Understanding Culture, Society and Politics

Lesson 1
Sharing of social and Cultural
backgrounds of students as
acting subjects or
social actors, agents, persons

Edited by; Shan Rafael M. Caronan

 learning Objectives:
• explore the evolution of gender roles and their societal implications in the Philippines,
spanning from pre-colonial times to the contemporary era;

• examine the various socioeconomic strata present in Philippine society, examining their
characteristics and disparities;

• explain the fundamental concepts and contemporary issues surrounding ethnicity and
ethnic communities within the Philippines;

• explain religion's role as a dynamic element of cultural diversity, shaping beliefs and
practices within different social contexts;

• describe the breadth of religious diversity globally and within the Philippines,
highlighting distinct traditions, beliefs, and practices;

• explain pertinent religious issues, both domestically and internationally, including

conflicts, pluralism, and secularism;
 learning Objectives:
• define exceptional and non-exceptional identities within social frameworks, exploring
their implications for individual identity and societal inclusion;

• examine the defining traits of exceptional individuals, considering diverse forms of

exceptionality and their impact on personal experiences;

• define nationality within the context of cultural diversity and social distinctions; explore
various interpretations of nationality;

• address challenges and concerns related to nationality and statelessness;

• identify the challenges faced by exceptional individuals in various spheres of life,

including education, employment, and social integration; and

• advocate for inclusive measures to address the barriers and promote the well-being of
exceptional individuals in society.
Cultural Variations and
social differences
"Cultural variations and social differences" refer to the diverse wavs in
which cultures and societies around the world differ from one another.
These differences can manifest in various aspects, including beliefs,
values, customs, traditions, norms, behaviors, and social structures
(Harper, 2010).
Cultural variations shows how different group develop unique ways of life
based on their environment, history, and social interactions, seen in
language, cuisine, art, and more. Social differences within societies
result from factors like gender, race, and disability, leading to disparities
in resources and opportunities. Understanding and respecting these
variations and differences is vital for promoting inclusivity, addressing
inequalities, and fostering unity. Embracing diversity can help societies
work towards greater equity, tolerance, and solidarity among their
members.
gender and gender roles
Gender refers to the social, cultural, and psychological
characteristics or traits associated with males and females within
specific social contexts (Butler, 2015). It is distinct from sex, which
pertains to the biological attributes that classify individuals as
male or female (Hyde et al., 2019). While sex determines one's
physiological makeup, gender encompasses the roles, behaviors,
and expectations attributed to individuals based on societal norms
and cultural beliefs (Ridgeway & Kricheli-Katz, 2017).
 gender roles
Gender roles denote the attitudes and behaviors society expects
individuals to display based on their sex (Eagly & Wood, 2016). These
roles are shaped by cultural norms and traditions, influencing
individuals' social roles, responsibilities, and opportunities (Ridgeway &
Smith-Lovin, 2019). For instance, in traditional Philippine society,
women are often assigned domestic roles, such as caregiving and
housekeeping, while men are expected to assume provider roles,
prioritizing economic and professional pursuits (Medina, 2015).
 Gender Roles in Pre-colonial
Philippine Society
In pre-colonial Philippines, gender roles were diverse and flexible,
with males and females enjoying comparable rights and
responsibilities (Scott, 1994). For example, the babaylan, a revered
spiritual leader and healer, held significant influence regardless of
gender (San Buenaventura, 2002).
 Gender Roles in Philippine Society
during the Colonial Period
Colonial influences, particularly Spanish colonization, reshaped
