth & Detail Provides a detailed Response includes Response is
response with some detail but lacks vague and lacks
examples. depth. depth or
examples.
Clarity & Well-structured and Somewhat organized Poorly organized
Organization easy to read. but may have minor or difficult to
clarity issues. follow.
Completeness Fully answers the Partially answers the Does not answer
question. question. the question
adequately.
Grammar & Few to no Some Frequent errors
Mechanics grammar/spelling grammar/spelling that affect
mistakes. mistakes, but meaning readability.
is clear.

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 Lesson 6
Early Childhood (The Preschooler)

INTRODUCTION
Early childhood is a crucial period of rapid growth and transformation, shaping the
foundation for a child’s lifelong development. In this stage, young children are not only
growing physically during early childhood, but also making a significant growth in their
socio-cognitive and socio-emotional abilities. Children of this age continue to advance
their skills in observing and interacting with the world around them. They begin to explore
the world with curiosity, improving their skills in problem-solving, interaction and
observation. Their ability to store, process and apply information has significantly advance
during this period, setting their groundwork for their future social and learning
experiences.
Understanding early childhood development is essential in many aspects, it
requires more than just a physical change; it delves in to the complex relationship of social
and mental advancements that children undergo. Since cognitive growth cannot be
calculated by simply counting neurons and synaptic connections, many psychologists rely
on developmental theories to transcribe these changes. Theories such as Piaget's stages
of cognitive development, Erickson's psychosocial stages, and Bronfenbrenner's
ecological model to give us a way to understand and to measure children's mental and
social development and progression.
According to Piaget, children in the Preoperational stage of development build on
skills learned and mastered during the Sensorimotor stage. During this stage, young
children's play becomes increasingly imaginary and filled with fantasies. As children
develop cognitively, their play will move from simple make-believe to plots involving more
characters and scenarios, games with sophisticated rules, etc. According to Piaget,
playing isn't just fun; it is an important part of brain development
The Piagetian milestones described in this section are typical or average for young
children ages 2-7 living in Western countries. Once again, however, each child is unique
and will grow in his or her own time and way. As with physical milestones, if caregivers
suspect that "something isn't right" or that their child is failing to complete major

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developmental tasks, they should discuss their concerns with a pediatrician or family
doctor. Some young children may have developmental delays or challenges that can be
identified and successfully addressed if caught early

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Illustrate the Developmental Domains of Preschoolers such as physical,
cognitive, and socio-emotional, including key milestones and alterations in growth.
2. Examine and identify the factors affecting the preschooler’s development.
3. Explain the importance of play that contributes to cognitive and social growth in
early childhood.

LESSON DISCUSSION
Early Childhood: Physical Development
Early childhood is a period of rapid physical growth and transformation, laying the
foundation for a child’s overall health and well-being. Between the ages of 2 and 6,
children experience significant advancements in their motor skills, coordination, and
overall body strength. Their movements become more refined, shifting from unsteady
toddler steps to confident running, jumping, and climbing. These changes are crucial as
they allow children to explore their environment more independently and engage in active
play, which is essential for their development.
Physical Development; bone growth, brain maturation, and motor skills are all work
together to the children’s increasing independence and active involvement with the world
as children progress through early childhood. During this phase, their bodies become
stronger and leaner, which provides a stable foundation for movement, as skeletal growth
enhances balance and posture. At the same time, the development of the brain which
refines coordination and motor control, enabling them to perform fine motor skills, like
painting as well as big motor skills like running and jumping. These interconnected
aspects of development emphasize the importance of healthy eating and physical
activities and a stimulating environment promoting a child’s overall development and well-
being during crucial stage.

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Body Growth
On the average, 2 to 3 inches in height and about 5 pounds in weight are added
each year. The child gradually becomes thinner; girls retain somewhat more body fat,
whereas boys are slightly more muscular. Posture and balance improve, resulting in gains
in motor coordination. Individual differences in body size are even more apparent during
early childhood than in infancy. To determine if a child's atypical stature is a sign of a
growth or health problem, the child's ethnic heritage must be considered.

Skeletal Growth
Between ages 2 and 6, approximately 45 epiphyses, or new growth center hardens
into bone, emerge in various parts of the skeleton. X-rays permit doctors to estimate
children's skeletal age, the best available measure of progress toward physical maturity.
By the end of the preschool years, children start to lose their primary teeth.

Brain Development
1. Sypnatic Growth and Pruning
Brain metabolism reaches a peak around 4 years of age. By this time, many cortical
regions have overproduced synapses, which results in a high energy need. The
overabundance of synaptic connections is believed to play a role in the plasticity of the
young brain. Synaptic pruning occurs as neurons that are infrequently stimulated lose
their connective fibers and the number of synapses is reduced. This process is adaptive.

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A surprising feature of brain development is that rapid bursts of synaptic growth are
accompanied by high rates of cell death in order to make room for the connective
structures of active neurons. Plasticity is reduced by ages 8 to 10, and energy
consumption of most cortical regions declines to near-adult levels.

2. Lateralization
The two hemispheres of the cortex develop at different rates. The left hemisphere shows
dramatic activity between 3 and 6 years and then levels off. Activity in the right
hemisphere increases slowly throughout early and middle childhood, showing a slight
spurt between ages 8 and 10. Differences in rate of development of the two hemispheres
suggest that they are continuing to lateralize.

3. Handedness
By age 2, hand preference is fairly stable, and it strengthens during early and middle
childhood. The dominant cerebral hemisphere is the hemisphere responsible for skated
motor action. The left hemisphere is dominant in right-handed individuals. In left-handed
individuals, motor and language skills are often shared between the hemispheres. The
brains of left-handers tend to be less strongly lateralized than those of right-handers.
Many left-handers are ambidextrous. New evidence indicates that the way most fetuses
lie in the uterus-turned toward the left- may promote greater postural control by the right
side of the body. Left and mixed-handed children are more likely than their right- handed
age mates to develop outstanding verbal and mathematical talents.

4. Other Advances in Brain Development

The cerebellum is located at the rear and base of the brain and aids in balance and control
of body movement. The fibers linking the cerebellum to the cerebral cortex do not
complete myelinization until about age 4. The reticular formation maintains alertness and
consciousness; it myelinates throughout early childhood and continues growth into
adolescence. The corpus callosum is the large bundle of fibers that connects the left and
right hemispheres. Myelinization does not begin until the end of the first year of life, but
is fairly advanced by age 4 to 5.

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 Factors Affecting Growth and Health
a. Heredity and Hormones
Children's physical size and rate of growth are related to that of their parents. The
pituitary gland is a gland located near the base of the brain that releases hormones
affecting physical growth. a. Growth hormone affects the development of almost all body
tissues, except the central nervous system and the genitals. Short children with GH
deficiency can be treated with injections of genetically engineered GH. Thyroid stimulating
hormone stimulates the thyroid gland to release thyroxin, which is necessary for normal
brain development and body growth.

Motor Development
A. Gross Motor Development
As children's bodies become more streamlined and less top- heavy, their center of
gravity shifts downward toward the trunk and, as a result, their balance improves. By age
2, the preschooler's gait becomes smooth and rhythmic, leading to running, jumping,
hopping, galloping, and skipping. As children become steadier on their feet, their arms
and torsos are freed to experiment with new skills-throwing and catching balls, steering
tricycles, and swinging on horizontal bars and rings. Five-year-olds run about twice
as quickly as they did at age 2. Around age 4, gallops and one-step skips appear, and
around age 6, children can skip in a well-coordinated manner. The first jumps appear
around age 2. During the middle of the third year, the first two- foot takeoffs and landings
can be seen. Between ages 2 and 3, children can hop a few times in succession, and 5-
and 6-year-olds can hop skillfully. At ages 2 and 3, catching and throwing are awkward
and stiff. Gradually, children use their shoulders, torso, trunk, and legs to support throwing
and catching; consequently, the ball travels faster and further.

B. Fine Motor Development

Self-Help Skills: a. During early childhood, children gradually become self-
sufficient at dressing and feeding. b. Shoe tying, mastered around age 6, requires a
longer attention span, memory for an intricate series of hand movements, and the
dexterity to perform them. Drawing and Writing: a. As the young child's ability to mentally

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represent the world expands, marks on the page take on definite meaning. b. From
Scribbles to Pictures: 1) Scribbles- Western children begin to draw during the 2nd year.
At first, action, rather than the scribble itself, contains the intended message. 2) First
Representational Shapes and Forms-By age 3, scribbles start to become pictures. Use
of lines to represent object boundaries permits children to draw their first pictures of a
person by age 3 or 4. 3) More Realistic Drawing5-More conventional figures, in which the
body is differentiated from the arms and legs, appear by age 6.

C. Individual References in Motor Skills

Body build influences gross motor abilities. African-American children tend to have
longer limbs, so they have better leverage in running and jumping than do Caucasian
children. Boys are slightly ahead of girls in skills that emphasize force and power. Girls
have a slight edge in fine motor skills and in certain gross motor skills that require a
combination of good balance and foot movement, such as hopping and skipping. Social
pressure for boys to be active and physically skilled and for girls to play quietly at fine
motor activities may exaggerate small, genetically based differences.

D. Enhancing Early Childhood Development

Except for throwing, there is no evidence that preschoolers exposed to formal
lessons are ahead in motor development. Preschools, day care centers, and playgrounds
need to accommodate a wide range of physical abilities by offering a variety of pieces of
equipment that differ in size or that can be adjusted to fit the needs of individual children.
Criticism of a child's motor performance, pushing specific motor skills, and promoting a
competitive attitude may undermine young children's motor progress.

Early Childhood: Cognitive Development – Symbolic Function

The development of cognitive skills in early childhood is a dynamic and intricate
process that plays a crucial role in shaping a child's future intellectual and academic
growth. These abilities encompass various mental functions that enable individuals to
perceive, interpret, retain, and apply information from their surroundings. Strengthening

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these skills is vital for fostering a child's capacity to think critically, reason effectively, solve
problems, and navigate their environment successfully.

According to Piaget, young children go through two distinct phases or sub-

stages in cognitive development during this stage. First, they develop Symbolic Function
between the ages of 2 and 4. During the Symbolic Function substage, children master
the ability to picture, remember, understand, and replicate objects in their minds that are
not immediately in front of them. In other words, children can create mental images of
objects and store them in their minds for later use.

Early childhood, spanning from birth to around eight years old, is a crucial time for
cognitive development. Before this period, during the Sensorimotor stage, infants and
toddlers understood their world as containing only what they were immediately
experiencing and nothing else. According to Piaget, if a toddler was playing with a kitten
and it left his line of vision, the child would be unable to create a mental picture of that
kitten. To the toddler, the idea of the kitten (and therefore the kitten itself) would no longer
exist. Young children who have developed Symbolic Function can draw a picture of or
pretend to play with a kitten that is no longer there.

During this period, children experience rapid and transformative cognitive growth,
making it an opportunity to nurture and understand their cognitive potential. The cognitive
skills that emerge in early childhood are the building blocks of more complex cognitive

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functions that develop later in life. These essential skills include perception, memory,
attention, language acquisition, problem-solving, and social cognition, all of which play a
vital role in a child's educational journey and beyond.
The development of cognitive skills in early childhood is a dynamic process
influenced by many factors. Genetic predisposition pays the way for cognitive potential,
but environmental and experiential factors play an equally important role. These new
cognitive abilities are helpful to young children's everyday experience. For example,
children can talk about people who are traveling, or who live somewhere else, like
Grandma in Florida. They can also talk about or draw places they visited, as well as create
new scenes and creatures from their imagination. Children can also use their mental
images of things to "play school" or to "play house."

Even though children in the Preoperational Stage have gained new cognitive
skills, Piaget suggests that their thinking is rather rigid, limited to one aspect of a situation
at a time, and strongly influenced by an item's appearance. This style of thinking,
according to Piaget, leads to characteristic errors. For example, Preoperational children
have not developed the mental abilities of Conservation and Transformation.
Conservation is a person's ability to understand that certain physical characteristics
of objects remain the same, even if their appearance has changed. To demonstrate the
concept of Conservation, Piaget showed young children two identical cups filled with
identical volumes of water (reaching to the same measuring line). Preoperational youth
agreed the cups had the same amount of liquid in them. Piaget proceeded to pour the
liquid from one of the original cups into a wide, short cup. Then, he poured the liquid from
the second original cup into a tall, narrow cup. When he asked Preoperational kids which
cup had more liquid, they chose the taller cup. To these children, the taller cup looked
like it had more volume even though the same amount of fluid filled both cups.

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 The concept of conservation can apply to numbers as well. For example,
according to Piaget, a Preoperational child will not understand that rearranging six keys
to make a different formation (e.g., spreading them out or moving them closer together)
does not change the number of items present.

Transformation is a person's ability to understand how certain physical

characteristics change while others remain the same in a logical, cause and effect
sequence. According to Piaget, Preoperational Children do not readily understand how
things can change from one form to another. To demonstrate this concept, Piaget first
showed young children two 1-inch round balls of clay. Then, he presented the children
with one 1-inch round ball of clay and one 1-inch ball of clay squished flat. A young person
in the Preoperational stage would not understand that the flat ball had been round before
and was squished to make its new shape. Preoperational children also have a hard time

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understanding why banging on pots and pans or playing with a musical toy could increase
their mother's headache when they're having so much fun.
According to Piaget, children in the Preoperational stage also believe that things
are alive or have human characteristics because they grow or move, a style of thinking
called Animism. For example, children may talk about cars like animals, as if they're
growling or that they're hungry. Similarly, young children may blame chairs or toys for
causing them to fall or trip. Finally, Piaget believes that children under the age of 4 don't
have the ability to organize things into hierarchical categories. In other words, young
children are unable to group items in larger sub-groups and smaller sub-groups based on
similarities and differences.

Contemporary research suggests that Piaget's ideas about Preoperational

children were not entirely correct; children in this stage of development vary greatly
depending on their language skills, perceptual abilities, decision rules, and real-world
knowledge. For example, when young children are tested using ideas and objects that
are familiar to their everyday lives, they are better able to demonstrate their abilities. To
illustrate: if a researcher uses a small number of objects (e.g., 3 instead of 6) to test
conservation of number, 3-year-olds often notice that the number stays the same
regardless of how it is arranged. Similarly, when young children are placed in a real world
setting (e.g., their classroom), they are usually able to explain how other children (peers
who sit in different seats) would see the room differently. Many young children can also

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group their toys into hierarchies (e.g., sorting animals vs. vehicles and then cars vs.
trucks).
Contemporary developmental psychologists now believe that most children in
Western cultures achieve conservation of number, length, mass and liquid between 6 and
7 years, even though conservation of weight may not occur until ages 8 through 10.
Preoperational children often display egocentric thought, but, particularly toward the end
of this stage, this style of thinking is not universal across all times and situations.
Psychologists also think that animism is a way that children express their imagination and
process how objects really work in a fashion that's easy for them to understand. Most
children know that inanimate objects really aren't alive.

Early Childhood: Cognitive Development- Intuitive Thought

Piaget's cognitive development theory describes four stages through which
children develop and make sense of the world. The preoperational stage (4 to 7 years) is
one of these stages, and it is characterized by the growth of intuitive thinking. In this stage,
children begin to utilize language, symbolic thought, and fantasy play. They start making
speedy judgments and choices from what they see and from what they have previously
learned, trusting mostly in their imagination and instincts. Though their logical thinking is
still on the way up, this results in errors and misconceptions.

Intuitive thinking is described as the potential to make judgments by immediate

awareness and past information, instead of relying on logic. In the preoperational stage,
children's thinking is frequently intuitive, and they trust what they know, even if they don't
completely grasp how they know it. They also tend to center on one feature of something
(a process referred to as "centration"), such as color, and base their judgments on that,
instead of looking at many features at a time.

While intuitive thinking assists children in exploring and interpreting their world, it calls for
more advanced thinking abilities, which will emerge in subsequent stages of Piaget's
theory.

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This portion presents the lesson to be discussed among the students. This portion
presents the lesson to be discussed among the students. This portion presents the lesson
to be discussed among the students. This portion presents the lesson to be discussed
among the students. This portion presents the lesson to be discussed among the
students.

At the preoperational stage (ages 4-7), children possess a number of important

characteristics in their thought:
1. Symbolic representation: Children begin to use symbols and language to stand for
things and ideas. They use fantasy play, e.g., telling stories, to organize their world.
2. Intuitive problem-solving: Children will trust their children's intuition and first
thought in order to solve problems. They will have a tendency to make conclusions
based on shallow information without necessarily applying a deeper or logical
thought process.
3. Inadequate concept of conservation: Children can be confused with the concept of
conservation, that is, realizing that quantity remains the same even when its form

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 changes. For instance, they can believe a tall glass can hold more liquid than a
short one even when both can hold the same amount.
4. Egocentrism: Children in this age group are of the opinion that the world is sensed
in the same way by everyone as it is sensed by them. They cannot conceive the
idea that other individuals might sense or feel differently.
With increasing age, children start getting away from egocentrism towards more logical
thinking. This intellectual change includes:
• Perspective-taking emerges: Children begin to understand other people think and
feel differently. They become more attuned to social information.
• Basic logic: They begin to understand cause-and-effect, and they are more logical
in making decisions.
• Greater flexibility of thought: Children become increasingly willing to seek out other
opinions and methods, although they are still very reliant on intuition.

