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Gareth Kelly « Nigel Wood

 Digitized by the Internet Archive
In 2022 with funding from
Kahle/Austin Foundation

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WJEC

Physics
for AS Level
Gareth Kelly
and Nigel Wood

dibheatiersice
Published in 2015 by Illuminate Publishing Ltd, P.O. Box 1160, Image credits:
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Acknowledgements
Hollenbach, David J., & Townes, Charles H. (1995), in
The authors are very grateful to the team at Illuminate Publishing ‘Airborne Astronomy Symposium on Galactic Ecosystem:
for their professionalism, support and guidance throughout this From Gas to Stars to Dust’, Haas, Michael R. Haas,
project. The publisher would like to thank Dawn Booth for her Jacqueline A. Davidson, and Edwin F. Erickson, eds. ASP
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on examination material in particular. p.187 Shutterstock/R. MACKAY PHOTOGRAPHY, LLC.
 @xeyalnsyahns:

Contents

How to use this book 4

Matching A level to AS topics 5
The AS examination 6

Unit 1: Motion, Energy and Matter

Overview 8
1.1 Basic physics 10
1.2 Kinematics 24
1.3. Dynamics 36
1.4 Energy concepts 50
1.5 Solids under stress 58
1.6 Using radiation to investigate stars 70
1.7. Particles and nuclear structure 80
Exam practice questions 87

Unit 2: Electricity and Light

Overview 92
2.1 Conduction of electricity 94
2.2 Resistance 100
2.3 Direct current circuits 12
2.4 The nature of waves 124
2.5 Wave properties 130
2.6 Refraction of light 144
2./ Photons 154
2.8 Lasers 166

wNN
Exam practice questions 173

Practical skills
Overview 176

Mathematical skills
Overview 186

Answers 197
Self-test 197
Exercise 201
Exam practice questions 210

Specification matching grid Pa)

Index Pigs
How to use this book
This book has been written to support the WJEC AS Physics the physics course. The solutions to these exercises as
specification and the first half of the A level specification. The well as the self-test questions are to be found at the end
layout of the book matches that of units 1 and 2 respectively of the book. Unless the question asks for the reasoning
of the AS Physics specification. The same material is or working, the solutions to mathematical questions are
specified for units 1 and 2 of the A level. generally limited to a final answer rather than showing the
way of reaching the answer.
It provides you with information which covers the content
requirements of the course as well as plenty of practice
Examination style questions
questions to allow you to keep track of your progress and to
At the end of each of units 1 and 2, you will find a set
prepare successfully for your AS and A level examinations.
of examination-style questions. As the style and level
This book covers all three of the Assessment Objectives of demand of the new AS and A level examinations
(AOs) required for your WJEC course. The AOs are: have changed significantly, these questions are not
past-paper questions but have been specially written to
e AQ1, Knowledge and understanding of physics ideas reflect the changed demands. Similarly to the exercises
and practice. This comprises 35% of the AS examination at the ends of the sections, parts of these questions
(30% of the A level) including the specified practical have also been written with A level candidates in mind
activities. and some parts draw together material from different
e AO2, Applying knowledge and understanding of sections of the specification. The solutions to these
physics ideas and practice, which comprises 45% of questions take the form of model answers and which,
both the AS and A level examinations. in many cases, more than provide the minimum answer
e¢ AO3, Analysing, interpreting and evaluating scientific to achieve full marks. In some cases alternative, equally
information, ideas and evidence which is 20% of the valid, answers are given.
AS examination (25% of the A level).

The main chapters in the book are the AS units 1 and 2. Margin features
e Unit 1 covers Motion, Energy and Matter The text is supplemented by a number of margin features:
e Unit 2 covers Electricity and Light
Terms & definitions
Additional chapters are These are physics terms and laws that you need to be able to
e Chapter 3 — Practical skills quote without further information.
e Chapter 4 — Mathematical skills
For example:
The unit 1 and 2 sections include much practical and
mathematical material in context. Chapters 3 and 4 cover [i Terms & definitions ————_—_,
aspects of these skills which are more appropriately dealt The refractive index, n, of a material is defined by
with separately. n =>, where v and c are the speeds of light in the material
and a vacuum respectively.
Level of coverage
This book contains material which is examined at both Physics examination papers always contain a few marks for
defining terms or stating a physical law.
AS and A level. It is expected that, whilst some users will
take AS Physics only, a large percentage of its users will Study point
proceed to take the full A level. Because of this, the level
Some ideas from the main text are further developed in
of coverage of both the material and some of the practice
questions is higher than required for AS. Study points. These are used for material which is important
for you to understand but is tangential to the flow of the
text. Some Study point boxes include material designed to
Practice questions extend your understanding beyond the requirements of the
As well as the self-test questions in the margin of the Specification.
main text, each section in units 1 and 2 ends with an
exercise of practice questions. As well as containing For example:
material relating to the content of the sections, the
exercises contain data-analysis questions around the
specified practical work for the unit. Some questions also
ER
relate to the content of more than one unit: the A level The equation V = Rip con be interpreted as the pd across the
examination requires candidates to answer such synoptic output resistor, R, for a potential divider with input voltage E.
questions, which bring together a range of ideas from
 | About this book

Self-test | Maths check / Practical tip

Questions to enable you to check your understanding of

the subject at that point in the text. They are often short
calculations (though some are longer), which require you to ‘
apply equations developed in the main text. The answers to These refer to particular techniques and often direct you to
these Self-test questions are given at the end of the book. Chapters 3 and 4 for a fuller treatment.
Stretch & challenge Exam tip

Material developed in these is designed to make you think These are to help you avoid common unnecessary mistakes
more deeply about the subject. They usually include questions!" answering examination questions.
for you to answer and will be useful for students who will
progress to the full A level and to those intending to progress
to higher study in physics or engineering. Unlike the self-test
marginalia, the answers to these questions are not provided.