gender dynamics in Philippine society, imposing patriarchal norms
and restricting women's roles (De Jesus, 2006). The advent of
Catholicism led to the marginalization of indigenous female leaders
like the babaylan, reinforcing gender hierarchies and relegating
women to domestic spheres (Kaneko, 1997).
 Gender Roles in Current
Philippine Society
Contemporary Philippine society exhibits greater gender inclusivity
and flexibility, allowing individuals to pursue diverse roles and
occupations regardless of gender (Kawanami, 2019). While remnants
of traditional gender expectations persist, there is a growing
acceptance of gender diversity and equality, reflected in women's
increased participation in previously male-dominated fields and vice
versa (Aquino, 2014).
 SOcioeconomic
class
Philippine society showcases a structured socioeconomic
hierarchy, which has undergone evolutionary changes
influenced by historical and colonial contexts (Salazar, 1992). In
prehistoric epochs, societal structures assigned individuals
distinct roles, yet as societal dynamics evolved, these roles
became increasingly diversified (Scott, 1994).
Socioeconomic Classes
during the Pre-Colonial
Period
Before Spanish colonization, Philippine communities,
termed barangays, were governed by a datu or rajah.
Within these barangays, society was stratified into
three primary classes (Schumacher, 1991):
 Maharlika
(Leaders and Royals)
Representing the highest social
standing, maharikas comprised of
community leaders (datu) and their
kin. Also known as maginoo, raha, or
gat, they held influential positions
within the barangay.
Timawa
(Freemen)
Occupying the intermediary social stratum,
timawas are free individuals engaged in
various occupations such as laborers,
warriors, and merchants. Unlike the
maharikas, the timawas were not subject to
debt bondage and possessed properties for
cultivation and habitation.
 Alipin
(Slaves)
Representing the lowest class,
alipins served as indentured
laborers, often in recompense for
debts or as captives of war. Alipins
were further categorized into two
subclasses:
Aliping Namamahay
Enjoying limited autonomy,
these slaves owned properties
and could potentially reclaim
their freeman status upon
fulfilling their obligations.
 Aliping Saguiguilid
Lacking property rights, these
slaves primarily undertook
menial tasks and were
susceptible to sale or exchange
as commodities.
Socioeconomic Classes
during the Spanish Colonial
Period
With Spanish colonization, a novel socioeconomic
hierarchy emerged, predominantly determined by
lineage (Horsman 1990):
PENINsulares
Spaniards born in Spain but
living in the Philippines,
enjoying the highest social
status in the Philippines.
insulares
Spaniards born in the
Philippines, though
possessing a lower status
than peninsulares.
mestizos
Individuals of mixed ancestry,
often offspring of Spanish and
Chinese or Spanish and
indigenous unions, occupying a
privileged position owing to
their mixed heritage.
 INdio
Indigenous Filipinos, constituting the lowest tier
of society, subject to discrimination and
disenfranchisement by colonial authorities. This
hierarchical structure endured until the 19th
century, during which emerging classes, such as
the principalia and ilustrados, began challenging
traditional norms (Anderson, 1998):
 principalia
Indigenous leaders and their
descendants, frequently
educated and occupying roles
in local governance.
 ILustrados
Offspring of the principalia,
typically educated in Europe
and comprising influential
figures in various domains,
including Jose Rizal.
Modern Socioeconomic Classes
Following independence, socioeconomic stratification evolved under
American governance's democratic principles. The modern socioeconomic
classes in the Philippines are defined by the Philippine Statistics Authority
(PSA) through various surveys, such as the Family Income and Expenditure
Survey (FIES). The classification system primarily segments the population
based on income levels, which helos to identify disparities and economic
statuses within the country (PSA 2023).
Social Mobility
Unlike rigid class systems, the Philippines offers avenues
for social mobility, permitting individuals to transition from
lower to higher socioeconomic strata. Social mobility
enables:

Movement within or between societal tiers.

Advancement from lower to higher socioeconomic classes

is often facilitated by education or marriage (Philippine
Statistics Authority 2021; Virola et al. 2020).
 1. Educational Advancement
Education is one of the primary drivers of social mobility in the
Philippines. Individuals from lower-income backgrounds who pursue
higher education, such as completing a college degree or vocational
training, have the opportunity to acquire new skills and qualifications
that can lead to better job opportunities and increased earning
potential.

2. Career Progression
Within the workforce, individuals can experience social mobility
through career advancement and upward mobility. Through hard
work, dedication, and skill development, employees can climb the
corporate ladder, earn promotions, and increase their income over
time.
3. Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship offers another avenue for social mobility in the
Philippines. Individuals with innovative ideas, business acumen, and
access to capital can start their own businesses and potentially
achieve financial success.

4.Marriage and Family

Marriage can also influence social mobility in the Philippines,
particularly when individuals marry partners from different
socioeconomic backgrounds. Marrying into a family with higher
economic status can provide access to greater resources,
networks, and opportunities for career advancement.
Ethnicity and Race
Every society comprises individuals from various families,
ethnic groups, and races,
contributing to its diversity and uniqueness.
Ethnicity
Ethnicity pertains to a group of people, known as an ethnic
group, who share common cultural, linguistic, historical,
religious, and traditional traits (Banton 2008). People are
categorized into groups based on various social factors.
Examples of ethnic groups include Filipinos, Malays, Anglo-
Saxons, and Muslims (Smith 2018).
race
Modern scientific understanding rejects the concept of
biological races as a meaningful way to categorize human
diversity. Genetic research has consistently shown that:
- Human genetic variation is continuous, not discrete. There are
no clear biological boundaries between population groups.
- Genetic differences within so-called racial groups are far
greater than differences between groups.
- Physical characteristics like skin color, hair texture, or facial
features are superficial adaptations to environmental
conditions and do not represent fundamental biological
differences.
- The historical racial classifications (Caucasoid, Mongoloid,
Negroid) are scientifically unfounded and rooted in racist
pseudoscience from the 19th century.
adaptation, and shared evolutionary history.
- Human genetic diversity is better understood
through population genetics, which studies genetic
variations across geographical and ancestral
populations without imposing artificial racial
categories. Contemporary anthropologists and
geneticists emphasize human genetic diversity as a
complex, nuanced spectrum of variations shaped by
migration, adaptation, and shared evolutionary
history.
 Ethnolinguistic Groups in the Philippines
The Philippines boasts more than 180 ethnic or ethnolinguistic groups, each identified by
the language they speak. Eight major ethnolinguistic groups in the country include llokano,
Kapampangan, Pangasinense, Tagalog, Bikolano, Ilonggo, Cebuano, and Waray. Additionally,
smaller ethnolinguistic groups like the banag, Ivatan, Sambal, Subanon, Maguindanaoan,
and Zamboangueño contribute to the nation's rich cultural tapestry. Indigenous groups in
the Philippines, such as the Mangyans of Mindoro, Igorots of the Mountain Province, and
Moros of Mindanao, may share ethnolinguistic backgrounds but possess unique cultures
and traditions.
Issues About Race and Ethnicity
Ethnicity and race are constructs that delineate
people based on social affiliations or physical
attributes, fostering discrimination and prejudice
against minority groups perceived as inferior (Golash-
Boza 2018).
RACISM
Racism, a form of discrimination or prejudice based on one's race,
has been pervasive throughout history. A notable historical example
is the discrimination against black Americans by white Americans
during the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. Segregation laws,
unequal access to resources, and systemic racism perpetuated
injustices against African Americans, leading to significant social
and economic disparities (Alexander,
2020).
ETHNOCENTRISM
Ethnocentrism, another form of
discrimination or prejudice, is rooted in
cultural biases.
One instance is the discrimination against
Christians and non-Muslims in Muslim-
majority countries, where religious
differences often lead to social exclusion and
marginalization.
Similarly, prejudice against Muslims in
Christian-dominated regions like Metro Manila
can manifest in stereotypes, discrimination,
and unequal treatment (Miller-driss, 2018).
Discrimination and Crimes against Ethnic Groups