This change in thinking is a critical aspect of their development, paving the way for more
sophisticated reasoning in subsequent stages.
At the Intuitive Thought substage, children develop substantially in their ability to think.
For instance, they start to move away from the use of magical thinking and begin
employing more logical explanations for phenomena that they don't entirely comprehend.
While younger children may believe that a new house "grew out of the ground," older
children begin to understand that people construct houses with materials such as bricks
and wood.
One crucial development is kids' understanding of dual relationships. They know
something can be more than one thing. For example, a cuddly dog can be a toy and a
symbol for real dogs.

Although some critics challenge Piaget's theories, particularly regarding the way children
comprehend what they already know, contemporary research still concurs that children
are sponges, soaking up information from their environment. Although there have been
some revisions to Piaget's theory, his work continues to be very influential in

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comprehending child development and still assists educators, researchers, and parents
in facilitating children's development.

Intuitive thinking surfaces in a child's daily life in a number of situations. Some examples
of these are:
• Choosing friends: A child will just get along with some of his/her peers because
they share similar likes or because he/she enjoys their company and does not
know why.
• Decision-making: In choosing an activity, like playing outside or reading, a child
may just do whatever is most enjoyable at the time, without actually considering
the options.
• Problem-solving: In games or puzzles, kids may try lots of different strategies or
methods of working until they get to something that works, without using a step-
by-step, systematic procedure.
• Affective expression and communication of feelings: Children communicate their
feelings by face, body postures, or speech, but cannot explain why and how
exactly they do so.
• Functioning in art: In spontaneous creative art production or fantasy play, children
explore color, form, and concepts without self-conscious restraint, and indulge in
instinct and imagination uninhibitedly.
These drawings suggest that spontaneous thought enables children to move freely and
spontaneously through their environment.

Early Childhood: Cognitive Development- Information Processing

The Information Processing Approach (IPA) in cognitive development emphasizes
children's attention, memory, and metacognitive skills. Information processing refers to
how individuals perceive, analyze, manipulate, utilize, and retain information. This
approach suggests that cognitive development occurs continuously and progressively,
contrasting with Piaget's staged theory of development. The original concepts that
emerged with the information processing perspective were those of computer-like mental
systems that viewed the brain as a storage system. The store view, developed in the late

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1960s and early 1970s, focuses on children's mental processes as a computer
processing, encoding, storing, and decoding data, centered around the sensory register
and memory.

The areas of basic cognitive changes generally occur in five areas:

• Attention- Improvements are seen in selective attention (the process by which
one focuses on one stimulus while tuning out another), as well as divided attention
(the ability to pay attention to two or more stimuli at the same time).
• Memory- Improvements are seen in working memory and long-term memory.
• Processing Speed- With maturation, children think more quickly. Processing
speed improves sharply between age five and middle adolescence, levels off
around age 15, and does not appear to change between late adolescence and
adulthood.
• Organization of Thinking- As children mature, they are more planful, approach
problems with strategy, and are flexible in using different strategies in different
situations.
• Metacognition- Older children can think about thinking itself. This often involves
monitoring one’s cognitive activity during the thinking process. Metacognition
provides the ability to plan, see the future consequences of an action, and provide
alternative explanations of events.

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By ages 2 to 5 years, most children have developed the skills to focus attention for
extended periods, recognize previously encountered information, recall old information,
and reconstruct it in the present. For example, imagine a 4-year-old named Mia who loves
visiting her grandparents' house. During one of her visits, she finds her favorite storybook
that they used to read together. Mia picks up the book and recalls not just the story but
also specifics about her last visit. She remembers how her grandma would do funny
voices for the characters and how her grandpa would make her laugh with silly sounds.
As she flips through the pages, she starts to tell her version of the story, adding details
from her imagination while incorporating the parts she remembers from previous
readings. Mia's ability to focus on the book for a long time, remember the story and the
fun moments with her grandparents, and reconstruct her version showcases the skills
developed in children between the ages of 2 and 5 years.

Part of long-term memory involves storing information about the sequence of events
during familiar situations as "scripts." Scripts help children understand, interpret, and
predict what will happen in future scenarios. For example, a trip to a family restaurant.
When a child frequently visits a particular restaurant, they begin to form a script based on
their experiences. For example, they may learn that upon arriving, the family usually waits
to be seated. They know the server will come over to take their drink orders shortly after
sitting down. The child expects to receive bread or chips while they wait for their meals.
As they continue to visit the restaurant, the child starts to anticipate what usually
happens next: the server brings the food, the family members chat about their day, and
they often end the meal with dessert. This script helps the child feel comfortable and
confident during each visit because they can predict what will happen, making the
experience enjoyable.
Another example could be a regular school day. The child develops a script for a
typical day, knowing that they will arrive at school, hang their backpack, meet friends, go
to their classes, have lunch, and then return home. Understanding this sequence helps
them navigate their day more effectively, manage their time, and know what to expect in
various situations. These scripts are essential as they help children make sense of their
experiences and prepare for what might happen in the future.

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 Between the ages of 5 and 7, children learn how to focus and use their cognitive
abilities for specific purposes. For example, children can learn to pay attention to and
memorize lists of words or facts. This skill is crucial for children starting school who need
to learn new information, retain it, and produce it for tests and other academic activities.
Children this age have also developed a larger overall capacity to process information.
This expanding information processing capacity allows young children to make
connections between old and new information. As children mature, their ability to be
planful and strategic in problem-solving becomes more pronounced.

For example, children around the age of 8 or 9 often engage in group projects where they
learn to assign roles based on each person’s strengths. For instance, one child may take
on the research, while another focuses on creating a presentation, demonstrating their
ability to plan together and strategize effectively.

Another example is when working on art or science projects, children not only follow a
plan but also modify their approach as they go along. If they realize a particular method
isn’t working, they might adjust their technique or materials, showcasing their ability to
adapt and try something new.

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Metacognition, defined as the ability to think about one's own thinking processes, is an
essential cognitive skill that begins to develop during early childhood. Between the ages
of 2 and 5, children start to understand that they use their brains to think, although their
comprehension of brain function remains quite basic. By the ages of 5 to 7, children gain
a more developed awareness of their thinking abilities, recognizing that they can
consciously exert control over their mental processes and perform various cognitive
tasks.
As children progress through their schooling years, they further advance in
metacognitive skills. They begin to formulate specific strategies to tackle learning tasks,
monitor their comprehension of information, and evaluate their progress toward
completing assignments. The development of metacognition continues to evolve
throughout childhood and is closely linked with the development of the theory of mind.
Early developmental theories suggested that children might fully grasp the theory of mind
by age four; however, further research has shown that even infants display early signs of
cognitive understanding regarding others' internal representations.
By the age of 10, school-aged children refine their understanding of cognitive
processes, becoming adept at distinguishing concepts such as "remember," "know," and
"understand." This contrasts with less precise terms like "guess," "estimate," or
"compare." Cognitive self-regulation, a key aspect of metacognition, involves the
monitoring of strategies used in problem-solving and assesses the likelihood of
successfully resolving a challenge. This ability is recognized as a significant predictor of
academic achievement in adolescence.
Educational researcher Robert Fisher (1998) highlights the importance of
metacognition in enhancing children's learning experiences. He advocates for teachers
to support students in developing their metacognitive awareness and skills. Fisher
introduces the concepts of meta-learning—the acquisition of these metacognitive skills—
and meta-teaching strategies, which can facilitate the development of metacognitive
thinking in the classroom. His studies in London schools aim to improve educational
outcomes by fostering metacognitive development in children.
In the context of child development, the information processing model aims to
identify various cognitive abilities and devise strategies to boost a child's performance in

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different areas. Evidence suggests that children with supportive parents who engage
them in problem-solving activities at home demonstrate higher competence compared to
those who lack such guidance, even if they have multiple strategies available.
Furthermore, imagination and creativity have become increasingly important aspects of
the information-processing framework, drawing interest in contemporary research. While
the model has faced criticism for its perceived linearity, it shows promise in the domains
of cognitive neuroscience and development. As children progress through middle and late
childhood and into adolescence, they develop a more accurate assessment of their
capabilities and the difficulty of tasks. They become adept at adjusting their study
techniques to better align with their individual needs, prioritizing tasks, and distinguishing
what is important from what is not, ultimately leading to enhanced metacognitive
awareness.

Early Childhood: Language Development

During early childhood, children's abilities to understand, to process, and to
produce language also flourish in an amazing way. Young children experience a language
explosion between the ages of 3 and 6. At age 3, their spoken vocabularies consist of
roughly 900 words. By age 6, spoken vocabularies expand dramatically to anywhere
between 8,000 and 14,000 words. During infancy and toddlerhood, young children are
almost always able to understand far many more words than they can speak. However,
with this language explosion, their expressive (spoken language) abilities start to catch
up with their receptive (ability to comprehend language) skills.
As children move beyond using two word sentences, they start to learn and
understand grammar rules. All English-speaking children follow a regular sequence when
using these rules. For example, children first begin using simple plurals (cats) and
possessive forms of nouns (Daddy's car). Then, they put appropriate endings on verbs
(jump becomes jumped), use prepositions ("in the street"), articles ("the", "a", or "an"),
various forms of the verb to be ("is", "are", "were", etc.), and so on.

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5 Stages of Language Development in Early Childhood
A. Prelinguistic Stage (Birth to 12 Months)
•During this stage, infants begin to develop language skills by making various sounds
such as cooing and babbling. Infants learn to associate sounds with meanings, such as
recognizing their mother's voice.

B. Holophrastic or One-Word Stage (12 to 18 Months)

•In this stage, children begin to use single words to convey entire thoughts or ideas. For
example, a child may say "mama" to indicate they want their mother.

C. Two-Word Stage (18 to 24 Months)

•During this stage, children begin to combine two words to form simple phrases. For
example, a child may say "want milk" to express their desire for milk.

D. Telegraphic Stage (24 to 30 Months)

•In this stage, children begin to use simple sentence structures to express thoughts
and feelings. They start using more complex grammatical structures and can form basic
sentences, such as "I want the red ball."

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E. Beyond the Telegraphic Stage (30 Months and Older)
•At this stage, children develop more complex sentence structures to convey abstract
ideas. They can form more complex sentences and can convey more detailed thoughts
and feelings.

In part, the explosion in expressive skills occurs because of the gains in attention
and memory described above. Children become increasingly skilled at remembering and
practicing the language modeled around them, as well as modifying word use based on
other people's reactions. These skills can result in very embarrassing situations for
parents, such as when Johnny repeats a swear word or undesirable comment at Sunday
dinner at Grandma's that he heard from Dad Friday night. Caregivers should be especially
careful not to encourage poor language choices, such as incorrect grammar or swear
words, by laughing or making a game of them. Children may view this attention as
approval and will often continue to use that word or phrase to obtain more attention in the
future. For more information on encouraging appropriate language, see the discipline and
guidance section in the Preoperational Stage Parenting article.
Beyond growing their vocabularies, young children start to expand their ability to
use different forms of words (e.g., irregular verbs such as "She brought" instead of "She
brang") and form more complex sentences. Between the ages of 2 and 5, children also
refine their ability to pronounce words. However, they often make up words that they don't
know and need. In contrast, school-age children start to speak more like adults; they can
recognize basic grammar errors, put
thoughts into question form, and begin including negative expressions such as "not
coming" into their sentences.

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 As they get older, children's use of
language also becomes more mature and
complicated. For example, children start to
understand the use of basic metaphors
based on very concrete ideas, such as the
saying "hard as a rock". They also begin to
tailor their speech to the social situation; for
example, children will talk more maturely to
adults than to same-age peers.
During early childhood, children's
ability to understand language at a more complicated level also develops. Young children
develop "Illocutionary Intent", or the ability to understand that a sentence may have
meaning beyond the exact words being spoken. For example, with a very young child,
Mom would have to say "Jennie, please bring me your cup," for Jennie to understand that
Mom wanted Jennie to bring over the cup. With older children, Mom can say "Hmm…I
need Jennie's cup so I can fill it with juice…..," and Jennie will understand that the true
message is actually "bring me your cup".
By ages 5 to 7, young children can also understand and learn to use a word by
being told its definition (rather than experiencing that word directly). In addition, children
start to understand that words often have multiple meanings, opening up a whole new
realm of humor and jokes that they will find amazingly funny. For example, "Did you hear
about the pirate movie? It's rated R-r-r-r-r-r-r" may elicit a stream of giggles from a school-
aged child.
Language development is a crucial aspect of early childhood development that
takes place from birth to the age of five. During this period, children develop their
language skills through listening, observing, and interacting with the people around them,
including their parents, caregivers, and peers. As children grow and mature, they develop
the ability to understand and use language to express their thoughts, feelings, and ideas.

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Early Childhood: Emotional Development
"Emotional intelligence" is term used to describe someone's ability to express his
or her emotions appropriately, to correctly interpret other people's emotions, and to
understand the triggers and outcomes of certain emotions. Children with high levels of
emotional intelligence are also skilled in their ability to cope with their own or other
people's emotions in a way that creates positive social connections. During early
childhood, most children show great gains in each of these developmental skills.
Advancing in emotional intelligence is a lifelong goal that can help people maintain
emotional health and prosocial, cooperative behaviors.
Psychological tests designed to assess emotional intelligence, somewhat like IQ tests,
have been developed, but these tests are primarily used in research settings rather than
for determining the real-world strengths and weaknesses of particular children. In
research settings, children who show higher levels of emotional intelligence also have
higher rates of self-esteem, social ability and happiness, as well as lower rates of
aggression. However, caregivers should remember that rating children with a score on a
test may not adequately describe and reflect each unique child's gifts and assets.

In the early days and months of a baby they undergo lots of changes in their
emotion’s personality and social lifes. In the emotional intelligence of a baby there will be
3 stages of development that a baby will undergo. As children become increasingly self-
aware, more effective at communicating, and better at understanding the thoughts and
feelings of others, their social skills increase.

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 Children in the early childhood stage become skilled at modifying and expressing
their emotions to fit different social situations. As we have explored in previous child
development discussions, the various areas of development are interconnected rather
than independent skills. The relationship between cognitive abilities and emotional growth
is especially significant. As children's abstract thinking and language skills improve, they
become more capable of identifying and expressing their emotions when communicating
with others.

THE FIRST STAGE INFANCY (0-6months) Emotionally underdeveloped

One month baby is crying a lot
sign of they are hungry, tired and craving
some attention, by 2 months they would
start indicated their want something or
not e.g by showing excitement over a toy,
they also show social smile towards
others because they will realize that
smiling is a positive attention, at 3
months baby can show excitement and boredom over repetitive response to them, they
also feel frustration during this time if they are not given enough attention, by the age of
4 months babies will start showing laughter and anger towards their handlers, by 6
months babies can start to match the emotions of others like smiling, fear and anger when
they see that emotions on others.

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SECOND STAGE; TODDLER (6-12 MONTHS)

By 7 months of a child they will show

anger, fear, and possibly shyness
towards others. by 8 months the
babies are better at identifying
emotions, they can also feel the
mixed emotional state when they
can feel multiple emotions, this is
where personality is developed. At
the 9th month of the baby it will show
distress when wanting attention and
also will recognize themselves sinfront of a mirror, hence why babies like mirrors by 10
months now. Extremes of the emotions will show. And curiosity will also start. Starting to
view and see how everything around them moves. Testing things out. Biting on things
they want, chasing things that catches their interest and curiosity at 11 months emotional
differences on the baby will become much clearer. Where they can now understand what
they really want and not. They will also show signs of independence like feeding
themselves.

STAGE 3; PRE-SCHOOL (1-3 YEARSOLD) COMPLEX EMOTION

At this stage more complex emotions will
start to arise from the child. Jealousy and
even satisfaction from self-cleverness will
show as they start to solve and answer
questions that they want to know or
puzzles that they want to solve. They will
show caring for others and even show
signs of joy towards their favorite clothes,
they would also show emotions of upset
when other kids hurt them when playing.