Matching AS specification content to the

sections in this book
Units 1 and 2 in this book are generally arranged to follow the 2 eek
WJEC specification. For example:

Section 1.6 Using radiation to investigate stars

on pages 70-79 deals with Unit 1 Topic 6 of the WJEC 10 1.1.1 Quantities and units
specification, with the same name. 98 1.2.3 Uniform acceleration

However, some areas of physics are related closely to material equations

in more than one unit. The behaviour of objects falling under 31 1.2.4 — Projectiles
gravity, for example, relates to material covered in Section 1.2
Kinematics, Section 1.3 Dynamics and Section 1.4 Energy 36 1.3.1 Momentum
concepts. To facilitate the use of this book, a grid is provided 38 129 — Elastic and inelastic
on page 215 to match specification areas to book sections. collisions
An extract is shown on the right.
; 39 1.3.3. Force and momentum
The grid shows that specification Unit 1, Topic 3(e) is covered eo
in Sections 1.3.1 and 1.3.3. It also shows that Unit 1 Topic 40 1.3.4 Momentum and Newton’s
2(e) is covered in Sections 1.2.3, 1.2.4 and 1.3.8. 3rd law of motion
42 1.3.5 — Forces between
materials in contact

43 1.3.6 Free-body diagrams

43 1.3.7. Force and acceleration

44 1.3.8 Gravitational force

The AS examination AS Physics Units 1 and 2 written
papers
The WJEC AS Physics aims to encourage students to
(2 x 1 hour 30 minutes)
e develop essential knowledge and understanding of different
areas of the subject and how they relate to each other Both papers consist of approximately 7 structured questions,
¢ develop and demonstrate a deep appreciation of the skills, each of which contains several parts, with a total of
knowledge and understanding of scientific methods 80 marks. The questions comprise a mixture of short and
e develop competence and confidence in a variety of extended answer parts.
practical, mathematical and problem-solving skills
¢ develop their interest in and enthusiasm for the subject, Quality of extended writing (QER)
including developing an interest in further study and Some questions assess how well you can present a detailed
Careers associated with the subject argument. These are called Quality of Extended Response
e understand how society makes decisions about scientific questions and are indicated by QER next to the mark
issues and how the sciences contribute to the success of allocation. These questions are worth 6 marks and the
the economy and society. examiner will assess how well you communicate your physics
as well as the standard of the physics itself.
Examination questions are written to reflect the assessment
objectives (AQs) as laid out in the specification. Learners must
meet the following AOs in the context of content detailed in the Synoptic questions
specification: To quote from the specification, ‘Learners’ understanding
of the connections between the different elements
of the subject and their holistic understanding of the
Assessment objective 1
subject is a requirement of all A level specifications. In
Learners must: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
practice, this means that some questions set in A2 units
scientific ideas, processes, techniques and procedures
will require learners to demonstrate their ability to draw
35% of the marks for questions set on the examination papers together different areas of knowledge and understanding
are for AOI. As well as pure recall, such as stating laws and from across the full course of study.’ This is known as
definitions, this includes knowing which equations to use, synoptic assessment. So A level students will be expected
substituting into equations and describing experimental to be familiar with AS material in answering questions in
techniques. units 3 and 4.

Questions in one A2 unit will not focus specifically on

Assessment objective 2 content from other units but some questions in each exam
Learners must: Apply knowledge and understanding of will draw upon skills and knowledge acquired in studying
scientific ideas, processes, techniques and procedures: for other units. For example, the knowledge of conservation
e ina theoretical context of momentum gained in unit 1 could be required when
¢ ina practical context discussing a and B decay in a unit 3 examination
e¢ when handling qualitative data
¢ when handling quantitative data.
Mark allocations
45% of the marks for questions set on the examination papers The mark allocation for each question part is given in square
are for AO2. Bringing together ideas to explain phenomena, brackets, e.g.
solving mathematical problems and performing calculations
using experimental results and graphs are categorised as State the principle of conservation of momentum. [2]
AQ2. Application involves using the skills you have acquired in
situations you have not previously encountered, e.g. in synoptic The mark allocation gives a good clue to the detail required in
questions. your answer. The [2] is a good clue that there are two aspects
to the answer. In this case the examiner would expect:
Assessment objective 3
1. a statement that the (vector) sum of the momenta remains
Learners must: Analyse, interpret and evaluate scientific
the same, and
information, ideas and evidence, including in relation to issues, to:
¢ make judgements and reach conclusions 2. the conditions, i.e. in a closed system or if no resultant
e develop and refine practical design and procedures. external force acts.

20% of the marks for questions set on the examination papers On some occasions, an examiner might decide to allocate
are for AO3. These marks include determining quantities using only one mark to the statement, but still demand both points
experimental results and also responding to data to draw to be made.
conclusions.
 About this book