Discrimination based on
race or culture can
escalate into severe
atrocities, including +
genocide and ethnic
cleansing.
GENOCIDE
Genocide involves the deliberate and
systematic extermination of a particular
group based on race, ethnicity, religion, or
nationality. The Holocaust, orchestrated by
Nazi Germany during World War II, stands as
one of the most heinous examples of
genocide in history. Approximately six
million Jews were systematically murdered,
along with millions of other marginalized
groups, including Roma, disabled individuals,
and political dissidents (Stone, 2019).
ETHNIC CLEANSING
Ethnic cleansing entails the forced removal
or persecution of an ethnic group to cleanse
a specific area or territory. This practice is
often accompanied by violence,
displacement, and human rights abuses. In
certain regions of Africa, ethnic cleansing
has led to devastating consequences, with
communities facing displacement, violence,
and loss of life (Straus, 2019).
Religion as a Cultural Variation
In our diverse world, cultural differences manifest in
various forms, one of which is religion. Religion
encompasses a set of beliefs and practices related to the
worship of a god or gods, shaping individuals' way of life
within societies (Smith, 2017).
Variety of Religion
Across the globe, numerous religions exist, each with its
unique set of beliefs and rituals. Major world religions
include Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Taoism, and
Buddhism, each influencing the lives of its adherents in
distinct ways (Prothero, 2020).
Religion in the Philippines
The Philippines, being a secular state, upholds the freedom of
religion as enshrined in its Constitution. Christianity
predominates in the country, with Islam practiced notably in the
southern regions. Additionally, small communities of Buddhists,
Taoists, and Hindus contribute to the religious landscape
(Abinales, 2018).
ANIMISM
(Before the 16th Century) Our ancestors
followed an animistic belief system before
the Spanish arrival, believing that spirits
inhabited everything. It was important to
appease these spirits with offerings like
food to receive blessings and prevent harm.
Neglecting these spirits could lead to illness
or other misfortunes in the community
(Scot, 2018)
islam
(Before 14th-16th Century) Before the arrival of
the Spaniards in the 16th century, some of our
ancestors practiced Islam, with the Muslim
community predominantly residing in
Mindanao. Arab missionaries brought Islam to
the Philippines during the 14th century through
trade. Muslims believe in Allah, follow dietary
restrictions like abstaining from pork, and pray
five times a day. They also observe Ramadan,
fasting from sunrise to sundown as a spiritual
practice (Tan, 2020).
christianity
When the Spaniards arrived in the Philippines,
they introduced Christianity, which has become
the main religion. Catholic missionaries
baptized some of the ancestors, leading to the
adoption of Catholicism. Despite this, some
pre-Christian customs were retained and
merged with Catholic traditions. Filipino
Catholic practices have unique elements, like
fiestas that originated from ancestral harvest
celebrations now honoring the feast days of
saints (San Juan, 2019)
 Protestantism (20th Century)
In the early 20th century, Americans arrived in the
Philippines and brought Protestantism with them. The
American presence in the Philippines was relatively
tolerant towards religion, with many Americans being
Protestants themselves. Protestantism originated in
Europe as a response to certain Catholic Church
practices and led to the emergence of new religious
denominations. Despite sharing a belief in Jesus Christ,
Protestants differ from some Catholic teachings.
Protestant missionaries established numerous
educational institutions in the Philippines, including
notable universities like Silliman University, Philippine
Christian University, and Wesleyan University of the
Philippines (San Juan, 2018).
contemporary period
In the Philippines, aside from Christianity and
Islam, certain migrant populations maintain
their traditional religious practices. Indian
migrants often practice Hinduism or Sikhism,
while the Chinese community tends to follow
Buddhism or Taoism. Christianity is
predominant in the country, making it one of
the largest Catholic nations in the region, but
the government respects the diversity of
religious beliefs and does not enforce any
specific faith on its citizens (Kurtz, 2018)
Understanding Cultural Variation in Religion
Cultural diversity is evident in the realm of religion, as exemplified
by the contrasting beliefs and practices of various faiths. For
instance, Christians and Muslims adhere to monotheism, while
Hindus worship multiple deities, and Buddhists focus on
enlightenment rather than deity worship (Albanese, 2013).
Issues Surrounding Differences in Religion
Religious differences can generate complex social tensions
rooted in conflicting theological interpretations, power dynamics,
and competing claims of cultural legitimacy. These tensions
manifest through marginalization of religious minorities,
struggles over religious symbols, and challenges to social
cohesion.
Addressing Religious Conflicts
To mitigate conflicts arising from religious disparities,
governments implement measures to accommodate diverse
religious practices. For instance, recognizing religious holidays
allows adherents to observe their faith without work-related
hindrances. Ultimately, fostering respect
Exceptionality and the Exceptional Individuals
Cultural variations show the diverse ways different groups of
people develop unique ways of life, while social differences
create disparities within society based on factors like
socioeconomic status and ethnicity. Human beings have a wide
range of characteristics and challenges, leading to labels like
gifted, disabled, or different. Societal influence shapes
perceptions and attitudes towards individuals with these labels
and differences.
Challenges and Issues Faced by Exceptional
Individuals
Exceptional individuals, including those with disabilities or intellectual
gifts, encounter various challenges and issues when interacting with
other members of society. Some common problems include:
• Limited access to education, employment, and social opportunities.
Stigmatization and discrimination based on their exceptional status.
• Lack of understanding and accommodation from society regarding
their abilities and needs.
Overcoming challenges and issues
In the Philippines, despite the enactment of Republic Act 7277, also known as the Magna
Carta for Persons with Disabilities (PWDs), in 1991, numerous barriers persist, hindering
exceptional individuals from full societal integration. These barriers include pervasive
disability stigma and society's inadequate comprehension of the capabilities and
aspirations of exceptional individuals. However, concerted efforts by the government,
private sectors, media, and advocacy groups aim to address these challenges. Strategies
include:
Implementing accessibility measures, such as the International Symbol of Access (ISA), to
designate spaces for individuals with disabilities.
• Promoting inclusive policies and practices in education, employment, and public services.
• Raising awareness and fostering empathy through public campaigns and community
engagement initiatives.
 Cultural
Performances
Intermission
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you!
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