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They will start to show temperament when what they want is not given to them or even
show signs of guilt when they have done something wrong.
As discussed previously in our other child development documents, the different
areas of development are interconnected rather than being separate, isolated skills. The
interconnection between cognitive skills and emotional development is particularly
important. As children's abstract thinking and language skills increase, they become
better able to label and discuss their emotions with others. For example, they can let Mom
and Dad know that they are feeling scared rather than just crying or screaming. Similarly,
children can explain that a friend is "sad because he misses his Dad."
Language can also allow children to better regulate their feelings, self-soothe in
response to negative feelings, and exert some control over emotion-provoking situations.
For ex
young children may run away or hide from Uncle Todd when he makes a scary
face. In contrast, older children can tell Uncle Todd that his faces are scary, ask him to
stop making faces, and/or remind themselves that Uncle Todd is trying to be silly rather
than mean. In addition, as older children develop the ability to take other people's
viewpoints, they can start to change or stop their behaviors that might hurt someone else's
feelings.
During early childhood, children typically start to develop self-conscious emotions
as they start evaluating themselves, instead of purely reacting to caregivers' or other
adults' evaluations. For instance, an older baby or a younger toddler may be perfectly
happy covering himself or herself from head to foot with mud from the backyard, and won't
experience a negative emotion until caregivers express their displeasure at the messy
situation. Children in the early childhood stage may still enjoy playing in the muddy yard,
but as soon as they see Mom coming, shame and/or guilt may emerge as a result of
evaluating their appearance. A child may also experience a sense of pride when Daddy
says, "That's a great drawing."
According to Erickson's developmental theory, children who start to evaluate
themselves have entered the stage of "autonomy versus shame and doubt." At the end
of this stage, young children's self-evaluations are either autonomous and positive, or
negative and ashamed. Young children who feel autonomous see themselves as good,

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valuable people who are able to do what is expected of them in a positive way. In contrast,
young children who feel ashamed also feel worthless and incapable of doing what is
expected of them.
As children become increasingly self-aware, more effective at communicating, and
better at understanding the thoughts and feelings of others, their social skills increase.
Children in the early childhood stage become skilled at modifying and expressing their
emotions to fit different social situations. For example, Billy may feel angry, but he knows
that having a tantrum at school is inappropriate. Similarly, Sally learns that acting pleasant
and happy even if she feels shy and scared is a better way to meet people at a birthday
party when she doesn't know many of the other children. Changing or controlling one's
emotions in social situations is an important skill that allows children to fit in with groups
and start to create interpersonal relationships.

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ACTIVITY
Answer this short assessment.
Q for Cognitive – Is exploration important to the cognitive development of the children?
Why or why not?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Q for Social – (1) What is the importance of reacting appropriately when talking to
children? What is the importance of showing an appropriate reaction to children?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
(2) What is pretend play and why is it important for this stage?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Q for Physical – (1) Why is it important to provide enough and safe space for the children
at this stage of development?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

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(2) What are the physical activities that can be done by the child at this stage?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
(3) What is the difference between skipping and hopping?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Q for Emotional – What can teachers/adults do to help children at this stage become
emotionally healthy?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

REFLECT AND CONNECT

Instructions: Recall a childhood memory (ages 0-5) related to learning, emotions, or
interactions, and describe what happened, who was involved, and how you felt. You may
ask your parents or guardians about their memories of your early childhood to help you
recall details. Connect this memory to a developmental theory such as Piaget, Erikson,
or Vygotsky, and reflect on how the experience shaped your growth. Write a structured
response with an introduction, theory connection, and personal reflection, ensuring clarity
and proper grammar.

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RUBRICS OF ACTIVITY
Needs
Satisfactory (3 Incomplete (1
Criteria Excellent (5 pts) Good (4 pts) Improvement (2
pts) pt)
pts)
Clearly describes a Describes a
Memory is
Memory specific childhood memory with Memory is shared
unclear or No memory is
Description memory with vivid some details, but lacks detail
missing key shared.
(Clarity & Detail) details, emotions, but could be and depth.
details.
and context. more specific.
Strong and
Connects
Connection to accurate
memory to Some connection
Theory connection to a Weak or unclear
theory to theory, but lacks No theory is
(Application of relevant child connection to
correctly but strong explanation mentioned.
Piaget, Erikson, development theory.
could use or accuracy.
Vygotsky, etc.) theory, with clear
more depth.
explanation.
Thoughtful
Reflection & reflection with deep Good Some reflection,
Minimal
Analysis (Critical insights into how reflection, but but lacks depth No reflection
reflection with
Thinking & the experience analysis could and personal or analysis.
little analysis.
Personal Insight) impacted be deeper. insight.
development.
Well-organized
with a clear Organized but Somewhat
Organization &
introduction, body, may have organized but has Disorganized or No clear
Clarity (Structure
and conclusion. minor issues structural difficult to follow. structure.
& Flow of Ideas)
Easy to read and with flow. weaknesses.
follow.
Grammar &
Mechanics Minor errors, Some grammar or Frequent Numerous
Writing is clear,
(Spelling, but they do not spelling mistakes grammar errors errors make it
polished, and free
Punctuation, affect that slightly affect that interfere difficult to
of errors.
Sentence readability. understanding. with clarity. understand.
Structure)

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Scoring Guide (Total: 25 points)
🔹 22-25 points (Excellent) – Outstanding work with strong theory connections and
deep reflection.
🔹 18-21 points (Good) – Solid effort, but some areas need more depth or clarity.

🔹 14-17 points (Satisfactory) – Meets basic requirements but lacks detail, depth, or
clear structure.
🔹 10-13 points (Needs Improvement) – Weak connection to theory and little reflection;
needs significant improvement.
🔹 Below 10 points (Incomplete) – Missing key elements or lacks effort.

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 Lesson 7
Middle Childhood (Primary Schoolers)

INTRODUCTION
One of the most important stages of human life is Middle Childhood, which spans
the ages of 6 to 12 years old. At this stage, children undergo significant changes such as
physical, emotional, cognitive, and social development that shape their personality and
self-worth. During these times, children develop social relationships, build their skills in
processing information, and begin to understand their identity.
According to O'Keeffe et al. (2022) during this stage with the children’s bones
lengthening and broadening, they experience steady growth at an average 2-3 inches per
year. Interestingly, according to studies boys tend to be taller at the beginning of this
stage, prior to the end, girls usually surpass them in height. The result of bone growth
outpacing muscle and tendon development, leads to growing pains which usually
experience by many children during this phase.
On the other side of physical growth, middle childhood is a time where profound
cognitive and emotional aspects develop. During this phase children develop their
thinking abilities, refining their problem-solving skills and begin to grasp complex
concepts. In the aspect of emotional development, they learn to regulate their feelings in
order to navigate friendships, understand others and develop a sense of independence.
Meanwhile, in social aspects, they start to shape their personality and self-esteem by
starting to form a deeper connection with the people around them, especially with their
peers and adults.
In this module, it explores various aspects of development in Middle Childhood,
including their emotional, cognitive, and physical changes. This module will also discuss
how information processing skills affects child’s cognitive growth. By the end of this
module, we aim to provide a deeper understanding of this various transformative stages
and its lasting impact on a child’s future.

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Identify and Describe these various characteristics such as physical, cognitive and
socio-emotional across different stages of development
2. Appreciate the role of information-processing skills in cognitive growth and apply
strategies to enhance learning.
3. Analyze the factors influencing socio-emotional development and their impact on
behavior and interactions.
4. Describe the characteristics of logical thinking in the concrete operational stage
and its implications for problem-solving.

Middle Childhood: Physical Development

Middle Childhood is a developmental stage that occurs between the ages of six
and twelve years old. During this time, children are attending school and are becoming
more active. There are several important physical changes that happen as a child moves
though this stage. There are the phases that affects the development or growth of the
child.
First, we will examine how the body change during their middle childhood years.
As we explore physical development during the school age years, it will become
apparent that changes in height and weight are slow and gradual; body proportional
changes are striking; and brain development is less dramatic than in proceeding stages.
However, expanded and refined motor development enables there children to make
striking gains in athletic skills. The school-age years represent a significant time when
children grow from a physical immaturity to the starting point of adult like appearances. It
also involves:
(1) Having good muscles control and coordination
(2) Developing eye-hand coordination
(3) Having good personal hygiene and
(4) Being aware of good safety habits.

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Muscle Growth
HEIGHT and WEIGHT
An average increase in height of a little over two inches a year in both boys and
girls will introduce them to many different
activities that they can now do with greater
accuracy. Weight gain average about 6.5
pounds a year and they will experience many
changes in their body. As they near puberty, it is
common for children to start feeling awkward or
confused about their bodies (and how they
compare to their friends' bodies). In addition to
their own experience of physical changes, children will also often have picked up
misconceptions about the meaning of puberty and sexuality which may further alarm
them. Parents can help children cope with their rapidly changing bodies by paying
attention to how these changes are progressing and being willing and able to talk with
children about the meaning of these changes.
A number of factors could indicate how much a child grows or how much changes
in the body will take place:
● Genes - Hereditary factors play a significant role in determining a child's height,
weight, and overall physical development.
● Food - A balanced diet that includes proteins, vitamins, minerals, and
carbohydrates helps in building strong bones, muscles, and a well-functioning
immune system.
● Climate - The environment in which a child grows up can impact their physical
development.
● Exercise - Physical activity is crucial for strong bones, muscle development, and
overall fitness.
● Medical conditions - Certain medical conditions, such as hormonal imbalances
(e.g., growth hormone deficiency, hypothyroidism), can affect how much a child
grows.

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 ● Diseases / illnesses - Frequent illnesses, chronic infections, or serious diseases
can slow down a child's growth by affecting their nutrient absorption and overall
health.

Skeletal Growth
BONES and MUSCLES
Childhood years are the peak bone-producing years. This is the best time to teach
children of good dietary and exercise habits to help them have strong, healthy bones
throughout their lives. Many lifestyle factors, like nutrition and physical activity, can
substantially influence the increase of bone mass during childhood. Children’s bones
however, have proportionately more water and protein-like materials than adults.

Brain Development
Movement in middle childhood becomes more controlled, more efficient, and
increasingly complex children in this stage love to move a lot. Because them grows motor
skills are already developed. Performing unimanual and bimanual activities becomes
easier. Motor development, skills include coordination, balance, speed, agility and power.
1. Coordination – series of movement organizes and time to occur in a particular way
to bring about particular result.
2. Balance – child’s ability to maintain the equilibrium or
stability of his/her body in different positions.

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 a. Static Balance – ability to maintain equilibrium in a fixed position.
b. Dynamic Balance – ability to maintain equilibrium while moving.
3. Speed – ability to cover a great distance in the shortest possible time.
4. Agility – one’s ability to quickly change or shift the direction of the body.
5. Power – ability to perform a maximum effort in the shortest possible period.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Jean Piaget is the foremost theorist when it comes to
cognitive development. According to him, intelligence is the
basic mechanism of ensuring balance in the relations between
the person and the environment. Everything that a person
experience is a continuous process of assimilations and
accommodations. Piaget described four main periods in
cognitive development. For Piaget, intellectual ability is not the
same at different ages.
Concrete operation is the third stage in Piagets’s theory of
cognitive development. It spans from ages 7 to approximately
11 years. In this developmental stage, children have better understanding of their thinking
skills. Children begin to think logically about concrete events, particularly their own
experiences, but have difficulty understanding abstract, thus most of them still have hard
time at problem solving.

● Logic
⮚ Inductive Logic
- Involves thinking from specific experience to a general principle.
⮚ Deductive Logic
- Using a general principle to determine the outcome of a specific event.
● Reversibility
One of the most important development in this stage, it is the awareness that
actions can be reversed.
Cognitive Milestones

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In their article, "Piaget's Four Stages of Cognitive Development," McDevitt and Ormrod
write those kids at this stage start to display adult-like logic, but their reasoning is limited
to concrete, real-life situations. According to Edwards' article, "Intellectual Development,"
during middle childhood, we become capable of symbolic representation, or recognition
that a symbol can represent an object or hold meaning. For example, a heart signifies
love. Another middle childhood development is the understanding of reversible
operations; for example, if there are 2 apples in the basket, and I add 2 more, I have 4,
but if I take 2 back out, there are 2 again.

Gross Motor Skills Development

During middle childhood, children continue to build on and improve gross motor
skills; the large-scale body movement skills such as walking and running that they first
learned during earlier developmental stages. In general, boys develop these skills slightly
faster than do girls, except for skills involving balance and precise movements such as
skipping, jumping and hopping.

At this age, children run faster than

previously possible, often clocking more than
eighteen feet per second. They can also jump
higher (on average between four and twelve
inches off the ground) and farther (on average,
three to five feet or more). These figures are
average for children of this age range and will
not apply to individual children. No two children
will develop physical skills in exactly the same pattern or time frame. Caregivers who
have concerns about how their children's gross motor skills are developing should consult
with their pediatrician.

Middle-Childhood-aged children also refine their control over gross motor skills,
learning to master where they hop, skip, throw, and jump. They are able to gain this
improved control and coordination due to increases in their flexibility (e.g., their range of

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movement in joints and muscles), balance, and agility (e.g., their ability to change their
body's position, which requires a combination of balance, coordination, speed, reflexes,
and strength) Kids at this age also learn how to synchronize the movement of their body's
various parts, allowing for the development of smoother, more coordinated whole-body
movement routines such as are needed for participating in organized sports (e.g.,
throwing a football, batting a baseball, or dribbling a basketball). Due to their progress
with regard to the growth and maturity of motor, cognitive, and social skills, many children
will now become capable and competitive participants on sports teams.

Fine Motor Skills Development

Children in middle childhood also continue to hone their fine motor skills which can
be distinguish from gross motor skills in that they require hand-eye coordination. In
contrast to how gross motor skills develop, girls tend to develop fine motor skills slightly
faster than do boys.

Specifically, middle-childhood-
aged children show dramatic
improvements with regard to their
printed handwriting and ability to write
in cursive letters (e.g., "script" forms of
handwriting). They also develop the
ability to draw complex and detailed
pictures that for the first time begin to incorporate depth cues (i.e., such as drawing farther
away objects smaller) and 3D elements. Often, children's artistic ability can truly begin to
shine during this stage as improved fine motor skills and imagination combine.
During this stage, children also learn how to use their hands to successfully accomplish
manual activities other than drawing or writing. For instance, they become capable of
executing complex detail-oriented craft projects involving beading, sewing, scrap
booking, building models, and good at using simple tools such a hammer or a hand mixer
(both under adult supervision, we hope!). Learning to touch type becomes a serious
possibility at this time. Children also commonly become quite skillful at playing

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complicated games involving hand-eye coordination, including video and computer
games.

Children's easy use of communications tools such as cell phones and computers,
which becomes possible as they master increasingly complex fine motor skills, exposes
them to a world much larger and more complicated than they can possibly imagine.
Parents need to be aware of both the positive and negative potential effects of allowing
children of this age to play video games and access the Internet.

● During middle childhood, children's bones broaden and lengthen dramatically and in
general, they will grow an average of 2-3 inches taller each year throughout this period.
● Both boys and girls are building muscle and on average, they will gain 6-7 pounds a
year, each year during middle childhood.
● It's extremely important for kids of this age to continue (or to start) to lead a healthy
lifestyle, including eating nutritious meals as well as getting plenty of exercise and
adequate sleep every day.
● During middle childhood, children continue to build on and improve gross motor skills.
● Children in middle childhood also continue to hone their fine motor skills which can be
distinguish from gross motor skills in that they require hand-eye coordination.
● Specifically, middle-childhood-aged children show dramatic improvements with regard
to their printed handwriting and ability to write in cursive letters (e.g., "script" forms of
handwriting).
● Children's easy use of communications tools such as cell phones and computers,
which becomes possible as they master increasingly complex fine motor skills,
exposes them to a world much larger and more complicated than they can possibly
imagine.

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 Let's now explore the various concrete operations children start to master during
this middle childhood stage of their development:

Concrete Operational Thought

The child uses inductive reasoning. It is where children draw broad conclusions
from specific instances. For example, if a child saw their dog barking, then the neighbor’s
dog barked, they may conclude that all dogs bark. Children start to use logic in concrete
ways. A concrete operational child is able to use logical principles in solving problems in
the physical world.

What cognitive development takes place in middle childhood?

Piaget's Concrete Operations
A mental operation, in the
Piagetian way of thinking, is the ability to
accurately imagine the consequences of
something happening without it actually
needing to happen. During a mental
operation, children imagine "what if"
scenarios which involve the imaginable
transformation of mental representations
of things they have experienced in the
world; people, places and things. The ability to perform mental arithmetic is a good
example of an operation. Children at this age become capable of mastering addition and
subtraction and similar operations and consequently are able to tell you that if they eat
one cookie out of a jar containing five, that there will be four cookies left in the jar.
Importantly, they can do this without actually eating a cookie and then counting the
remaining cookies in the jar because they are able to model the cookie jar in their minds
and operate on the contents of that mental jar so as to arrive at the answer without having
to actually do the experiment.

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 These sorts of operations are "concrete" because they are based on actual people,
places and things that children have observed in the environment. Children's mental
representations remain concretely linked to things they have seen and touched
throughout the middle childhood period. Because their representations are limited to the
tangible, touchable and concrete, their appreciation of the consequences of events is
similarly limited, local and concrete in scope. At this age, children can easily tell you that
if the fence breaks open, that the dog will be able to get out. However, they cannot easily
think about more abstract things like what it will really mean for the family if a parent loses
her job. In the Piagetian theory, it is not until children enter adolescence that they become
capable of more abstract "formal" operations involving representations of things that are
intangible and abstract (without any tight link back to a tangible person, place or thing),
such as "liberty", "freedom" or "divinity".

Piaget described multiple operations that children begin to master in middle

childhood, including conservation, decentration, reversibility, hierarchical classification,
seriation, and spatial reasoning. These are technical terms, all of which will be described
below in greater detail. Obviously, children do not learn the names of these various
operations or proudly point out to their parents that they've mastered these skills. Children
just start doing these things without having realized what they've accomplished. However,
these new skills are often noticeable by outside observers familiar with children's
progress. In their own subtle way, children's mastery of these operations is a tremendous
accomplishment, easily as impressive a feat as any physical accomplishment children
might learn.