Questions involving calculations Suggest

Depending on their complexity, questions which require the This command word often occurs in the last part of a
calculation ofa result will generally be allocated more than one structured question. There might not be a definite answer but
mark. Unless the question specifically asks for the working to you are expected to put forward a sensible suggestion based
be shown, full marks will normally be awarded for just a correct upon your physics knowledge.
answer, consisting of a number, a unit and (in the case of
vector quantities) a direction. However, incorrect answers will For example:
only be given credit for correct stages in the calculation, so you
are advised always to show your working. Suggest how you could investigate whether the
assumption was correct.
Error carried forward (ecf)
This is also referred to as consequential marking. The principle Calculate
is that the results of a calculation, in one part of a structured Use one or more equations to find the value of an unknown
question, is treated as correct if it is used in a Subsequent part quantity.
of the same question. It is often not applied within a question
part. See the Study and Revision Guide for further discussion For example:
of the application of ecf.
Calculate the power dissipated in the 20 © resistor.
Command words used in WJEC exam questions
Examination ‘questions’ are not usually phrased as questions. Determine
They are usually instructions to do some work. Examiners This command word is often used instead of calculate. Give
choose the command words carefully so that you understand a numerical answer by manipulating data you have been
the sort of answer required. This is a list of the most common given. There is no absolute difference between the words but
command words used. determine tends to be used in situations where an additional
process is required beyond a calculation.
State
Give a brief, concise answer with no explanation. For example:

For example:
Use the graph to determine the acceleration of the
rocket at 15.0 s.
State the acceleration at time ¢ = 0.
In this case you might first need to draw a tangent to the
For questions which require the value of a quantity to be velocitytime graph.
stated, it is expected that no calculation (or at most a trivial
one) is needed. Compare
For example:
Describe
Write a short account with no explanation. Compare the appearance of the two stars.
For example:
Make sure that you make a comparison rather than two
Describe the motion shown in the v-t graph. separate descriptions, e.g. ‘Star A is brighter than star B.’

Discuss
Experimental methods can also be asked for using this
This is often used for questions on the practical application of
command word.
scientific ideas or technological developments.
Explain
For example:
This requires reasons to be given. Depending on the question
a description might also be required. Discuss whether this remote community should install a
wind farm or an undersea turbine.
For example:

Explain which of these stars appears brightest. As with suggest there is no correct answer to this type of
question. The examiner is looking for reasoned arguments
based upon data and physics principles.
In this example the brightest star has first to be identified
(which might not itself be allocated a mark). The explanation
might need to include a calculation.
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

Overview:
Unit 1 Motion, Energy and Matter
Basic physics Solids under stress
¢ The 6 base S| units (kg, m, s, A, mol, K), representing other Hooke’s law; the spring constant.
units in terms of them and checking equations for homogeneity. Stress, strain and the Young modulus.
¢ Scalar and vector quantities, manipulating coplanar vectors Work done and the area under a force-extension curve.
and resolution of vectors. Classification of materials as crystalline, amorphous
Calculations of density. and polymeric.
The moment of a force, the principle of moments. e The features of a force-extension (or stress-strain)
Stability and the centre of gravity of an object. graph for a ductile metal; explanation in terms of
Conditions for equilibrium of an object. dislocations and grain boundaries.
PRACTICAL WORK e The features of a force-extension (or stress-strain)
e Measurement of the density of solids. graph for a brittle material; breaking by crack
¢ Determination of unknown masses by using the principle of propagation and its control.
moments. ¢ The features of a force-extension (or stress-strain)
graph for rubber; non-linearity, low Young modulus,
straightening of long-chain molecules, hysteresis.
PRACTICAL WORK
Kinematics e Determination of Young modulus of a metal in the form
of a wire.
¢ Displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration and their ¢ Investigation of the force-extension relationship for
graphical representation. rubber.
¢ Interpret speed and displacement-time graphs for uniform
and non-uniform acceleration.
¢ Derivation and use of equations for linear uniformly
accelerated motion. Radiation and stars
¢ Motion under gravity; terminal velocity.
¢ 2D motion; the independence of vertical and horizontal
¢ Stellar emission and absorption spectra and their
motion of a body; projectiles.
origin.
PRACTICAL WORK e Black bodies; stars as good approximations to
¢ Measurement of g by free fall. black bodies.
e The black body spectrum; Wien’s displacement
law, Stefan’s law.
e The inverse square law.
Dynamics ¢ Investigating stellar luminosity, size, temperature
and distance.
Force and Newton's 3rd law of motion. Multiwavelength astronomy.
Free body diagrams.
The relationship 2F' = ma for constant mass.
Linear momentum; the principle of conservation of momentum
and its application to elastic and inelastic collisions.
e Force as the rate of change of momentum; applying this in
Particles and nuclear
situations where mass is constant. structure josei)

PRACTICAL WORK e Matter is composed of quarks and leptons.

¢ Investigation of Newton's 2nd law. ¢ Antiparticles and their properties; symbols for
antiparticles of electrons, quarks and hadrons.
¢ The quark / antiquark structure of hadrons, including
baryons, antibaryons and mesons.
¢ Recall the quark compositions of the neutron and
Energy concepts proton and suggest quark composition of other first
generation hadrons by applying conservation rules to
¢ Work and energy transfer, including situations in which
the force and motion are in different directions. given reactions.
¢ The principle of conservation of energy applied to e The properties of the strong, weak, electromagnetic
transfers including gravitational and elastic potential and gravitational interactions.
energy and kinetic energy. ¢ Neutrino involvement and quark flavour changes are
e Power as the rate of energy transfer. exclusive to weak interactions.
¢ Dissipative forces, e.g. drag and friction, reduce the overall
efficiency of the system; calculations of efficiency.
This foundation unit of the AS Physics course builds upon concepts developed
in Key Stage 4 in addition to introducing entirely new material.

¢ The initial topic, Basic Physics, examines the language of physics in terms
of quantities and units, which are now written in the standard manner of the
scientific community using negative indices where appropriate.
The core of Unit 1 comprises the concepts of motion and energy. These are
explored in greater depth than in earlier courses, the vector aspects of motion
being examined and the mathematical relationships between quantities of
motion investigated.
e Engineers and materials scientists rely on knowledge of the properties of
materials to be able to make buildings and machines. These properties
are investigated and explained in terms of the behaviour of the constituent
molecules.
Electromagnetic radiation is used to explore the nature of the universe and
its constituent parts — stars, galaxies and the cosmic microwave background
radiation. Using the whole range of the e-m spectrum allows a much fuller
picture of the universe to be obtained than by visible light alone.
The familiar structures of the material world, atoms and molecules, are seen
to be built upon combinations of the fundamental particles of nature, leptons,
quarks and antiquarks, interacting by four fundamental forces. The rules of
particle interactions are explored.
™ 1.1 Basic Physics
Physics is an experimental science. It involves making measurements of quantities,
such as pressure, speed, electric current and temperature and discovering laws, which
concern relationships between quantities, and formulating theories, to explain why
natural phenomena occur. This topic includes some details of how to handle physical
quantities, which are covered in level 2 courses such as GCSE Physics. Some of its
contents will therefore be familiar but they are taken to a higher level.
TS SEs

Don't think of a theory as just a

1.1.1 Quantities and units

hunch or a guess. In order to be
called a theory an explanation needs
a lot of experimental evidence to
support it and it has to explain a

(a) Base quantities and units

range of phenomena. The statement,
‘It’s just a theory!’ misses the point.

In order to measure a quantity, such as length, we need to have a defined standard

to compare the length with. In our system of units, Le systéme international d’unités
(abbreviated to SI), the defined unit of length is the metre with the abbreviation m.
Since 1983, the metre has been
What does a reported length of, say, 53.7 m mean?
defined as ‘the length of the path
travelled by light in a vacuum during
53.7 m = 53.7 x the defined unit length;
a time interval of 1/299,792 458 of a
second’.
in other words the distance light can travel in 53.7/ 299,792,458 ofa second!
The history of the definition of the
metre is worth investigating. Table 1.1.1 shows the 7 base quantities with their S! units.

Quantity : | oo Unit |
tensity isnot used in Name of quantity | Symbol — |Name of unit _ abbreviation
hysics, mass | m |kilogram | kg
length | / |metre | m
time | t |second | S
electric current | i |ampere | A
temperature | Z |kelvin | K
printed in italics, e.g. m, T. The amount of substance | n |mole | mol
symbols for units are printed in plain
print, e.g. kg, K. luminous intensity | L |candela | cd
Notice that the definition of the metre depends upon another definition (the second) as
well as a physical property (the speed of light). The table also has common symbols for
the quantities, e.g. ¢ for time and / for length. Note than other symbols can be used,
Self-test e.g. x and r for lengths and M for mass.
Simplify the following:
1. 6a+2a
2. 6ax 8a
3. 6a=3b (b) Derived quantities and units
4 (6a)?
Most of the time physicists work with quantities other than the base quantities, e.g. area,
volume, pressure, power. They use the base units in combination to express these. In
order to derive these units we treat them as algebraic letters and remember some simple
algebraic rules. To remind yourself of them see Self-test 1.1.1.
Self-test
Derive the unit of volume by The easiest way of understanding how to derive a unit is to look at some examples:
considering a cube.
1. Unit of area. We start with a defining equation:
 Basic Physics

vy Study point
Area of a rectangle = length x breadth

“. Unit of area = unit of length x unit of breadth It is rather tedious to keep wnting
unit of, So We use square brackets to
But length and breadth are both distances so they both have m as their unit. stand for this:
Thus [length] = m
-. Unit of area =m x m = m2.
and [area] = m2.
2. Unit of change of speed (or velocity).

The unit of speed (or velocity) is m s-!. If the speed of a car changes from 15 m s"! to
33 m s~ then

change of speed = final speed — initial speed r— Terms & definitions

—H
A useful symbol for a change of
Soom se 15m $7 something is A (delta). So
= 18m s" [remember that, in algebra, 33a — 15a = 18a] Av = change of velocity.

So the unit of a change of speed is the same as the unit of speed.

3. Unit of acceleration. Again we start with a defining equation.

Learn the expressions for N, Jand
W in terms of kg, m and s; learn
change of velocity apes Av how toderivethem.
acceleration =
time t ue

Some derived units are used very frequently and it is useful to learn how to express them
Self-test 143,
in terms of the base SI units. Using the following equations: The unit of the coefficient of
viscosity, 7, is usually written as
Force = mass x acceleration; Work = Force x distance; Power = Work ‘Pas’ (pascal second) where Pa is
the unit of pressure, defined by
time
force
you should be able to show that N=kgms?, J=kgm*s? and W=kg m’s°, pressure = —_.
area

Show that this unit is the same as

Example that derived in the example.

The drag force, Fp, on a sphere moving through a fluid is given by Stokes’ formula,
Fp=6znav, where ais the radius of the sphere, v the velocity and 7 [etal] is the
coefficient of viscosity of the fluid. Find the unit of 7 in terms of the base S| units.
MATHS CHECK |
Rearranging the equation 7 = Fy . 6 and z have no units, so [4] = Fol
6zav Lally]
5
[Ate ke ms (a) =m and fyi=ms iy] = ee = ke nr ot
eS

(c) Using SI multipliers and standard form

Many problems arise in which the quantities are either much larger or much smaller than
the basic quantities. The data is thus given either in standard form or using SI multipliers.
This example has data in mixed forms.