The stage-by-stage nature of Piaget's theory, with each stage linked to an age
group for whom the stage is typical, strongly suggests for many people that at a particular
age, children are supposed to be functioning at a particular stage. It's important to keep
in mind that Piaget's theory is intended to talk about how an average child might be
functioning at a particular age; it is not a pronouncement about how any particular
individual child should be functioning. Children develop uniquely and at their own pace
depending upon their temperament (the inherited component of their personalities),

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genetic makeup, supports available to them in their environments, and their learning
experiences. Different children will show mastery of specific operations sooner than will
others, or display them in some situations but not in others. Newer research also shows
that context affects children's abilities as well. Most children will display more advanced
operations when in familiar or mandatory environments (e.g., at school, working on school
tasks). They may tend to become confused and perform more poorly when confronted
with novel situations.

Conservation
The child can understand that altering an object’s appearance doesn’t change its
fundamental properties, like mass, volume, or number. For example, A concrete
operational child can understand that changing one quality (the height or water level) can
be made up by changes in another quality (width). Thus, there is the same amount of
water in each container even one is taller and narrower and the other is shorter and wider.
Conservation involves the ability to understand when the amount of something
remains constant across two or more situations
despite the appearance of that thing changing
across those situations. The idea of conservation
can be applied to any form of measurement,
including number, mass, length, area, volume, etc.
Piaget's famous example of conservation was
performed using liquids poured into different shaped
containers. Though the volume of liquid remains
constant across the two containers, each container
has a very different visual appearance, with one
being tall and thin, while another was short and wide. Using this setup, Piaget was able
to show that middle childhood-aged children were able to appreciate that the total amount
of liquid was unchanged despite being poured into differently shaped containers. Younger
children were characteristically fooled by the appearance of the containers and tended to
conclude that wider, shorter containers held less water than taller, thinner containers.

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In everyday life, children demonstrate conservation of number (of counting) when they
realize that 10 cookies will remain constant in number no matter whether they are spread
out or stacked into a tower. Children who grasp conservation of mass realize that their
body weight will remain consistent, whether they stand up straight or sit cross-legged on
a scale. Similarly, children who understand conservation of length understand that a rope
is the same length regardless of whether it's laid out straight or coiled up. Children who
understand conservation of area know that the total space on a tabletop remains constant
regardless of whether it is cluttered with objects or cleared. Recent research suggests
that children in Western cultures tend to achieve conservation of number by age 7,
conservation of mass and length by age 7 or 8, and conservation of area by age 8 or 9.

Decentration
Piaget came to understand that the ability to conserve depended upon two more
fundamental cognitive or thinking skills: Decentration and Reversibility.

Decentration involves the ability to pay

attention to multiple attributes of an object or
situation rather than being locked into attending to
only a single attribute. When children are asked to
compare the volume of juice in two glasses, it is their
ability to decent rate that enables them to flexibly
consider both the height and the width of the
glasses in arriving at their decision. Younger
children tend to get fixed on only one dimension or attribute of a situation, such as the
height of a container, and to make their judgment of how much stuff can be fit into that
container based on that single dimension. Other dimensions simply are not attended to.
Through the development of decentration skills, older children start to be able to pay
attention to more than one thing at at time.

You might think of decentration as being the basis for multitasking. It involves the
development of attentional flexibility so that attention can be shifted from one aspect of a

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situation to another and then back again. It also involves the development of short term
memory abilities to the point where memory of one aspect of a situation is able to be
preserved while another aspect of that situation is also being attended to. This overlaying
of memories enables children to develop an integrated perspective on what they are
looking at.

In everyday life, decentration helps children to advance their math and reading
skills by making it possible for them to go beyond simple memorization of symbols and to
begin to understand how symbols can be arranged to convey meaning. Decentrated
children can look at words or math formulas and simultaneously consider the individual
symbols (letters, numbers) these structures are composed of, as well as the overall
meaning of the words or formulas. Decentration is fundamental to more advanced
cognitive skills such as reading. Children who have not yet achieved decentration would
not see and appreciate words when they look at written sentences; instead, they would
more likely pay attention to the individual letters.

Reversibility
Reversibility takes conservation one step further. Children capable of conservation
appreciate that an object's quality is not altered simply by transforming how that object
appears. Children capable of reversibility appreciate that if an object's quality is altered
through some true subtraction or addition, the object's original quality can be restored by
reversing the alteration. This capability is enabled in large part through the maturation of
children's memory so as to enable their retention of awareness of a series of events and
their ability to run backwards through those remembered events so as to see how
something transformed could be restored to its initial state. For example, children
demonstrate conservation when they appreciate that if Mom takes four apples from a
bowl in the middle of the table and puts one at each family member's plate, there are still
four apples present. They demonstrate reversibility when they appreciate that when Mom
puts one of the apples in her pocket that an actual transformation of the quantity of apples
on the table has occurred, which can be reversed by Mom taking the apple back out of
her pocket and returning it to the table. Alternatively, children demonstrate an

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appreciation of reversibility when they recommend that a scale that has been unbalanced
by the placement of a weight can be restored to balance by the removal of that weight.

Classification
Beyond conservation, Piaget also believed
that children in middle childhood master hierarchical
classification; the ability to simultaneously sort
things into general and more specific groups, using
different types of comparisons. Most children
develop hierarchical classification ability between the
ages of 7 and 10. For example, kids who collect
superhero trading cards might be able to sort their cards by good-guy/bad-guy status,
gender, and particular category of superhero powers. The ability to perform hierarchical
classification is very useful to children in school, as they begin to understand and
appreciate science and social studies concepts which involve making just such
comparisons, for instance, sorting living creatures into different groups based on whether
they are animals or plants, etc.

Seriation
Seriation involves the ability to put things in order based on quantity or magnitude.
When we count numbers in order, we are demonstrating our ability to seriate, because
numbers represent in abstract or generic form, specific quantities of things. When we
count numbers in order, we are counting numbers in such a way as to arrange them so
that the number we name immediately after another number
will always represent a larger quantity of things than the
previous number did. In the laboratory, Piaget tested
children's seriation by showing that they could arrange sticks
of different lengths into order from the smallest to the largest.
However, children might also demonstrate their mastery of
seriation by spontaneously arranging their stuffed animals or
army toys from smallest to biggest on their bedroom shelf.

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 In daily life, children often use their seriation skills in school contexts. Seriation is
a fundamental ability, without which children cannot progress in math and science. You
cannot appreciate what it means to measure the length or mass of something, for
example (measurement being fundamental to all scientific endeavors) if you are incapable
of reliably arranging things in order of their magnitude.

Spatial Reasoning
Finally, Piaget also suggested that kids
develop spatial reasoning during middle childhood.
Spatial reasoning is the ability to understand and
to reason (to draw conclusions) using cues in the
environment that convey information about
distance or direction. During middle childhood, children become able to discriminate
objects that are nearby and far away based on their apparent size. They learn that objects
that are further away will appear smaller than objects that are closer. Younger children
who have not mastered spatial reasoning do not appreciate this seemingly obvious
perceptual rule. Younger children will instead typically assume that far-away objects really
are tiny. They appreciate that closer and farther away objects do differ in size, but do not
understand that the size difference is only apparent, a perceptual illusion caused by
distance and the nature of vision.

For the first time in their lives, middle-childhood-aged children become able to give
directions using another person's vantage point rather than their own. For instance, a boy
who wants to indicate to a woman seeking directions that she should turn to his left would
know to tell the direction seeker (who is standing facing him) to turn to her right. Younger
children cannot do this sort of thing, instead being limited to providing directions from their
own perspective only.

Children's development of spatial reasoning skills, including their ability to

represent places from multiple perspectives helps them to form more accurate cognitive

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maps (mental pictures of their environment) than they could previously. This refined
knowledge enables them to produce realistically accurate maps of their neighborhood
that other people can understand, complete with appropriate landmarks and relative
distances between locations. Younger children's maps are less sophisticated and less
accurate.

Even though middle childhood aged children who have achieved concrete
operations stage have made many gains in their thinking abilities, they have not yet
reached the level of adult thinking. Adults can reason not only about things that are
concretely in front of them, but also about more abstract concepts. By comparison, middle
childhood aged children are not skillful at thinking abstractly. They cannot easily (or at all)
consider complicated hypothetical situations, generalize a wide range of outcomes to
vague situations, or make sense of intangible ideas like "liberty".

SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
It is all about on how children can interact and
socialized with other people. According to Erik Erikson’s Fourth
Stage of Psychosocial Development, Industry vs. Inferiority is
the psychosocial crisis that children will have to resolve in this
stage. Industry refers to a child’s involvement in situations
where long, patient work is demanded of them, while inferiority
is the feeling created when a child gets a feeling of failure when
they cannot finish or master their school work.
Membership in a group is structured within a hierarchy, ranging from those
accorded the highest status to those at the bottom of the popularity poll. To determine a
child’s status in the peer group, socio-metric assessment procedures, such as the peer
nomination method, are frequently used. These measures rely on children’s perceptions
of others and car identify children’s “ranking within the peer group.
How important is group acceptance? an impressive number of studies say “very
important”. So important, that at any age level, a feeling of belonging is essential to
functioning effectively. Interpersonal relations play such or important role in children’s

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lives that they may be regarded as a barometer of their level of adjustment to life in
general.
There are strong connections between poor peer relations and maladjustment.
The strongest association between peer difficulty and adjustment are found in the
prediction of early school withdrawal, delinquency and mental health problems.

What emotional/social development takes place in middle childhood?

Emotional Understanding, Expression and Control
During middle childhood, children make great strides in terms of their ability to
recognize emotions in themselves and others, control their own emotions, and
communicate about emotions, both expressively and with language.

By this age, most children have developed their capacity for regulating their own
emotions. In contrast to younger children who require external support from caregivers in
order to control their emotions, middle childhood aged kids have increasingly internalized
these skills. As well, their social knowledge
and appreciation of their culture's rules for
display of emotions (when and where it is
appropriate to display particular emotions,
how much is allowed, what expressions of
emotion are acceptable, and whether the
rules are different for boys or girls) is
improved, enabling them to recognize
whether or not it is appropriate to express specific emotions in specific situations and then
take steps to display an appropriate amount of emotion. By this time children will have
typically learned that it is not okay to hit someone when they are angry (although not all
children will follow this rule). In addition, most children will have develop enhanced self-
soothing skills, and have become capable of calming themselves down when they are
angry or upset. They are no longer at the mercy of their emotions; impulsively acting them
out simply because they are strongly felt.

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 Also, by this time, most children will have started to be capable of making sense
of complex emotional content present in interpersonal situations. As they start to notice
other people's conflicting emotion-driven behaviors (e.g., seeing someone cry and laugh
at the same time), they begin to appreciate the reality of mixed and complex emotions.
They also start to realize that people's reported emotion may not always reflect the
emotions they are actually experiencing (such as occurs when someone smiles tensely
and says that "everything is fine" when the context makes clear that things are not actually
all that good). It is about at this time that children become capable of appreciating sarcasm
and similarly subtle and contradictory emotional displays.

As children practice interpreting people's complex emotional displays, their

perspective taking abilities and their empathy skills increase. Children's perspective
taking abilities involve their capacity for imagining what other people must actually be
thinking and feeling, and appreciating what it must be like to see and feel the world from
the perspective of other people. Empathy skills have to do with children's ability to
sympathize with another person's emotions so deeply that they start feeling those same
emotions.

What moral development takes place in middle childhood?

Moral development involves children learning how to tell the difference between
right and wrong; to use this knowledge to arrive at appropriate decisions when faced with
complicated choices; and to have the strength and independence to act in accordance
with that right decision (to "do the right thing") despite the fact that it may not be a
convenient thing to do. As with other components of development, morality is shaped by
multiple factors. Children's interpersonal experiences with family, peers, and other adults,
as well as their maturing physical, cognitive, emotional and social skills combine to
influence moral development.

UNDERSTANDING SELF and OTHERS

One’s self-concept is the knowledge about the self, such as beliefs regarding
personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals and roles. It also

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involves a sense of belonging and acceptance, a
sense of good and a sense of being capable of
doing good.
Having a healthy self-concept does not
mean that a child thinks that he is better than the
others. It means that he likes himself, feels
accepted by his family and friends and believes that
he can do well.
1. Changes in Self-systems
Children’s self-concept increases from superficial descriptions to multi-
dimensional view of themselves. Physical qualities, motor skills, sex type and age are the
hallmarks of young children’s self-descriptions. Children are capable of distinguishing
among various domains of competency, such as academic achievement, athletic
prowess, peer priority, physical appearance and behavioral conduct.
Ethnic identity is part of a positive self-concept that consciously anchors children
to a particular ethnic group. Central to this identity is a sense of belonging, as well as a
commitment to the group’s values, beliefs, behaviors and customs.
Another developmental shift can be seen in the way older children experience
conflicting behaviors or emotions. These changes tend to occur between the ages 7 and
8. Before the age of 7, children unable to describe the self in terms of conflicting behaviors
or traits.
2. Comparing Self to Others
Children spontaneously and more thoughtfully compare their capabilities and
attributes with those of their peers to determine how well they measure up. Because few
children excel in all aspects, social comparison fosters a more differentiated awareness
of personal strengths and weaknesses.
Not until age 9, however, is the information provided about other children used
consistently and systematically. Children under the age of 7 use social comparison
information only to judge appearance and action, whereas older children are capable of
evaluating competence and ability and will therefore make a point of seeking out any
comparative data that throw light on their own status.

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 3. Social Self-Conceptions
Interpersonal relationships are perceived as constituting the core of self – a finding
that helps to explain why children in late middle childhood become so distressed when
such relationships are damaged or terminated.
4. Developmental Shifts in Self-Esteem
A final developmental shift involves the manner in which self-esteem manifests. It
is not until around the age of 8 that children develop a concept of their overall worth as a
person. It is also around this time that children begin to solidify their self-pictures and to
resist any changes that disturb their self-system, they tend to behave in accordance with
their behavior must always be consistent with their self-evaluations.

Consistency of Self
- Any value entering the self-system that is inconsistent with individuals’ evaluation
of themselves will not be assimilated.

FRIENDSHIPS
Peer acceptance refers to a child’s inclusion in the group as a whole; friendship
refers to the establishment of a particular dyadic relationship between two children
characterized by strong mutual liking, a mutually expressed preference for one another,
and a sense of shared history.
1. The Benefits of Friendships
Functions of Friendship
a. Friendship are contexts in which children can acquire or elaborate basic social
skills like communications and cooperation
b. They provide children with self-knowledge as well as knowledge about other
people and about the world.
c. They give children emotional support in the face of stress.
d. They are forerunners of subsequent relationships (romantic, marital and
parental) in that they provide experience in handling intimacy and mutual regulation
Friendships can be beneficial when children are cooperative, their friends are pro-
social, and each member of the dyad socializes the other in pro-social directions.

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Friendship can also be a source of frustration because of the inevitability of conflict
between friends. Friendships can be harmful when children are anti-social and aggressive
and behave in maladaptive ways. Lack of friendship can lead to some rather lonely
consequences.

2. Defining Who Friends Are

Between the ages 6 and 8, children define friends as those individuals who share
their worldly goods, act nice, and are fun to be with.

Conditions Associated with Friendlessness

Children without friends are more likely to:
a. Have emotional problems
b. Lag behind other children in perspective-taking skills
c. Be less altruistic
d. Have deficiencies in social skill as group entry, cooperative play and conflict
management
e. Be generally, less sociable
f. Show poorer school adjustment
g. Make fewer educational gains

Between the ages 8 and 10, friends are defined as people who help one another,
either spontaneously or in response to an expression of need. In this stage, the child can
take a relativistic perspective and see that each party has a set of likes and dislikes that
need to be coordinated. Friends are important because everyone needs a companion.
Between the ages 10 and 12, children are able to simultaneously consider the
viewpoints of both the participants in a conflict. They are aware of their own unique
feelings but also recognize that others may have unique feelings.
The sex of a friend is a very important consideration for children; more so than
ethnicity. Throughout the early and middle elementary school grades, same-sex friends
remain constant, but mixed ethnic friendship increase. Cross-ethnic evaluations,
however, tend to be generally quite positive.

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 ⮚ Peer Acceptance – refers to a child’s inclusion in the group as a whole
⮚ Friendship – refers to the establishment of a particular dyadic relationship
between two children characterized by strong mutual liking
Distance, lack of organized extra-curricular activities, and self-perceived social
skills deficits are included among barriers in nurturing cross-ethnic friendships in non-
school settings.
In describing the most important characteristics of good friends, Latinos
emphasize relational support, Asian Americans emphasize a caring, positive exchange
of
ideas, African Americans emphasize respect and acceptance, and European
American children emphasize recognizing the others’ needs. Boys and girls from all ethnic
groups, however, choose loyalty as another major element in friendship.

3. Making and Keeping Friends

There are certain social tasks that are unique to making and keeping friends. The
first task is maintaining the “spirit of equality” of friendship. The second task is helping a
friend when the friend is in need. The third task involves being a reliable partner to a
friend. The last task involves managing a friendship in the larger social context of the
classroom and peer group.
Sociologists have suggested that girls experience with “lack of power” often turns
one girl against her best friend. Friendship, then, is an arena in which girls feel that not
only do they not have to compete with boys, but that even they do wield more power.