Example
Calculate the energy transmitted by a 44 kV power cable in one day if it carries a current
‘Inthe example, we couldhave
of 2.5 x 10? A. [Use P =JV and E = Pt] written 44kVas44x104V.
However, to avoid mistakesitis
From the two equations, FE= /Vr. easier to write it as 44 x 10° and let
the calculator handle it!
. Converting to the basic units: E=2.5 x 10? A x 44 x 10° V x 86 400 s
=O oS TOL I Sf)
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

1.1.2 Checking equations for

Homogeneity — Rule 1
homogeneity
Consider the equation: v? = uw? + 2ax, where uw and v are the initial and final velocities,
Two quantities a and b can only
a the acceleration and x the displacement (distance) of a uniformly accelerating object.
be added together if they have the
same units — and then the answer We're going to take this equation apart and look at the units of its various bits.
has the same units.
1. Thew*term: Now [uz] =m s+, so [wv] = Gm s1)? = m2 s*.
The same goes for subtraction.
2. The 2ax term: [2ax] = [a] x [x] =ms* x m=m? s?
Homogeneity — Rule 2
Let's just stop here for a moment: the uw? term and the 2ax term have the same units!
An equation is homogeneous only
if the units of the two sides are the Why is this important? Because it means that they can be added together. See rule 1. This
same. means that the unit of the right-hand side of the equation is m? s~.

Ss. (hew tems iy] =m sso [v7] == (ns? =m s-

Self-test Notice that the left-hand side has the same unit as the right-hand side. Why is this
Show that the equation important? Two things can only be equal if they have the same units; 53 V can never be
x =utt+“at? equal to 53 A — similarly 1 day and 1 cm could never be the same!
is homogeneous.
We say that this equation is homogeneous — only terms with the same units are
(Remember that % has no units.) added or subtracted and the units of the two sides are the same. If the ‘equation’ isn’t
homogeneous |s cannot be right — you must have remembered it wrongly.

1.1.3 Scalar and vector quantities

Warning (a) Forces and how to add them
Just because an equation is
homogeneous doesn’t mean that
The effect of a force on an object depends upon the direction in which it acts. Think
it is right, e.g. v2 = u? + 3as is about the effects of the two forces on the sledge in Fig. 1.1.1(a) and (b).
homogeneous and incorrect!
F Hh

(a) (b)

r— Terms & definitions—+ Fig. 1.1.1 Forces on a sledge

A vector quantity has magnitude Force is known as a vector quantity. Other quantities, such as mass or density, are fully
and direction. A scalar quantity specified by their magnitude (size) and are referred to as scalar quantities.
just has magnitude.
Scalar quantities are easy to add, e.g.

3kg+4kg=7kg
and similarly, subtract

4kg-3 kg=1kg.
We just use the normal rules of arithmetic.

Fig. 1.1.2 Adding masses

 Basic Physics

With forces other rules apply: | 3N = oy

_y Study point
4N 7N What Fig. 1.1.3 means is that the

{Fs ©Tb»
combined effect of a3 Nanda4N
but = force on the motion of an object
is be the same as a single force of
magnitude 7 N (if they are in the same
4N direction), 1 N (if they are in opposing
and 3N = nei directions) or anything in between if

eat all
they are at different angles.

ay

*~ Studyy‘point =
Fig, 1.1.3 Adding forces
The resultant force, Fie, is often
written LF (read as ‘sigma F’).
The combined effect of two (or more) forces is called the resultant force, F’... We can Sigma, £, means ‘the sum of’ so LF’
calculate the sum of two forces using the parallelogram law of vector addition, as shown means ‘the sum of the forces’.
in Fig. 1.1.4. You could find the resultant force, LF’, by drawing a scale diagram but it
is more accurate to calculate it using trigonometry, e.g. the cosine rule or Pythagoras’
theorem (if the forces are at right angles).

Note that for the AS exam you only need to be able to add two forces at right angles but if
you are going on to higher studies you will need to be able to cope with other angles.

Example
Two forces, of magnitudes 20 N and 15 N act on an object at an angle of 60° to each Fig. 1.1.4 The parallelogram law of
other. Find the resultant force. vector addition

Answer First draw a sketch

diagram and add the extra
information, e.g. the 120° angle.

Using the cosine rule: (ZF)? = 20 + 15? — 220% 15-008. 120° = 929
= ¥925 =30.4N
Next calculate 6 using the sine rule: sin
———9 _ sin 120" 4 sin @= 15 sin 120" _ 0.427
30.4 30.4
Pog = Sit] 0.427 = 25.3-,

So the resultant force is 30.4 N at 25.3°to the 20 N force.

Most of the time you will only have to combine two vectors at right angles, which you can
opposite
do using Pythagoras’ theorem and simple trig, such as sin 6 =
: hypoteneuse
Self-test
Self-test 1.1.5 is an example. Calculate the resultant force of a
3 N anda 4 N force acting at nght
angles (as in Fig. 1.1.3).

(b) Motion scalars and vectors

Like length, distance is a scalar quantity. The question, ‘What is the distance between
Aberystwyth and Bangor?’ doesn’t ask about direction. If you know the answer, it
doesn't help you to navigate from A to B. However, ‘Bangor is 91 km due north of
Aberystwyth’ would enable a pilot to fly from one to the other. This quantity, which
includes direction as well as distance, is called displacement. The displacement of
Bangor from Aberystwyth is 91 km north. Similarly, Flint is 65 km east of Bangor.
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

65 km
What is the displacement from Aberystwyth to Flint? Fig. 1.1.6 shows how we can add the
displacements AB and BF to give the resultant AF displacement (shown in red).
You should be able to show that AF ~112 km at 35.5° E of N.
distance
We calculate speed (strictly, mean speed) using speed = . Distance is a scalar so
91 km
time

+: speed is as well. The vector equivalent of speed is velocity, which is defined on the left.
The next example shows the distinction between the two.

Example
A
A light aircraft flies from Aberystwyth to Bangor and then to Flint in a time of two hours.
Fig. 1.1.6 Adding displacements Using the data above, calculate (a) the mean speed and (b) the mean velocity.