What gender identity and sexual development takes place in middle childhood?
Hormonal Factors Influencing Gender Identity
Hormones are chemical messengers produced in the body that activate cells in
certain parts of the body, helping it function as intended to do, whether short-term or long-
term. Mainly produced and cycled around by endocrine glands, responsible for sending
out these specific chemicals to flow within the bloodstream and arrive at their designated
organ.

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 Biological factors play
a huge role in shaping
children's physical
development. For instance,
boys and girls are born with
distinctive sexual organs, and
become further differentiated
when secondary sexual
characteristics emerge upon
puberty. Naturally occurring
chemical messenger
compounds in the body
known as hormones are responsible for coordinating the appearance of these physical
differences.

Some research suggests that the same sex hormones that enable sexual organ
differentiation in utero and which later trigger puberty also pl an important role in shaping
gender identity. Boys tend to have more androgens (male sex hormones) than girls.
However, some boys and girls are born with a condition called congenital adrenal
hyperplasia (CAH), which causes them to have significantly higher levels of androgens
than their non-affected peers. Scientists have studied children with CAH in order to
understand how their extra androgen levels affect behavior. Boys with excess androgens
play and behave much like normal male peers. However, girls with high androgen levels
tend to display more gender-stereotypic male traits and behaviors than do than their
same-age hormonally-normal peers. In addition, girls with CAH are born with external
genitalia that look like male genitalia. Though these girls appear to have penises, they
are still female. Girls' true gender is determined genetically rather than anatomically.
Females possess two "X" chromosomes, while males possess a single "X" chromosome
and a "Y" chromosome.

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 Even after girls with CAH have surgeries to make their genitalia look more
characteristically female, they continue to show heightened masculine traits. For
instance, they prefer to play with male peers; tend to choose traditionally masculine toys
and activities (e.g., blocks, cars, models, sports) over more "feminine" toys and games;
and are physically active and aggressive. In addition, girls with CAH tend to avoid having
girl playmates; don't play games revolving around stereotypical feminine events such as
playing at being a mother or bride; and tend to care less about their physical appearance
than do girls of their age who do not have CAH. In other words, higher levels of male
hormones strongly influence girls to behave as though they were boys.

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia

The influence starts early on during prenatal
development, where in some cases the body also
produces male genitalia in XX individuals.
Moreover, it affects the behavior in women to
exhibit male-dominant traits that span from
childhood all the way to adulthood

Hyperestrogenism
Estrogen is associated with females, and the excess in
mens’ bodies influence the development of their physical and
mental characteristics, from behavior to body form and
preference. Affecting gender identity and sexual orientation
where they will lean towards a more feminine identity.
Additionally, their body’s development and needs are altered,
with bone density unequal to traditional men and metabolic
functions that regulate bodies akin to women, therefore thinner
than that of men.

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Social and Environmental Factors Influencing Gender Identity
Other studies have shown that children's upbringing and social environments also
impacts their developing gender identities. This work can be summarized by stating that
children's interests, preferences, behaviors and overall self-concept are strongly
influenced by parental and authority figure teachings regarding sexual stereotypes
occurring in or before the early portion of middle childhood. Children who are taught that
certain traits or activities are appropriate or inappropriate for them to engage because
they are a girl or a boy do tend to internalize and be influenced by these teachings in later
life. For instance, girls who are informed that boys are innately better at math than they
are may report that they dislike math and disclaim their interest in that subject. They may
go on to believe that they are not good at this academic subject, and to perform poorly
on math tests and homework assignments.

Children learn vicariously, in part, through their observation and imitation of what
they see their primary caregivers doing. They tend to imitate and internalize what they
see and then repeat those patterns in their own lives as though they had come up with
them independently. Children raised watching their parents adhering to strict gender-
stereotyped roles are, in general, more likely to take on those roles themselves as adults
than are peers whose parents provided less stereotyped, more androgynous models for
behaving.

Homosexual, Bisexual and Trans-gendered Youth

Subject as they are to intense biological and social conditioning pushing them
towards a particular conclusion, most boys develop a primarily masculine gender-identity,
and most girls develop a primarily feminine gender-identity. Though their willingness to
engage in cross-gender stereotyped behaviors may vary, such children are the same in
that their experience is one of essential comfort and lack of anxiety with regard to their
sexual and gender status. Their gender identity feels natural and normal to them. The
things they want to do, socially and sexually, are consistent and congruent with what
family and society want them to do. There is no sense that they have been strong-armed
into becoming something they are not.

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 A minority of boys and girls do not experience this sense of comfort and
congruence. These youth have a different
experience of anxiety and incongruence
due to their gender-identity being out of
sync with social expectation because of
their homosexual or trans-gender identity.
Children who develop a homosexual
sexual preference experience a physical-
gender-consistent gender identity, meaning that they are boys who feel comfortable and
normal being boys, or girls who feel comfortable and normal being girls. However, they
find themselves sexually attracted to homosexual (same-sex) peers rather than the
normal case of heterosexual (opposite-sex) attraction. Trans-gendered youth have
developed a gender identity in opposition to their physical gender. They may be physically
male but experience themselves as female, or physically female but experience
themselves as male.

● Homosexual (same-sex attraction)

No different from any child of age and still act appropriately to their gender, whether
they are a boy or a girl, but they experience an attraction to the same gender as they are.
Boys will be attracted to boys, and girls will be attracted to girls.
● Bisexual (both-sex attraction)
Another case where the child of age is unchanged and acts accordingly to their
gender; boy or girl. Their romantic interest is now applicable to both male or female.
Generally, bisexual is the appropriate term for being both homosexual and heterosexual.
● Transgender (opposite sex behavior)
A case in the child where their gender identity and behavior is opposite of their gender
assigned at birth. Physically, they will be a male or female, although they will act feminine
or masculine respectively. And to them, this is normal and natural and should be
respected like others.

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GROUP ACCEPTANCE POPULAR CHILDREN
▪ Characteristics of Popular Children
Social competence appears to be related to a similar set of behaviors.
⮚ POPULAR CHILDREN – often engage in pro-social behavior, are seldom
aggressive, and are able to pick up on the emotions of others and how their
behavior is affecting other children.
⮚ SOCIAL COMPETENCE – refers to a set of skills that collectively result in
successful social functioning with peers.
Shyness in 8 to 10 years old children was associated with higher peer acceptance
and positive teacher ratings of social competence.
Determinant of peer acceptance: Popular children
Popular - prosocial children-Usually
combined academic and social competence, they
perform well in school communicating with peers
in sensitive, friendly and cooperative ways.

Popular-antisocial children-may be
"tough" boys who are athletically skilled but are
poor students who cause trouble as defy adult
authority or relationally aggressive boys and girls
who ignore, exclude and spread rumors about
other children as a way of enhancing their own status.

● Despite their aggressiveness peers view these youths as "cool" perhaps because
of their athletic ability and sophisticated but devious social skills.
● Although peer admiration gives these children some protection against lasting
adjustment difficulties, their antisocial acts require intervention.
● With age, peers like these high-status, aggressive peer less and less
-This trend is stronger for relationally aggressive girls.
-The more socially prominent and controlling these girls become, the more they
engage in relational aggression.

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 The degree to which a child or adolescent is socially accepted by peers; the
level of peer popularity.

Peer acceptance is measured by the quality

rather than the quantity of a child or adolescent's
relationships. While the number of friends varies among
children and over time as a child develops, peer
acceptance is often established as early as preschool.
Factors such as physical attractiveness, cultural traits,
and disabilities affect the level of peer acceptance, with
a child's degree of social competence being the best
predictor of peer acceptance. Children who are peer-
accepted or popular have fewer problems in middle and
high school, and teens who are peer-accepted have fewer emotional and social
adjustment problems as adults. Peer-accepted children may be shy or assertive, but they
often have well-developed communication skills.
Peer-accepted children tend to:
Correctly interpret other children's body language and tone of voice. Well-liked
children can distinguish subtleties in emotions. For example, they can distinguish
between anger directed toward them versus toward a parent.

● Directly respond to the statements and gestures of other children. Well-liked

children will say other children's names, establish eye contact, and use touch to
get attention.
● Give reasons for their own statements and gestures (actions). For example, well-
liked children will explain why they want to do something the other child does not
want to do.
● Cooperate with, show tact towards, and compromise with other children,
demonstrating the willingness to subordinate the self by modifying behavior and
opinions in the interests of others. For example, when joining a new group where
a conversation is already in progress, well-liked children will listen first, establishing

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 a tentative presence in the group before speaking (even if it is to change the
subject).

These skills are crucial in initiating and maintaining relationships, and in resolving
conflicts. By contrast, rejected children tend either towards aggressive, antisocial
behavior, or withdrawn, depressive behavior. They also don't listen well, tend not to offer
reasons for their behavior, don't positively reinforce their peers, and have trouble
cooperating. Antisocial children will interrupt people, dominate other children,

and either verbally or physically attack them. Depressive or withdrawn children

may be excessively reserved, submissive, anxious, and inhibited. Competitiveness or
dominance by itself is not necessarily indicative of low peer acceptance. In fact, popular
children tend to have the characteristics of both competitiveness and friendliness.
Although biological
predisposition may be a factor
in a child's social competence
and level of peer acceptance,
environmental factors are also
extremely important. Some of
the factors contributing to peer
acceptance include (1) during
infancy, the quality of
attachment between mother or primary caregiver and child; (2) during childhood, the
quantity and quality of opportunities for interaction with different types of peers in different
environments (in the family, at school, church, camp, activity centers, in sports, or in the
neighborhood); (3) the type of parenting style. A highly nurturant but moderately
controlling "authoritative" parenting style is associated with the highest levels of social
competence. By contrast, a low nurturant, highly controlling "authoritarian" parenting style
is associated with children's aggressiveness, while the high nurturant but low-controlling
"permissive" style is associated with failure to take responsibility for behavior.

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 Children learn to relate to peers by engaging in peer relationships. Often a vicious
circle develops where a rejected child is given fewer and fewer opportunities by his peers
to relate and thereby learn new skills. Lack of opportunity to participate normally in peer
interaction is especially problematic for children who differ in some obvious way, either
culturally, racially, or through some mental or physical disability. Issues of peer
acceptance should be addressed as early as possible in order to prevent loss of self-
confidence and self-esteem.
In addition to providing direct social
skills training or counseling for the child with
peer acceptance problems, parents and
teachers can create opportunities for non-
threatening social interaction to occur. Though
children should never be forced to play
together (this can create the rejection it is
intended to remedy), popular and less-popular
preschoolers can be encouraged to interact
with one another. For example, a less sociable child may be encouraged to answer and
ask questions of others. Older children should be provided opportunities to interact in
smaller groups and in one-on-one situations, where it may be easier to try out new
behaviors and make up for social mistakes. Shy or withdrawn children can be encouraged
to develop outside interests that will place them in structured contact with others. In
school, peer helping programs and collaborative learning provide opportunities for
popular and less-popular children to work together. Ideally, collaboration should highlight
the less-popular students' strengths, such as special interests and talents, rather than
weaknesses. At any age, the smallest positive change in behavior should be reinforced
with attention and praise.

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MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Morality is to know right from wrong behavior. It develops in a sequential pattern;
that is, the growth of moral reasoning follows certain stages of development.

PIAGET’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Piaget was interested in studying children’s conceptions about rules and the role
that intent plays in children’s thinking about moral transgressions. He was able to trace
the transformations in these two aspects of children’s moral development as they reached
greater levels of cognitive maturity.
When children adopt inflexible moral codes based on adult rules. It is characterized by
the naïve assumption on the part of children that rules are external, absolute and
unchanging. Children in the moral realism stage tend to judge behavior in absolute terms;
1. Moral Realism
behavior is totally right or totally wrong. The young child feels that everyone sees
and judges the morality of people and behavior exactly the same way.
2. Moral Relativism
Cognitively more mature stage of moral reasoning characterized by an
understanding that morality depends on mutual respect rather than on unquestioned
obedience to authority. It occurs primarily as a result of changes in cognitive ability as
well as the child’s broadened social experience. As children become members of a group,
their moral judgments may become less absolute and authoritarian and more dependent
on the needs and desires of the group; when that occurs moral relativism replaces moral
realism.
3. Progressing from Moral Realism to Moral Relativism
Piaget concluded from all the various findings of his research that up to age 4,
children are still in a premoral period. It is the first of Piaget’s three-stage moral
development periods; during this time, children (up to age 4) have little conception of what
a rule is and what purpose it serves. Children do so initially in an uncoordinated way and
subsequently make up their own rules. Ideas about right and wrong are still arbitrary. After
the age of 4 or 5, however, children’s ideas become much more systematic. They then

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enter the stage of moral realism – so called because judgments tend to be based on the
real or objective damage done.
Progressing from moral realism to moral relativism involves passing through three
periods during the elementary school years. Within the first period, typically found in
children up to age of 7, justice is whatever has been prescribed by adult authority and it
means abiding strictly by these adult-formulated rules. This conception is gradually
altered so that by the ages of 8 to 11, children believe in justice as equality. Justice now
means treating everyone alike – reciprocity and equality among peers. At the higher and
final level of morality that appears around age 11 or 12, “purely equalitarian justice is
tempered by considerations of equity.”

KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL REASONING

Lawrence Kohlberg’s approach to moral development is an elaboration of Piaget’s
with respect to both theory and method.

What Is Moral Development, Exactly?

Moral development is the process by which people develop the distinction between
right and wrong (morality) and engage in reasoning between the two (moral reasoning).

How do people develop morality? This question has

fascinated parents, religious leaders, and philosophers for
ages, but moral a development has also become a hot-
button issue in psychology and education. Do parental or
societal influences play a more significant role in moral
development? Do all kids develop morality in similar ways?
American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg
developed one of the best-known theories exploring some of these basic questions. His
work modified and expanded upon Jean Piaget's previous work but was more centered
on explaining how children develop moral reasoning.

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 Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral development is a
continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan. Kohlberg's theory outlines six
stages of moral development within three different levels.

Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg's theory is broken down into three primary levels. At each level of moral
development, there are two stages. Similar to how Piaget believed that not all people
reach the highest levels of cognitive development, Kohlberg believed not everyone
progresses to the highest stages of moral development.

Levels of Moral Age Stages Included in This Level

Development

Preconventional 0 to 9 Stage 1: Obedience and

Morality punishment Stage 2: Individualism and
exchange

Conventional Early Stage 3: Developing good

Morality adolescence to interpersonal relationships Stage 4:
adulthood Maintaining social order

Postconventional Some adults; Stage 5: Social contract and

Morality rare individual rights stage 6: Universal
principles

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Level 1. Preconventional Morality
Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development. It lasts until
around the age of 9. At this age, children's decisions are primarily shaped by the
expectations of adults and the consequences of breaking the rules. There are two stages
within this level:
Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment):
The earliest stages of moral development, obedience
and punishment are especially common in young
children, but adults are also capable of expressing this
type of reasoning. According to Kohlberg, people at
this stage see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the
rules is important because it is a way to avoid
punishment.

Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange): At the individualism and exchange stage

of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions
based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that
the best course of action was the choice that best served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is
possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

The next period of moral development is
marked by the acceptance of social rules
regarding what is good and moral. During this
time, adolescents and adults internalize the
moral standards they have learned from their
role models and from society.
This period also focuses on the
acceptance of authority and conforming to the norms of the group. There are two stages
at this level of morality:

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 Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships): Often referred to as the
"good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of the interpersonal relationship of moral
development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an
emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence
relationships.
Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order): This stage is focused on ensuring that social
order is maintained. At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society
as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by
following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

At this level of moral development, people develop an
understanding of abstract principles of morality. The
two stages at this level are:
Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights): The
ideas of a social contract and individual rights cause
people in the next stage to begin to account for the
differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people.6
Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should
agree upon these standards.

Stage 6 (Universal Principles): Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based

on universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these
internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.

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FAMILY INFLUENCES IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
Parents’ Divorce
Several factors affect whether children make a healthy adjustment to their parents’
divorce:
⮚ Children’s developmental status
⮚ Quality of the ex-spouse’s relationship
⮚ Custody arrangements
⮚ Quality of the parent-child relationship
⮚ Children’s gender
⮚ Social support systems available to the family
Boys are more negatively affected by divorce than girls, as exemplified in their
aggressive, acting-out, non-compliant behaviors and girls are more negatively affected
by remarriage, demonstrated by their antagonistic behavior toward their mother and
stepfather.

Single-Parent Families
The majority of single-parent homes are headed by mothers. The absence of a
father is not believed to be the salient factor producing adjustment problems in children.
Economic deprivation appears to play a more important role in determining children’s
social and academic achievement. When socioeconomic status is controlled, there is very
little difference between children from two-parent and single-parent homes in terms of
children’s academic performance and social standing with peers.

Blended Families
The divorce rate is higher for blended families than it is for first marriages. Most
husbands and wives feel that they did not have adequate time to get to know each other
because the logistics of running the house and managing the children took precedence.
Discipline seems to be a tricky problem area for parents. Younger children may be easier
to manage than the older children who have more sophisticated cognitive skills and thus
can more effectively sabotage the disciplinary efforts of their new stepparent.