(a) Distance travelled =AB + BF = 91+65= 156 km

r— Terms & definitions —
e 156 km
: displacement .. Mean speed
velocity = ——____ 2h
time
=/9 km bh

(b) Displacement AF ~112 km at 35.5° Eof N

14and 1.16
two different
“. Mean velocity
_112km
2h
= 56 km h"! at 35.5° Eof N. [Note: direction!

Similarly acceleration is defined as the change in velocity per unit time and is also a
vector, |.e.

acceleration
time

Or In symbols @ = ==

(c) Lists of scalar and vector quantities

These lists include most of the scalar and vector quantities that you'll encounter in AS/A
level physics. The ones in italics are only in the full A level course.

Scalars — density, mass, volume, area, distance, length, speed, work,

energy (all forms), power, time, resistance, temperature, potential
(or pd or voltage), electric charge, capacitance, activity, pressure

Vectors — displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum,

electric field strength, magnetic field strength (or magnetic flux density),
gravitational field strength.

Fig. 1.1.7 Adding more than two

vectors (d) Adding more than two vectors
We have seen how to add two vectors using either the parallelogram method (see
Fig. 1.1.4) or the nose-to-tail method (Fig. 1.1.6). Fig. 1.1.7 shows how we can
extend the latter way of addition to more than two vectors. An alternative method is
given in Section 1.1.4.
 Basic Physics

1.1.4 Working with vectors PE:

(a) Subtracting vectors
To calculate an acceleration we need first to find a change in velocity, Av. If the first
velocity is vy; and the second is v5, the Av = v, — v,. We know how to subtract scalars. yy
How does it work for vectors?

For numbers we know that we can rewrite 53 — 45 as (-45) + 53. We do the same thing
with vectors. To find v,—¥,, in Fig. 1.1.8(a), we add —v, to v,. We can do this using the
nose-to-tail method in (b) or the parallelogram method in (c). It doesn’t matter which one
you USe: Vv, — Vj, the red vector, is obviously the same length and direction in (b) and (c).
Diagram (b) is probably easier to draw but it is easier to make a mistake with the direction
of v, — V4.

Example
A car changes velocity from 25 m s“! due E, to 20 m s"! due N in 8.0 seconds.
Calculate the mean acceleration.

Step 1: Draw the diagram. Take care with the

direction of v, — v,: Go backwards along the v, v,=20ms
vector (— v,) then forwards along the v, (+7). Fig. 1.1.8 Subtracting vectors

Step 2: Use Pythagoras to calculate Av.

¥, = 2) ms
(Av)+ = 252 + 202 = 1025. - Av = 32.0 m $7). AVL LU he
25 _ AtAS, you will only have
Step 3: Calculate #6. tan 0= a = 1.25. 7. 8=51.3° __ vectors
atright angles.

Step 4: Calculate a. a= ~ ce= = 4.0 ms2at51.3° Wof N. [NB direction!]

t

(b) Components of vectors

Look back at Fig. 1.1.1(a). How much of the force F is pulling the sledge forwards and
how much of it is lifting the sledge? In other words, if a force, Ff’, acts at an angle @ to the
horizontal, what are its horizontal and vertical components, F, and F’,? Fig. 1.1.9 clarifies
the question: F', and F, are the horizontal and vertical forces which add together to give
Fas the resultant.

Using elementary trigonometry: Fj, = F cos 0

ei si e=
and P=ayii?+ Fh? Self-test
In Fig. 1.1.9, F= 150 Nand @ = 30°.
Why is this a useful technique? For all sorts of reasons. Here are just two: Calculate Fy and F;,.

1. If the motion is horizontal (like the sledge) the horizontal component of the force
multiplied by the distance moved gives the work done, i.e. the energy transferred.
r— Terms & definitions—}
2. When adding several (i.e. more than two) vectors, it is often easier to find the
horizontal and vertical components of each and add them. Finding the component of a force
is called resolving: we resolve
Sometimes it is useful to find the components in directions other than horizontal and a force into its horizontal and
vertical, e.g. for the forces on a car on a slope the sensible directions to calculate vertical Components.
components of the forces or velocity are parallel to and at right angles to the slope.
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

We will meet this sort of situation often in the AS course. The important thing to remember
is that the component of a vector, A, in a direction at angle @ to the direction of the vector
is always A cos 8.
Pa x
a N
77 ne
¢ ‘N
0 *
x ; A

Fig. 1.1.10 Component directions on ‘

eo
?

a slope

Fig. 1.1.11 In all cases the component of A in the direction of the arrow is A cos @
Self-test
What is the
component
of B in the Example |
y direction?
Use components to find the resultant of the forces in Fig. 1.1.12.

Total horizontal component = 10+ 12 cos 45° + 15 cos 120° [see Study point]

(to the right) = 10 + 8.485 — 7.5 [Note the — sign]

=10.99N

Total vertical component = 15 sin 60° + 12 sin 45°

(upwards) =21.48N

Combine the two components using Pythagoras’ theorem:

F2.,, = 21.482 + 10.992 |

oe 2A WN. 21.48N

a as i And @=tan- 21:48 _ 62.9°

In the example, the angle between
ais HRS,
10.99 10.99 N
the 15 N force and the right “. The resultant force is 24.1 N at 62.9° to the horizontal.
horizontal line is 120°.

r— Terms & definitions

—
Mass M
1.1.5 Density
Density = ;
Volume V For a material of uniform composition, the mass of a sample is directly proportional to its
volume. Hence the ratio of mass to volume is a constant, which is characteristic of the
material. We call this constant the density.

Table 1.1.2 contains the densities of some common materials. You should make sure you
can make a reasonable estimate of densities if you have to in the exams.

Material |p /kgm°> |p joni |Material |p /kg m3 pis cme

Air* |1.29 |0.001 29 ||Steel |7900 |7.90
Water [1000 = |1.00 ||Aluminium |2800 |2.8
SYMBOL Brick P3800 20 ||Mercuy [13600 |13.6
The usual symbol for density is the
Greek letter p (rho). Petrol |880 |0.88 ||Gold [19300 = |19.3
* At O°C and atmospheric pressure.
 Basic Physics

The range of densities of materials on the Earth is quite large. The drawings in
Fig. 1.1.13 all represent 1 tonne (103 kg) of material. But this range pales into
insignificance compared with the range of densities in the universe. For comparison,
Table 1.1.3 gives the size of 1 tonne cubes of various materials outside the Earth.
The range of densities shown in the table is ~10°3.

air (at sea level)

ais

Interstellar space
Red giant star
The sun
White dwarf 8.9 mm water steel

Neutron star 15 um =) a)
—>|mn< —> ().5m
Fig. 1.1.14 The Cat's Eye nebula
The white dot in the middle is a white dwarf
Fig. 1.1.13 Range of densities
star with a density of ~ 10? kg m3

Problems involving density will usually require you to convert units. Either the density or
the volume often needs to be converted. If the volume is given in cm? and the density in
kg m°> then:
either convert the volume using 1 cm? = 1 x 10° m3

or convert the density using 1000 kg m3 = 1 g cm>

Example Self-test <p

Repeat the calculation in the
A rectangular block of steel, of density 7900 kg m3, has length 10.0 cm, width 5.0 cm example using g and cm’.
and height 4.0 cm. Calculate its mass. Remember to convert the density
from kg m~ to g cm”,
Equation first:p= se M= pV. We'll use kg and m3 as the units.
Mass - 7900 kem3 (10 « 102m x5 x 107m x 4x 10° m)
=/ 900 kem>
x2 * 1074 m
=1.58 kg

1.1.6 Moments of forces

(a) The turning effect of a force
Sometimes a force causes things to accelerate. Sometimes they stretch or compress an
object or make it rotate.
Force to loosen
Lift the nut

large force

4
!
t
\
i]
\
\
@ ¢ small force
weight

Fig. 1.1.15 Forces causing rotation Fig, 1.1.16 Forces on a door

 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

The forces (red arrows) in Fig. 1.1.15 cause the wheelbarrow, the spanner and nut and
the bicycle sprocket wheel to turn about the pivot. Anyone who has used a spanner
knows that the longer the handle, the easier it is to undo a nut. In other words, the turning
effect of the force is bigger if it is applied further away from the pivot.

An easy experiment to show this difference in turning effect is for two people to push on
either side of a door. It is easy for a child to hold a door shut against an adult — if the adult
pushes close to the hinge! (See Fig. 1.1.16)

large
turning

effect
nemmscan) gi

A
(b) The principle of moments
The turning effect of a force about a point depends upon its direction as well as the
| no turning
distance from a point — see Fig. 1.1.17. We take account of this when we define the
smaller effect
turning effect
moment of a force, which is the mathematical expression of its turning effect:

The moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and the perpendicular
Fig. 1.1.17 Direction matters distance from the point to the line of action of the force.

This is clarified in Fig. 1.1.18. The force F

is applied at a distance x from P. But the
Etnealer srt A adios eet
perpendicular distance from P to the line of
The moment of a force is also called
action of Fis d. So:
its torque. The symbol fis sometimes
used for moment (or torque).
Moment of F about P = Fd.

Looking at Fig. 1.1.18 again we notice that

line of
d=x cos 8. .
action of F : \ °y
\

.. Moment ofF about P = Fx cos @.

We can also write this as (F cos 6)x. Fig. 1.1.18 Moment of F about P = Fd

—©
But F cos @ is the component ofF perpendicular to the line joining P and the point of
application of F’, so this is another way of calculating the moment.

Qolf-test If we look back at Fig. 1.1.16, we see that the two forces are acting in opposite senses:
the small force tends to make the door move clockwise about the hinge; the large force,
Identify the moment of each of
the forces in Fig. 1.1.15 as CM anti-clockwise. We say that the small force has a clockwise moment (CM) and the large
(clockwise) or ACM. force has an anti-clockwise moment (ACM).

Example
Calculate the moment about O of each of the forces in Fig. 1.1.19
(a) The perpendicular distance of the line of action of the 20 N force is 1.5 m from O.

“. The clockwise moment of the 20 N force aboutO = 20 Nx 1.5m=30Nm.

(b) Either: The perpendicular distance of the line of action of the 40 N force
is 2.0 sin 60° from O.
.. The ACM of the 40 N force about O = 2.0 sin 60° x 40 Nm =69.3 Nm
Or: The perpendicular component of the 40 N force to the 2.0 m displacement
is 40 sin 60°
Fig. 1.1.19 Example
. The ACM of the 40 N force about O = 40 sin 60° x 2.0 Nm=69.3 Nm
 Basic Physics

Now, if those are the only forces acting, the disc in the example will start turning r— Terms & definitions4
anticlockwise — the anticlockwise moment is larger than the clockwise moment. There
The principle of moments: For a
is a resultant anticlockwise moment of 69.3 — 30.0 = 39.3 N m. What happens after body to be in equilibrium under
that is not clear because we don’t know how the forces are applied to the disc; will they the action of a number of forces,
stay the same in magnitude, direction and position of application? But it does lead us the resultant moment about any
to an import principle: the Principle of Moments (see the definition). For the moment point is zero (alternatively: the
we'll ignore the phrases ‘about any point’ and ‘about the same point’. We'll come back sum of the clockwise moments
to them in Section 1.1.7. about any point is equal to
the sum of the anticlockwise
With the aid of the PoM, we are in a position to solve a real-life problem! moments about the same point).