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HELPING CHILDREN ADJUST IN SINGLE-PARENT AND BLENDED FAMILIES
Single-Parent Families
Factors that enhance children’s development in single-parent families include
establishing:
⮚ A reasonably harmonious relationship with the ex-spouse
⮚ Sensitivity and commitment to the children
⮚ Continued financial support from the non-custodial father
⮚ Blended Families
⮚ Some of the factors that promote successful blended families systems are:
· Supporting the biological parent
· Biological parent as the disciplinarian
· Engaging in advanced planning
· Establishing a strong husband-wife bond
· Nurturing parent-child relationships

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 Lesson 8
Adolescence (The High School Learner)

INTRODUCTION
Adolescence is a unique and transformative period of human development that
occurs between childhood and adulthood. For high school learners, this stage is marked
by rapid physical growth, evolving cognitive abilities, deepening emotional experiences,
and increasing social awareness. It is a time of exploration, self-discovery, and identity
formation.

Understanding adolescence is essential not only for academic and personal

growth but also for developing healthy relationships and making responsible decisions.
This lesson aims to provide learners with a comprehensive understanding of adolescent
development, equipping them with the knowledge to better navigate their own
experiences and those of their peers during this transformative period.

By studying the physical, cognitive, moral, and socio-emotional aspects of this

stage, learners will gain valuable insights into their own development and the experiences
of those around them. This foundational knowledge will support learners in navigating the
challenges and opportunities of adolescence with greater awareness and confidence.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to:
1. Define adolescence and explain its significance in human development.
2. Identify and describe the physiological changes associated with puberty and their
implications for adolescent growth and self-perception.
3. Examine the cognitive development of adolescents.
4. Analyze the development of moral and ethical reasoning in relation to cognitive
maturation in adolescence.
5. Evaluate the socio-emotional changes occurring during adolescence.

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 6. Assess the influence of family, culture, and media on the socio-emotional growth
of adolescents.

LESSON DISCUSSION

Adolescence is the developmental phase

between childhood and early adulthood characterized
by physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional changes. It
starts with biological development known as puberty
and advances through three (3) phases: Early
Adolescence (10-13 years), Middle Adolescence (14-
17 years), and Late Adolescence or young adulthood
(18-21 years and older).
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Stages of Adolescence

Early Adolescence This is an important time in the life of a

child. They are a time of physical growth,
growing sexual interest, and changes in
the body like hair growth, breast
enlargement, and swelling of the testicles.
It can result in curiosity and anxiety, which
can be difficult for transgender children.
Cognitive development at this stage is
marked by concrete, all-or-nothing thinking
and a limited ability for abstract thought.
Children can be self-conscious about their

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 looks and worry about what others think.
Their interest in learning grows, and they
begin to think more critically about right
and wrong. Pre-teens also desire more
privacy and attempt to be independent of
their parents. When boundaries are set,
they could push them too far and overreact
(eMedicineHealth, 2021).

Middle Adolescence Middle adolescents, ages 14-16, develop

a lot and mature slowly. They are able to
question their sexual identity and
experiment with sexuality, leading to
masturbation. Because they desire more
independence, they are able to struggle
more with their parents. They are away
from their families more and spend more
time with friends. Adolescents begin to
think of themselves, and appearance
becomes important. Peer pressure is
extremely strong. Their brains change so
they are able to think more abstractly, but
their feelings have a tendency to control
their decisions. Adolescents can set long-
term goals and consider the meaning of life
and right and wrong. Feelings can still
create impulsive behaviors.

Late Adolescence Late adolescence is the time when teens

become adults, usually between 17 and 20
years old. This time is the time when

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 adolescents develop better thinking skills
and more independence. Teens learn to
think rationally, manage their feelings, and
prepare for the future. Teens start to know
who they are and what they are about, and
feel safer in friendships and love
relationships. They also are able to
establish a more adult relationship with
their parents, seeing them less as authority
figures and more as friends.

The period of adolescence of an individual is important for many reasons—

including growth, learning about cultures, communication, gaining confidence, exploring
safely, long-term effects, and mental health (University of Iowa Health Care, 2017). It
involves changes in body, feelings, and social life, which makes it easier for parents and
teachers to advise them better. It promotes caring and understanding, and it is easier to
discuss changes. It also allows young people to make sound decisions and explore
safely, which develops responsibility. Adolescence has long-term effects on behavior and
relationships, and it produces well-adjusted adults. By creating community support as well
as taking appropriate steps, it also improves mental health. Learning about adolescence
is therefore important for preparing young people for adulthood.

Physical Development in Adolescence

I. Puberty: Biological and Hormonal Changes

Adolescence marks the onset of puberty—a period that entails the physical,
cognitive, social, and emotional transitions of an individual. It is a developmental stage
that is characterized by significant biological and hormonal changes, marking the
transition from childhood to adulthood. This process is initiated by the hypothalamus in
the brain, which signals the pituitary gland to release hormones that stimulate the gonads

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(testes in males, ovaries in females) (OpenStax, 2023). The table shown below presents
key hormonal changes during puberty.

The hypothalamus signals the pituitary gland to produce two key hormones:

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

These stimulate the gonads to release:

Girls Boys

Estrogen - Triggers breast development Testosterone - Deepens voice and

and menstruation. increases muscle mass.

These hormones are responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics
and play a central role in the changes that occur throughout adolescence (Cleveland
Clinic, 2023).

Puberty occurs at different times among individuals and can be influenced by

genetics, nutrition, and environmental conditions. On average, girls begin puberty
between ages of 8 and 13, whereas boys typically start between the ages of 9 and 14
(Hopkins Medicine, n.d.). Early or late onset of puberty can impact an adolescent's
emotional well-being and social experiences.

II. Growth Spurts & Physical Maturation

Adolescents undergo a growth spurt, a period of rapid height and weight increase.
This is one of the most noticeable aspects of physical development during adolescence.
During this period, adolescents may grow up to 4 inches (10 cm) every year, with girls
often growing faster than boys (Better Health Channel, 2023). In addition, adolescents
experience an increase in muscle mass, changes in body composition, and the
development of sexual and reproductive organs (MSD Manual, 2023).

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 Girls Boys

● Begin earlier (around ages 10 - 14) ● Begin later (around ages 12 - 16)
● Grow 2 - 8 inches in height ● Grow 4 - 12 inches in height
● Gain 15 - 55 pounds in weight ● Gain 15 - 65 pounds in weight
● Reach peak growth before ● Growth continues into late
menarche (first menstruation) adolescence
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Other visible signs of physical maturation include the development of body and
facial hair, the deepening of the voice in boys, breast development in girls, and changes
in skin such as acne. These changes can occur gradually or in quick succession and
contribute to the adolescent's evolving body image (Office of Population Affairs, 2023).

III. Differences in Male and Female Development

As both male and female adolescents enter puberty, their bodies go through many
natural changes. These changes happen at different times for everyone, but they are all
part of growing up. The table presented below shows some of the differences of physical
changes you may notice shared across sexes.

Physical Changes for Girls During Puberty

Body Shape Your hips will become wider.

Your body will start to look curvier.

Height You will grow taller quickly during this

time. This is called a growth spurt.

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Skin Changes (Acne) You may develop acne, which causes
bumps like blackheads, whiteheads, or
pimples.

These bumps can appear on your face,

neck, shoulders, chest, and upper back.

Acne is common and happens because of

hormonal changes.

Breast Development The first sign of breast growth is called

budding, when small lumps form under
the nipples.

Breasts may grow at different rates, so

one may be bigger than the other at
times. This is normal.

Your breasts may feel tender or sore

during this stage.

Hair Growth Hair will start to grow in new areas like:

- Under your arms
- Around your pubic area

The hair on your legs and arms may also

get darker or thicker.

Vaginal Discharge You may notice a clear or whitish fluid in

your underwear. This is called vaginal
discharge.

It is completely normal and helps keep

the vagina clean and healthy.

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Menstruation You will begin to have periods. This
happens when the lining of the uterus
sheds if there is no pregnancy.

Blood and tissue leave your body through

the vagina, usually lasting 3–7 days each
month.
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Physical Changes for Boys During Puberty

Height and Muscle Growth You will grow taller and gain more
muscle.

This happens at different speeds for

different people, so don’t worry if your
friends change before you do.

Skin Changes (Acne) You may notice bumps on your face,

neck, shoulders, back, or chest.

These bumps can be pimples,

blackheads, or whiteheads and are
known as acne.

Acne is caused by hormone changes

during puberty and is very common.

Voice Changes Your voice will become deeper.

This is sometimes called a "voice break"

because your voice may crack or change

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 pitch as it deepens.

Hair Growth Hair will begin to grow in areas such as:

- Around the pubic area
- Under the arms
- On the legs and face

Hair may start off light and soft but will

become thicker and darker over time.

Genitals Growth Your penis and testicles will grow larger.

It's normal for one testicle to be slightly

bigger than the other.

Penis size varies from person to person,

and it does not affect your ability to have
sex or have children later in life.

Wet Dreams You may experience wet dreams, which

means you ejaculate (release semen)
while sleeping. This is a normal part of
growing up and is nothing to be ashamed
of.

Erections Sometimes, you may get erections (when

the penis becomes hard) even if you’re
not thinking about anything sexual.

This is normal and usually goes away

after a few minutes. Most people won’t
notice, even if it feels obvious to you.

Temporary Breast Changes Some boys may notice slight swelling or

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 tenderness in their chest area.

This is caused by hormonal changes and

usually goes away on its own.
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These developmental differences frequently influence social interactions and self-

perceptions. For instance, early-developing boys may benefit socially from increased
physical strength and size, whereas early-developing girls may experience increased
attention or pressure before they are emotionally prepared (LibreTexts, n.d.).

IV. Impact of Physical Changes on Self-Perception

Physical changes during adolescence have a significant impact on how young
people perceive themselves. Adolescents become more self-aware and often compare
their physical development to that of their peers. This might result in a positive or negative
self-image, depending on whether they perceive they are developing "on time" (Parent
and Teen, n.d.).

Concerns over body image are frequent at this period, particularly when teenagers
feel their bodies do not conform to cultural values or peer expectations. Girls may be
dissatisfied with their weight or breast development, whereas boys may feel pressured to
develop muscle bulk or facial hair (PMC, 2015). These impressions can have an impact
on self-esteem and mental health, perhaps leading to anxiety, sadness, or disordered
eating patterns if not addressed appropriately.

Educators and caregivers have critical roles in guiding teenagers through this
stage. Open communication, education on normal physical development, and
encouragement of healthy lifestyle choices can help adolescents negotiate this vital stage
with courage and strength.

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 Cognitive Development in Adolescence

Cognitive Development in Adolescence is to increase the ability of youth to think

abstractly, consider the hypothetical as well as the real, engage in more sophisticated
and elaborate information-processing strategies, consider multiple dimensions of problem
at once and reflect on oneself and on complicated problems. Adolescence marks the
beginning development of more complex thinking processes, also called formal logical
operations. This time can include abstract thinking and the ability to form their own new
ideas or questions. It can also include the ability to consider many points of view, compare
or debate ideas or opinions, as well as consider the process of thinking (Keating, 1990).

Further, between the ages of 12 and 18, a teenager is developing and learning to
approach all logical connections in a problem methodically. Every adolescent develops
their capacity to think in more sophisticated ways at their own speed, and also create their
own perspective of the world. Before they can apply logical operations to personal
problems, some teenagers may be able to apply them to their schoolwork. For an
adolescent's cognitive development, emotional problems can add still another degree of
complexity. The capacity to weigh facts, emotions, and possibilities could affect decisions
either positively or negatively.

The table below shows some common features indicating growth from simpler to
more complex cognitive development of adolescents.

Early Adolescence

During early adolescence, the use of Begins to demonstrate use of formal

more complex thinking is focused on logical operations in schoolwork.
personal decision-making in school and
Begins to question authority and society

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home environments. standards.

Begins to form and verbalize their own

thoughts and views on a variety of topics.

Early Adolescence

The focus of middle adolescence often Often questions and analyzes more
includes more philosophical and futuristic extensively.
concerns.
To Think about and begin to consider
possible future goals (What do I want?).

Reflects on and starts to think about likely

future objectives (What do I want?).

Consumes ideas and starts to create their

own code of ethics (What do I believe to
be right?).

Considers several opportunities and

starts to form own identity (Who am I ?).

Late Adolescence

Increased thoughts about more global concepts such as justice, history, and politics.

Develops idealistic views on specific topics or concerns.

Debates and develops intolerance of opposing views.

Begins to focus thinking on making career decisions and emerging roles in adult

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 society.

https://www.google.com/search?q=cognitive%20adolescent%20development%20chart&udm=2&sa=X&ved=0CB0QtI8BahcKEwiAy
aiY5Z-MAxUAAAAAHQAAAAAQBw&biw=1536&bih=738&d

I. Abstract Thinking and Problem Solving (Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage)

During the formal operational stage, adolescents are able to understand abstract
principles which have no physical reference. They can now contemplate such abstract
constructs as beauty, love, freedom, and morality. The adolescent is no longer limited by
what can be directly seen or heard. Additionally, while younger children solve problems
through trial and error, adolescents demonstrate hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which
is developing hypotheses based on what might logically occur. They are able to think
about all the possibilities in a situation beforehand, then test them systematically (Crain,
2005). At this stage, they are able to engage in true scientific thinking.

Moreover, formal operational thinking also involves accepting hypothetical

situations. Adolescents understand the concept of transitivity, which means that a

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relationship between two elements is carried over to other elements logically related to
the first two, such as if A<B and B<C, then A<C. For instance, when asked: If Maria is
shorter than Alicia and Alicia is shorter than Caitlyn, who is the shortest? Adolescents are
able to answer the question correctly as they understand the transitivity involved.

https://www.google.com/search?q=piaget%27s+formal+operational+stage+of+cognitive+development&sca_e

According to Piaget, most people attain some degree of formal operational

thinking, but use formal operations primarily in the areas of their strongest interest. In fact,
most adults do not regularly demonstrate formal operational thought, and in small villages
and tribal communities, it is barely used at all. A possible explanation is that an individual’s
thinking has not been sufficiently challenged to demonstrate formal operational thought
in all areas.

Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage was conducted to apply the formal operational
stage (12-16 years old) of the development theory of learning mathematics. This study
was a survey type in nature. Sample of the study was two hundred students of age twelve
to sixteen years. Mean, standard deviation and t-test were used as statistical tests for
analysis of data. The results of the study revealed that students of age twelve to sixteen
years can do classification, intersection, ratio & proportion, and geometry, but Piaget's
formal operational stage (12-16 years) cannot do factorization and transitivity. Because
the academic achievement of the urban students was better as compared to the rural
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students regarding Classification, Intersection, Ratio & Proportion, and Transitivity, while
the academic achievement of the rural students was better than the urban students
regarding Factorization and Geometry. It revealed that socio-cultural differences have an
impact on formal operations stage students. It is recommended that an encouraging
environment should be provided and competition between rural and urban school
students should be started in learning mathematics at elementary and secondary level
schools (Ghazi, Khan, Shahzada, & Ullah, 2014).

II. Decision Making and Risk Taking Behavior

Adolescents look ahead to possible new directions in this burgeoning area of
research, they now can make their own decisions, also in decision-making it involves a
series of cognitive processes, including perception, attention, memory, reasoning, and
judgement. These processes are influenced by various factors, such as emotions, beliefs,
values, and social norms. This is very important to emphasize the importance of feedback
and learning in decision-making, as individuals use feedback to adjust their decisions and
improve their outcomes.

Another crucial idea of making decisions is forcing someone to have inadequate

or contradicting knowledge on the outcomes of their decisions and it involves a series of
cognitive processes, including perception, attention, memory, reasoning, and judgement
(Boyer, 2006). These processes are influenced by various factors, such as emotions,
beliefs, values, and social norms. Overall, it must have a comprehensive framework for
understanding decision-making, highlighting the role of cognitive processes, feedback,
learning, bounded rationality, heuristics, biases, and uncertainty.

Adolescence (ages 11-20) is a period characterized by increased and frequent

risk-taking, e.g. delinquency, substance use, unprotected sexual behavior and dangerous
sports. Taking high risks may lead to a high rate of unintentional physical and mental
injuries. Thus, it is important to focus on adolescents' risk-taking behavior and its
mechanisms in order to identify and prevent risk-taking behavior early on.

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 Adolescents' social risk-taking was the most prominent one among all of their risky
behaviors, followed by recreational, ethical and health/safety risk-taking behaviors. It
suggested that risk-taking may be a domain-specific behavior without a universal
connotation across fields, and adolescents' highly risky behavior in different domains is
closely related to the environments in which they live. They are moving beyond studies
of age differences in “cool” cognitive processes related to risk perception and reasoning;
new approaches to understanding adolescent risk behavior highlight the influence of “hot”
social and emotional factors on adolescents’ decisions. As the time passes by
adolescents spend increasing amounts of time with peers, research suggests that
exposure to peer-related stimuli sensitizes the reward system to the reward value of risky
behavior. Albert, D., Steinberg, L. (2011). As the cognitive control system gradually
matures, adolescents gain the capacity to exercise self-regulation in socio-emotionally
challenging situations, which is reflected by the increasing capacity to resist peer
influence.

III. Development of Moral and Ethical Reasoning

Moral reasoning is the thought process individuals use when deciding what is right
or wrong in ethical situations. It is part of cognitive and moral developmental psychology
and helps explain how people make decisions about fairness, justice, and ethical
behavior. In recent years, studies have also looked at how emotions and intuition can
influence our moral decisions (SRA, 2019) .

Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a theory that moral development

happens in stages, organized into three main levels. Each level has two stages, and
individuals move through these stages as their moral thinking matures. Similar to Piaget’s
view of cognitive development, Kohlberg believed that not everyone reaches the highest
level of moral reasoning (MSED, 2025).

Level 1: Preconventional Morality

This is the earliest stage of moral Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment

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development, typically seen in children up Right and wrong are seen in terms of
to about age 9. At this level, moral what is punished. The focus is on obeying
decisions are based on avoiding rules to avoid consequences.
punishment and gaining rewards.
Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange
Children begin to see that others have
different needs and perspectives. They
may act to serve their own interests, but
they recognize that others do the same.

Level 2: Conventional Morality

This level usually appears during Stage 3: Good Interpersonal

adolescence. Moral decisions are based Relationships
on conforming to social rules and gaining Often called the "good boy/good girl"
approval from others. stage, individuals act to be seen as good
by others, seeking approval from peers
and authority figures.

Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order

The focus shifts to obeying laws and
maintaining social order. People at this
stage think about society as a whole
when making moral decisions.

Level 3: Postconventional Morality

This level may emerge in late adolescence Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual
or adulthood. Moral reasoning is based on Rights
personal values and universal ethical People begin to understand that laws and
principles. rules are important for society but can be
changed to reflect fairness and individual

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 rights.

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles

Moral reasoning is guided by abstract
principles such as justice, dignity, and
equality. A person may choose to break a
law that conflicts with these principles.

As adolescents grow, their moral reasoning becomes more complex. With greater
cognitive, emotional, and social maturity, they begin to align their behavior with personal
values and ethical standards. Real-life experiences, along with guidance from parents,
teachers, and peers, help shape their moral understanding.

Not all adolescents develop moral reasoning at the same pace. Some may face
life experiences, such as trauma or exposure to unethical behavior, that interfere with
their moral growth. For example, witnessing adults make unfair or harmful choices can
lead some adolescents to adopt similar behaviors. However, adults can support positive
development by modeling fairness, empathy, and ethical decision-making in everyday
life.

Socio-Emotional Development in Adolescence

During our adolescence, we experience significant socio-emotional changes. This

may include having higher self-awareness, spending more time with peers than family,
building more complex relationships especially romantic relationships. Not only that but
they will also experience a wide range of more complex emotions and they become more
aware of their own emotion and emotion of others leading to increased empathy for
others.

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 I. Erikson’s Stage: Identity vs. Role Confusion

The identity versus role confusion is the fifth

stage of ego according to the famous psychologist Erik
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This
stage occurs during adolescence between the ages
approximately ranging to 12 to18 years. During this
stage, adolescents explore their independence and
develop a sense of self. This stage is critically
important for one's development where they explore
more different roles, ideologies and beliefs to form a
cohesive sense of who they are within their community
and/or society.

A. Identity
If adolescents are supported in their exploration and given the
freedom to explore different roles, they are likely to emerge from this
stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and
control. This process involves exploring their interests, values, and
goals, which helps them form their own unique identity.

https://raisingchildren.net.au/teens/behaviour/peers-friends-trends/peer-influence

B. Role Confusion
If adolescents are restricted and not given the space to
explore or find the process too overwhelming or distressing,
they may experience role confusion. This could mean being
unsure about one’s place in the world, values, and future
direction. They may struggle to identify their purpose or path,
leading to confusion about their personal identity.
https://www.paymentscardsandmobile.com/the-problem-with-self-sovereign-identity/

225
 The main conflict of this stage is between establishing a stable sense of self and
identity against the struggle with the uncertainty and a lack of direction which lead to role
confusion. Identity vs. role confusion is a stage of characterization of an individual by
asking “Who am I?” and learning more about your own goals, values and beliefs.

II. Peer Relationships and Social Influences

Peer relationship refers to the connections and interactions that a person has with
their friends and their peers. The relationships between you and your friends or peers
significantly shape your behavior as an adolescent. This influence can be both positive
or negative influences: positive influences can
lead in better or higher academic, better mental
health and the increase in your social skill, in the
other hand if the relationship has a negative
influence to an individual, example of this are
having poor performance in academic, having of
a bad habit uses of substance, behavioral issue
and worst they can have depression.
https://raisingchildren.net.au/teens/behaviour/peers-friends-trends/peer-influence

III. Emotional Regulation and Self Identity

Emotional self-regulation refers to a person’s ability to manage their emotions and
impulses. It is an important part of overall mental and physical well-being. Emotional self-
regulation is a skill that people learn and develop throughout childhood and adolescence
and into adulthood. Feeling strong emotions is healthy. Learning how to process emotions
and respond with appropriate behavior is essential to a person’s well-being. Lacking
emotional self-regulation can perpetuate negative emotions. It can also have social
repercussions, such as damaging relationships with others.

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 https://www.talktoangel.com/blog/importance-of-emotional-regulation-in-daily-life

Self-identity is the sense of who I am and what I am shaped by social interactions

and personal participation in its construction. This includes various aspects of an
individual, such as: Their view on their own self, how much they value themselves, what
they wish to be, their social identity, their traits and abilities, like and dislikes, belief system
and motivation, their physical appearance and interest. Self-identity develops through
experiences, interactions and reflections of one's own thoughts, feelings and values. It is
important to have a strong sense of self identity is very crucial for one's well being, self-
esteem, and how one relates to others.

https://lens.monash.edu/@education/2023/05/01/1385697/building-a-powerful-self-identity-why-it-matters-for-adolescents

IV. Role of Family, Culture, and Media in Development

During adolescence, family, culture, and media significantly shape development,
influencing identity formation, social behavior, and belief systems, with each acting as a
powerful source of influence.

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 Having a strong family environment is one of the best providers of support,
guidance and most importantly positive role modeling. Family is where it all began, this
shapes one's personality or action, and communication skills. The relationship between
ones and members of a family, especially parents and siblings, heavily influences social
development and their well being. The family can also be a source of culture by providing
fundamental definitions of roles, status, and mutual obligation.

Cultural environments shape adolescents' belief systems, encompassing

everything from religion and spirituality to gender, sexuality, and politics. Cultural norms
and expectations influence adolescent behavior, social interactions, and identity
formation. Culturally shaped stereotypes can impact an adolescent's self-perception,
expectations, and behaviors. Adolescents can be brokers of cultural change across
generations, particularly through their use of digital media.

The media can influence adolescents' understanding of social roles, relationships,

and identities, both positively and negatively. Furthermore, the media can reinforce peer
norms and values, potentially leading to conformity or rebellion, not only that but media
can also provide adolescents with information about various topics, including health,
relationships, and social issues. Social media allows adolescents to create online
identities, connect with peers, and build social networks. Media use can impact family
relationships and dynamics, potentially leading to conflicts or increased parental control.

LINK TO VIDEO RECORDING:

Introduction to Adolescence:
https://youtu.be/2RPrbi2n0Zw?si=fsoE89SyR6etW0t9

Physical Development in Adolescence:

https://youtu.be/Y6eFTuh0bxY?si=msb4PrYtR5WDfeBH

Cognitive Development in Adolescence:

228
https://youtu.be/5Fa8U6BkhNo?si=l5F6cvuBP-tE54Gl

Socio-Emotional Development in Adolescence:

https://youtu.be/8FieQEB3xmo?si=-ChfXnDCZaFqs7_V

ACTIVITY
I. Evaluation: Read and answer each question carefully. Use your understanding of
the lesson on adolescent development to analyze, explain, and give examples
where appropriate. Think critically and reflect on how the concepts apply to real-
life situations. Be clear and concise in your responses.

1. Adolescents undergo physical changes that can affect how they see
themselves.

Question: How might these physical changes influence an

adolescent’s self-esteem or behavior? Provide examples for both
male and female adolescents.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

2. Piaget described adolescence as the stage where formal operational

thinking develops.

Question: How does the ability to think abstractly affect the way
adolescents make decisions? Include an example of a real-life
situation.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

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 3. Kohlberg’s theory suggests that not everyone reaches the highest level of
moral development.

Question: Why might some adolescents struggle to reach the

postconventional level of moral reasoning?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

4. Erikson identified identity vs. role confusion as the key psychosocial task of
adolescence.

Question: How might peer relationships and family expectations

influence an adolescent’s sense of identity?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

5. Media and culture play a major role in adolescent development today.

Question: In what ways can media have both a positive and negative
impact on how adolescents see themselves and make decisions?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

II. Analysis: Write a 300-500 words reflective essay based on the prompt below.
Your response should demonstrate thoughtful reflection, connection to the lesson,
and personal insight.

230
 Reflect on your own adolescence or that of someone you know. How did
experiences during this stage shape your/their values, identity, or decision-
making?

Rubrics for Activity II:

Criteria Excellent Satisfactory Fair

(10 pts) (6-9 pts) (1-5 pts)

Relevance to Fully addresses the Addresses the Minimally

Prompt prompt and reflects prompt with minor addresses the
a clear connection lapses in clarity or prompt; unclear
to the topic. focus. focus.

Connection to Effectively connects Basic connection to Weak or no

Lesson Concepts reflection to key lesson content with connection to
concepts from the limited explanation. concepts from the
lesson. lesson.

Clarity and Clearly structured, Some lapses in Poorly organized

Organization logical flow, easy to organization, but and difficult to

231
 follow. overall follow.
understandable.

Depth of Demonstrates deep Shows some Limited personal

Reflection insight, personal reflection and reflection; lacks
meaning, and insight, though may depth or critical
critical thinking. be surface-level in thinking.
places.

Grammar and Free from errors in Minor errors that do Frequent errors that
Mechanics grammar, spelling, not interfere with affect clarity and
and punctuation. understanding. comprehension.

Total Score: ___ / 50 Points

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 Lesson 9
Factors Affecting Child Development

Introduction
Child development is a continuous and complex process that shapes an individual's
cognitive, emotional, social, and physical growth from infancy to adulthood. It is influenced
by various biological, social, and environmental factors that interact dynamically, affecting
a child's abilities, behavior, and overall well-being. Understanding these influences is
essential for educators, caregivers, and professionals, as it helps create environments
that foster healthy development.
As children grow, they learn through curiosity, creativity, and interactions with others.
Factors such as genetics, nutrition, health, family dynamics, culture, socioeconomic
status, and education play significant roles in shaping their growth. Psychological theories
provide valuable insights into learning, adaptation, and behavior formation, offering a
deeper understanding of how children develop resilience and respond to different
experiences.
This lesson explores the key factors influencing child development, emphasizing the
integration of biological, social, and theoretical perspectives. By examining real-life
applications, students will gain practical knowledge to support children's growth in
education, parenting, and child care.

Learning Objectives:
• Demonstrate understanding of the various factors that affect child development.
• Analyze biological, social, and theoretical perspectives influencing child growth.
• Critically evaluate the impact of these factors in real-life settings.

Theoretical Perspectives on Development

Theories play a crucial role in understanding child development. First, they provide
explanations for how children grow and learn. Second, they drive further research by
offering testable predictions about behavior. While different theories emphasize various
aspects of development, they complement each other in shaping a broader perspective.

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 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget (1896–1980) was a Swiss psychologist
renowned for his groundbreaking contributions to
understanding children's cognitive development. He
formulated the theory of genetic epistemology, which
highlights how children construct knowledge through
interactions with their surroundings. Piaget strongly
emphasized the significance of education in shaping young
minds. As the director of the International Bureau of
Education in 1934, he asserted that education plays a crucial
role in enhancing cognitive abilities. In 1955, he established
the International Center for Genetic Epistemology,
which became a leading institution for research and advancements in developmental
psychology.

How Piaget Developed the Theory

Piaget formulated his theory through extensive observations of children, including
his own. He used a clinical interview method, asking children open-ended questions to
explore their reasoning processes. His work was influenced by his background in biology,
leading him to view cognitive development as an adaptive process in which children refine
their mental models based on experiences.
Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development focuses on how children actively construct
knowledge as they interact with their environment. He proposed that intellectual growth
occurs in stages, each marked by significant changes in thinking patterns and problem-
solving abilities. Unlike theories that emphasize social influences, Piaget's approach
highlights the internal processes of learning, where children progress through
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages. His
theory suggests that development is not simply about acquiring knowledge but involves
continuous restructuring of understanding based on experiences. This perspective has

234
influenced education and research, emphasizing the importance of hands-on learning
and cognitive challenges in fostering intellectual growth.
Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development states that children progress through four
stages of increasing cognitive complexity. These stages occur in a fixed sequence,
though the pace may vary for each child. Development is influenced by both biological
maturation and environmental interaction. Each stage represents a qualitatively different
way of thinking, marked by distinct forms of intelligence.

Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage Age Goal

Sensorimotor Birth to 18-24 months Object permanence

Preoperational 2 to 7 years Symbolic thought

Concrete operational 7 to 11 years Logical thought

Formal operational Adolescence to adulthood Scientific reasoning

Children progress through developmental stages at different rates, and some may never
reach the later stages. While Piaget's stages include average age ranges, he did not claim
that every child reaches a stage at a specific age.

Sensorimotor
The Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years) is when infants explore the world through
their senses and actions, developing cognitive skills like object permanence, self-
recognition, deferred imitation, and representational play. Initially, infants do not mentally
represent objects, but by around 8 months, they understand that objects exist even when

235
out of sight. Towards the end of this stage, symbolic thinking and language begin to
emerge. Individual differences, such as cultural practices and gender norms, can
influence a child's early cognitive development.

Preoperational
The Preoperational Stage (ages 2–7) is when children develop symbolic thinking,
using language and mental imagery to represent the world. However, their thinking is
intuitive and egocentric, meaning they focus on appearances rather than logic. They
struggle with class inclusion and logical reasoning and may display animism, believing
non-living objects have feelings. As they grow, egocentrism declines, and pretend play
becomes more complex, including role-playing and imaginary friends. Cultural influences,
such as storytelling and racial representation, shape how children interpret symbols.

Concrete Operational
The Concrete Operational Stage (ages 7–11) is when children develop logical
thinking about concrete events but still struggle with abstract reasoning. They understand
conservation (that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance), can
mentally reverse actions, and become less egocentric, recognizing different perspectives.
This stage marks the beginning of operational thought, meaning children can reason
internally without physically manipulating objects. However, their reasoning is most
effective when dealing with tangible materials rather than abstract ideas. Cultural context
and gender stereotypes can influence how children develop these skills.

Formal Operational Stage

During the Formal Operational Stage of Piaget’s cognitive development theory,
adolescents develop the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically, allowing them to
engage in logical reasoning and scientific problem-solving. This stage marks a shift from
concrete thinking to more advanced cognitive processes, including metacognition, where
individuals reflect on their own thought processes. Teenagers begin to explore complex
concepts such as ethics, justice, and hypothetical scenarios, thinking beyond their
immediate experiences. Additionally, they develop the capacity to formulate hypotheses

236
and systematically test abstract theories, essential for scientific reasoning. However, not
all individuals fully reach formal operational thought, as its development can be influenced
by cultural background and educational opportunities.
Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development outline the progressive evolution of human
thought from infancy to adulthood. Each stage builds upon the previous one, allowing
individuals to develop increasingly sophisticated cognitive abilities. The journey from
sensory exploration to scientific reasoning highlights the incredible capacity of the human
mind to adapt, learn, and grow throughout life.

Other Important Concepts Introduced by Piaget

Piaget identified several fundamental processes that drive cognitive development.

Schemas are mental frameworks individuals use to organize and interpret information.
Through assimilation, new experiences are incorporated into existing schemas, while
accommodation involves modifying schemas to adapt to new information. The balance
between these processes is called equilibration, ensuring stable and progressive

237
cognitive development. These mechanisms collectively help individuals refine their
understanding of the world.

Factors that Influence How Children learn and Grow

Piaget’s theory aligns with and contrasts with other cognitive and social development
models. Cognitive Social Learning Theory emphasizes that children learn through
observation and imitation, unlike Piaget’s focus on individual discovery. Dynamic System
Theories highlight the interaction between biological and environmental factors, stressing
adaptability rather than a fixed developmental sequence. Ecological Theory considers
how surroundings shape development, broadening the focus beyond individual cognition.
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory further expands this perspective, identifying five
environmental systems that influence development, placing Piaget’s work primarily within
the microsystem level of direct interactions with caregivers and teachers.

Practical Applications in Education

Piaget's influence led to a shift in early childhood education during the 1960s, moving
away from rigid, rote learning toward a more child-centered approach. Traditionally,
students learned through memorization under strict discipline, with those struggling often
facing punishment. Piaget advocated for active learning, emphasizing that children
construct knowledge through personal discovery rather than direct instruction. This
perspective shaped practical applications in education, such as hands-on learning,
developmentally appropriate teaching, and scaffolding, where guidance is gradually
reduced as a child gains understanding. Additionally, Piaget promoted exploration,
encouraging problem-solving over memorization to foster deeper comprehension and
retention.
Piaget’s theory aligns with and contrasts with other cognitive and social development
models. Cognitive Social Learning Theory emphasizes that children learn through
observation and imitation, unlike Piaget’s focus on individual discovery. Dynamic System
Theories highlight the interaction between biological and environmental factors, stressing
adaptability rather than a fixed developmental sequence. Ecological Theory considers
how surroundings shape development, broadening the focus beyond individual cognition.

238
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory further expands this perspective, identifying five
environmental systems that influence development, placing Piaget’s work primarily within
the microsystem level of direct interactions with caregivers and teachers.

Cognitive Social Learning Theory – Cognitive Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977,
1986) suggests that individuals learn behaviors by observing others and imitating those
that are rewarded while avoiding those that are punished. This process contributes to
gender differences, as boys and girls observe same-gender role models and receive
reinforcement for behaviors that align with traditional gender roles while being
discouraged from engaging in behaviors that contradict them.
Dynamic Systems Theories (DST) – This perspective views development as a non-
linear, ever-changing process influenced by multiple interacting factors, particularly useful
in understanding motor development.
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory (1977) explains how a child’s development
is shaped by multiple layers of environmental influence. These layers, ranging from direct
relationships to broader societal and historical factors, interact to impact a child’s growth
and experiences. The theory consists of five interrelated systems: the microsystem,
mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. Each system plays a crucial
role in shaping development, either through direct interactions or indirect influences over
time.

239
The Five Ecological Systems
1. Microsystem – The child’s immediate environment, including family, school,
peers, and caregivers. Relationships here are bidirectional, directly influencing
development.
Example: Supportive parents enhance learning, while bullying can harm self-esteem.
2. Mesosystem – The interactions between different microsystems, such as family-
school or peer-family relationships. Strong connections create a supportive
developmental environment.
Example: Parents engaging in school activities can improve academic performance.
3. Exosystem – External influences that indirectly affect the child, like parents’
workplaces, media, and local policies.
Example: Flexible work schedules allow parents to spend more time with their children,
fostering emotional development.
4. Macrosystem – The cultural and societal factors shaping a child’s upbringing,
including social norms, economic conditions, and technological trends.
Example: Societies valuing individual achievement may encourage independence in
children.
5. Chronosystem – Changes and transitions over time, both personal (puberty,
family changes) and societal (technological advancements, global events).
Example: The rise of social media has transformed peer interactions and cognitive
development.

Social Factors Affecting Development

Society plays a pivotal role in developing children where it enhances their
cognitive, emotional and social growth especially when they are exposed. These factors
can or may be has negative and positive impact as they explore their understanding from
their culture, family, school, traumas, socioeconomic, and attachment. As they grow, they
started to cope up from the help of their parents, friends and surroundings and that's how
society was involved to the development of a child.

240
➤ Cultural
A child’s growth and behavior are influenced
by the culture they grow up in. Play is a key
part of this process, as it helps children learn
social roles, values, and skills. Different
cultures shape how children play, with some
emphasizing individual play and others
focusing on group activities. The way
mothers teach their children to play also
varies by culture, influencing their
understanding of customs and behaviors.
Culture also affects how children are taught
to behave, such as whether they should be independent or cooperative. Parents guide
children on what is considered good or bad behavior based on cultural norms. For
example, aggression or shyness may be viewed differently depending on the culture.
Social skills, like interacting with friends and handling conflicts, also vary across cultures.
Children from immigrant families may face challenges adjusting to new cultural rules, but
culture plays a crucial role in shaping their social and emotional development. By
understanding how culture influences growth, we can better support children in navigating
their cultural identities while adapting to diverse environments.

➤ Socioeconomic
A child’s growth can be influenced by the
family’s socioeconomic status, which
includes things like income and living
conditions. “Adolescents with lower
socioeconomic status had poorer social
relationships compared to those with higher
socioeconomic status.” (Li et al., 2020)
Children from wealthier families tend to grow
taller and develop faster because they have better access to things like good food, regular

241
meals, enough sleep, exercise, and a structured environment. The main reasons for these
differences in growth are likely due to better nutrition and family habits. It’s not just about
how much money a family has, but also how well the family can manage things like
nutrition and daily routines. Additionally, larger families with less money may face
challenges, like not having enough food or resources for each child, which can affect their
growth. Children in big families often get less attention and care, which may also make
them grow slower or be smaller than kids in smaller families.

➤ The Family
Children who have a strong, loving bond
with their parents are better at forming
relationships with others. According to
attachment theory, children with a secure
attachment to their parents feel safe enough
to explore the world around them. They use
their parents as a base of support, venturing
out to engage with others, and then return to their parents for comfort when needed. This
process helps them grow socially and learn from their interactions. Parents who are
socially confident themselves serve as role models for their children. When children see
their parents interacting with others, they can use these observations to help make friends
and cooperate with peers. Socially skilled parents also teach their children how to develop
their own social abilities by providing a secure foundation for them to build on. In short,
loving, secure parents play a key role in helping children become socially confident and
competent. A child’s family is important for their learning and social development because
it’s their first social group. Parents are the first people who teach them how to treat others.
By watching how parents interact, children learn how to trust people, make friends, and
feel comfortable around others. The way parents communicate and show care helps
children learn important social skills that they will use throughout their lives.

242
➤ The School
When children start school, other factors
begin to influence their social development,
in addition to their family. Teachers
become important in helping children learn
social skills, and other children also set
examples for how to behave. For young
children, starting school can be hard
because they have to leave home and
figure out how to interact with new people. This can make the first school experience
difficult and stressful. To help children adjust, many schools use different techniques.
Some schools let parents stay with their children for the first few days to reassure them
they’re not being left alone. Other schools gradually introduce new students by starting
with a small group and adding a few more each day, so children can get used to the new
environment in smaller steps. Teachers might also visit the child’s home or invite the
family to visit the school to reduce stress and make the transition smoother. Schools help
children develop social skills. Teachers and the school environment give children many
chances to practice how to get along with others. By interacting with classmates from
different backgrounds and taking part in different activities, children learn how to handle
social situations. Schools are important in helping kids learn and improve these important
social skills.

➤ Trauma
Trauma can have long-lasting negative
effects on a young child’s brain
development. However, supportive and
loving parents can help these children
recover and reach their full potential. Signs
of trauma in children can include changes
in their eating and sleeping habits, delays
in reaching developmental milestones, or

243
changes in how they play. Early childhood trauma can include experiences like surviving
a natural disaster, losing a family member, or dealing with chronic illness. Other types of
trauma include abuse, living in poverty, or having parents who struggle with alcohol or
drug addiction. Childhood trauma often happens when there is a breakdown in close
relationships, like with parents, or when there is violence in the home. This can affect a
child's ability to develop important social skills, like wanting to connect with others. As a
result, it can make it hard for them to build and maintain healthy relationships as adults.
Childhood trauma can prevent children from learning how to have good relationships,
which may lead to problems forming strong connections when they grow up.

➤ Physical Activity
There is no need to sign your young child up for extra classes to help them stay active
and healthy. All they really need is a loving mom. You can help by being like a coach,
guiding them in fun and safe activities. Be a cheerleader by encouraging and praising
their efforts. And, most importantly, show them a healthy lifestyle by staying active
yourself. Physical activity programs designed for this purpose can enhance aspects like
self-esteem, social skills, goal-setting abilities, and especially confidence in one's own
capabilities.

➤ Attachment
A strong, positive connection with an adult, where a child feels safe and valued, leads to
a secure attachment. Kids with a secure attachment to their mom can be easily spotted
in places like playgrounds or doctor's offices. They feel confident exploring their
surroundings because they know mom is there to turn to if things get tough. These
children can try new things and learn because they trust that their needs will be taken
care of. On the other hand, children with an insecure attachment may seem shy, anxious,
or uncertain. Children with secure attachments are more likely to grow up with strong
emotional understanding, good social skills, and healthy mental well-being.

Biological Factors Affecting Development

244
 Child development is influenced by various biological factors, including
heredity/genes, environmental, hormones, prenatal factors, gene-environment
interaction, brain chemistry, delivery mode, and nutrition, each playing a crucial role in a
child's growth and overall development.

GENETIC CONTROL
The height, weight, and overall body
composition of both children and adults are the
result of an intricate interplay between genetic
and environmental influences. While genetics
provide the foundational blueprint for growth,
it’s a long journey from possessing certain
genes to achieving a specific height, such as
reaching 2 meters. For genes to express
themselves fully, their activity is influenced by the internal environment created by
interactions between other genes, as well as by external environmental factors. The
regulation of body size is complex and involves the coordination of many different genes.
Although, a change or malfunction in a single gene can have broad and significant effects,
as seen in conditions like achondroplasia, a genetic disorder inherited in a dominant
pattern.
Conversely, some genetic effects may be more localized, having a specific influence on
particular aspects of development. For example, the genetic control of dental
development and eruption operates separately from the genetic regulation of skeletal
growth, and research shows that the genes responsible for the growth of different parts
of the limbs may work independently. Recent research suggests that both dental
development and the sequence of bone formation (ossification) are largely
determined by genetic factors. But, the exact timing of these processes can be influenced
by environmental factors, like nutrition and overall health. Maturation as a whole is
influenced more by environmental conditions, though genetic factors still play a role.
These genetic influences remain active throughout the growth period, impacting when
and how different growth stages occur. Heredity influenced the rate of growth of early

245
matures or late matures. Parent - offspring correlation in regard to height from birth to
maturity for each are and sex has been reported. Chromosomal abnormalities suggest
genetic control on growth. Genetic factors probably play the leading part in the difference
between male and female patterns of growth.

ENVIRONMENTAL
Seasonal variations significantly influence human
growth patterns, affecting both height and weight.
Studies have consistently observed that children
experience faster growth in height during the spring and
in weight during the autumn. This pattern holds true
across various age groups, including adolescents. The
underlying mechanisms of these seasonal effects are
not fully understood, but they are thought to involve
fluctuations in hormone secretion influenced by
environmental factors such as daylight exposure. For
instance, research analyzing data from the National
Cooperative Growth Study (NCGS) found that prepubertal children with idiopathic growth
hormone deficiency exhibited significant seasonal variations in height velocity. The study
revealed that summer growth rates were higher than winter rates, with the difference
being more pronounced in the first year of growth hormone therapy. This variation was
linked to the number of daylight hours, suggesting that longer days might enhance growth
velocity. Similarly, a study focusing on Japanese infants assessed longitudinal
measurement data of 9,409 infants and found that growth velocity in length and weight
differed by season. These findings highlight the influence of environmental factors,
including climate and daylight exposure, on growth patterns. While climate appears to
have a minor effect on overall growth rates, the correlation between seasonal changes
and growth velocity underscores the importance of considering environmental factors in
pediatric growth assessments. Understanding these patterns can aid in optimizing growth
monitoring and interventions.

246
REGULATIONS
The human body's growth and development are intricately
regulated by hormones secreted by various endocrine
glands. These glands release hormones directly into the
bloodstream, influencing numerous physiological
processes. Growth hormone (GH), produced by the
pituitary gland, plays a pivotal role in promoting bone
growth, thereby increasing height. GH stimulates the
incorporation of amino acids into tissues, facilitating the
formation of new proteins and enhancing the overall growth rate of various tissues,
including the brain. Hermanussen et al. (2022). Thyroid hormones, secreted by the
thyroid gland, are essential for normal growth and development Walsh, (2022).
Insufficient thyroid hormone levels, as seen in hypothyroidism, can lead to delayed
growth, affecting skeletal and dental maturity, as well as brain development. During
adolescence, the adrenal glands and gonads release steroid hormones that significantly
impact growth patterns. Both males and females produce estrogens in small amounts
from birth, but during puberty, estrogen levels rise markedly in females, while the increase
is more modest in males. Testosterone, primarily produced by the testes, is crucial for
stimulating growth and muscle development. Gonadotropins regulate the growth of the
ovaries and testes, subsequently influencing the secretion of estrogen and testosterone,
which are responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics. These
hormonal interactions underscore the complex endocrine regulation of human growth and
development. Testosterone, primarily produced by the testes, is crucial for stimulating
growth and muscle development. Gonadotropins regulate the growth of the ovaries and
testes, subsequently influencing the secretion of estrogen and testosterone, which are
responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics. These hormonal
interactions underscore the complex endocrine regulation of human growth and
development.

247
NUTRITIONS
Nutrition plays a pivotal role in human growth, with adequate
food intake being essential for normal development.
Sufficient caloric consumption is vital, as energy needs
fluctuate throughout different growth phases. Nine amino
acids are considered essential; their absence can lead to
growth disorders. Minerals such as zinc, iodine, calcium,
phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, and iron are crucial
for various bodily functions, including protein synthesis, thyroid hormone production, bone
development, and hemoglobin formation. Vitamins A, C, and D significantly influence
bone health and development. Vitamin A regulates osteoblast activity, vitamin C is
essential for intercellular bone substance formation, and vitamin D deficiency can cause
rickets. Malnutrition during childhood can delay growth and development, with effects
varying based on the timing and duration of nutrient deficiencies. Undernutrition can result
in stunted growth, while overnutrition may lead to obesity. The World Health Organization
highlights that stunting reflects cumulative undernutrition and poor environmental
conditions. Children suffering from malnutrition often experience fatigue, developmental
delays, and cognitive impairments. Addressing malnutrition is crucial for ensuring children
reach their full growth potential and maintain overall health.

Links to Video Recording:

Piaget Cognitive Development Theory
Gene Regulation and the Operon
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=002jxQ5ogkw
https://youtu.be/002jxQ5ogkw?si=OzoeJLt8efrRAjOB
https://youtu.be/h_1QLdtF8d0

248
ACTIVITY. MODIFIED TRUE OR FALSE
Direction: From the space provided before each number, write TRUE if the statement is
accurate, if FALSE, write the corresponding word that fits to the statement. (3 points each
item)

____1. Cognitive social learning theory emphasizes that children learn through its
environment and strict discipline.
____2. Piaget’s theory about the development of a child was formulated through the
process of open-ended questions to explore their problem-solving skills.
____3. Through culture, children develop to learn their social roles, values and skills as
they play.
____4. Socio-economic factor says that the lower the status of a child in a society, had
poorer social relationships compared to a middle socioeconomic status.
____5. Genetics provide the foundational blueprint for growth which is a long process to
achieve specific height reaching 2.5 meters.

249
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Lesson 5: Infancy and Toddlerhood

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Cherry, K. (2024, July 12). What is the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development?.
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Clark, E. et al., (2004, September 11). How language acquisition builds on Cognitive
Development. Trends in Cognitive Sciences.
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Cognitive development of the infant and toddler. (n.d.). Scribd; Crispo Prindiana.
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Feldman, R. (2016, December 30). The Neurobiology of Human Attachments. Trends in
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xt=Attachment%20bonds%20are%20a%20defining%20feature%20of%20mamm
als.,integrating%20insights%20from%20animal%20research%20with%20neuroi
maging%20studies.

Fletcher, K. (2023, May 18). The importance of social connection in infancy. Social
Creatures. https://www.thesocialcreatures.org/thecreaturetimes/the-importance-
of-social-connection-in-
infancy#:~:text=Social%20connections%20go%20far%20beyond%20buffering%
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Infant Social & Emotional Development. SOM - State of Michigan. (n.d.).
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Izard, C., & Trentacosta, C. (n.d.). Emotional development. Encyclopædia Britannica.

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Kendra, C. (2024, July 3). Why empathy is important. Verywell Mind.

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Lewis, M., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1979, January 1). The development of self recognition.
SpringerLink. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-3566-5_8

Malik, F., & Marwaha, R. (2022, September 18). Developmental stages of social
emotional development in children. StatPearls [Internet].
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McLeod, S. (2024, January 24). Sensorimotor stage of cognitive development. Simply

Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/sensorimotor.html

McLeod, S. (2024a, January 24). John Bowlby’s attachment theory. Simply Psychology.
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Module 5 Infancy and Toddlerhood.docx

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DRAFT.docx
Paris, J., Ricardo, A., & Rymond, D. (n.d.). Chapter 4: Physical Development in Infancy
& Toddlerhood. Pressbooks.
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Planning and organisation. (n.d.). All Play Learn. https://allplaylearn.org.au/wp-
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Rick, A., Gatta, F., & Gopal, A. (n.d.). Piaget cognitive stages of development. WebMD.
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Rochat, P. (2003, October 29). Five levels of self-awareness as they unfold early in life.
Consciousness and Cognition.
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Schore, A. (2001, January 1). Effects of a secure attachment relationship on right brain
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Social and emotional development. Children’s Lifetime. (n.d.).

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20parents%20voices.

Social-emotional development stages: A comprehensive guide from infancy to

adolescence. (2024, November 1). NeuroLaunch.com.
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Sroufe, A. (2006, August 16). (PDF) attachment and development: A prospective,

Longitudinal Study from birth to adulthood. Attachment and development: A
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Trevarthen, C. (1980, January). (PDF) the foundations of intersubjectivity: Development

of interpersonal and cooperative understanding in infants. The foundations of
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Yui, D. (2018, September 1). Erik H. Erikson - Identity youth and crisis 1(1968, W. W.
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