Example
Where must the fat cat sit to balance the other two on the see-saw?
Ww “Study oint ae -
po

3.0m
Sod
Notice that the see-saw in ne
Example is pivoted at the centre.
We'll deal with more difficult
situations in Section 1.1.7.

Fig. 1.1.20 Calculate d

The weights of the cats are (using mg), 19.62 N, 29.43 N and 53.96 N respectively. Qelf-test ep
Using PoM, the resultant moment about the pivot must be zero. If the mass of the see-saw plank in
the example is 10 kg, show that the
‘, Taking clockwise as positive: 53.96d—29.43 x 2.0- 19.62 x 3.0 =0 pivot must exert an upward force of
~200 N on the plank.
-, Solving this equation d=2.18m

-, The fat cat must sit 2.18 m from the pivot.

(c) The centre of gravity (C of G) ‘For a rigid body, the poaition of“com
Cof Gis fixed within the body; but
In the last example, we treated the cats (of all sizes) as though they were point masses. not for flexible bodies. the position —
This is obviously not true — they are spread out. However, for any object we can identify a - moves. Where is the high jumper a *
z - OLG?, ye
point at which we can consider all its weight to act. This is called its centre of gravity. In Vee

a uniform gravitational field (which will always be the case in AS physics) the C of G of a
et
symmetric body, of uniform density, will lie on any plane of symmetry. Fig. 1.1.21 has the
examples you are likely to meet:

Fig. 1.1.21 Centres of gravity

WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

For a standing object, such as a bus or a racing car, the lower the centre of gravity and
the wider the base, the more stable it is. That means that objects with low centres of
gravity can be tipped more before they topple over.

Fig. 1.1.23 shows the principle of this using a tall

rectangular block. The block is just on the edge of
tipping — it could go either way because the C of G Is
just over the balance point. From the geometry,
tan é= = where A is the height of the C of G and

w is half the width of the block.

Racing cars have a very wide wheel base and are very
low on the ground, so their centres of gravity are also
Fig. 1.1.24 Stability testing low. Fig. 1.1.24 shows a tilt test on an F1 car. Fig. 1.1.23 Stability of a block

r— Terms & definitions—

For a body to be in equilibrium
1.1.7 Conditions for equilibrium
under the action of anumber of A body is said to be in equilibrium if it is moving and rotating at a constant rate. In many
forces ... (see main text) cases, especially when applied to engineering objects, such as bridges and buildings, this
means it is not moving at all. In order for this to happen:

1. The resultant force on the object must be zero, and

2. The resultant moment (about any point) must be zero (the principle of moments).

The object in Fig. 1.1.25 is clearly not in equilibrium: the resultant force is downwards
and to the right and the resultant moment is clockwise (about the centre of gravity).

What about the metre rule arrangement in Fig. 1.1.26? The rule weighs 1 N and we can
consider this weight to act at the 50 cm mark, the centre of gravity. Assuming it balances,
what are the values of d and F?
Fig. 1.1.25 This object is not in
equilibrium

In Fig. 1.1.26, there are two unknown

quantities (F and d), so we need two
equations to calculate them.

Fig. 1.1.26 Balanced rule

CED Self-test
Find din Fig. 1.1.26 by assuming
Applying condition 1: The resultant force = 0
F=6N, (from applying ZF = 0) and
taking moments about B.
p= 3 NN 2 N=6 N5
.. The pivot exerts an upward force of 6 N for the ruler to be in equilibrium.

Applying condition 2: The resultant moment = 0 (about any point).

Self-test
Find d and Fin Fig. 1.1.26 by taking Let’s take moments about end A: The 3, 1 and 2 N forces each have a clockwise
moments, about A, then about B and moment about A; F’ (= 6 N) has an anticlockwise moment. Taking CM as positive:
solving the simultaneous equations.
~3Nx10cm-6Nx40cm+1Nx50cm+2Nxd=0
. (simplifying) 2d = 160 cm. ... The 2 N weight must be at the 80 cm mark.
 Basic Physics

The last problem we are going to look at is, how to find an unknown force if there are
forces at different angles. For example, what force F must we apply in Fig. W227 S50
that the forces are in equilibrium? We don’t need to worry about rotations because all the
forces pass through the same point. We have a choice of three techniques — but two of
them are essentially the same!
a) Add the 10 N and 6 N. Then F must be equal and opposite to the resultant.

b) Add the 10 N, the 6 N and F as in Fig.

(b)
1.1.7, so that the resultant is O. 2)

The labels are left for you to complete!

c) Resolve in two directions — horizontally and

vertically are the obvious ones: F

Vertically: Fcos@=10N [1] Remember: through the angle — cos ee ee

Horizontally: F sin@=6N_ [2] Through 90°- 6 = sin

Dividing [2] by [1] and remembering that sin

6_ tan 6 — tan 0= =
x —
Qolf-test
cos @

This lets us calculate 6 and then we can use [1] or [2] to calculate F’. Find F’and @ in Fig. 1.1.27 using
methods (a), (b) and finish off (c).

We finish off with two more difficult examples. The first shows that the principle of
moments applies even when there isn’t a pivot: if something doesn’t start to rotate, the
moments of the forces about any point must add to zero, even for a bridge! The second is
more difficult because the forces are not parallel.

“Example ) ) : : SF ae
Fie 11.28shows aJodoon1a bridge,Calculate theae Fa
aeafprovidesbyt
theo :
ee. are

- : 10000 N ao ey Hig 11.28 Forces onabridge

“Applytheconditions for scuilibrun: |
Resultantforce =ie :
Fi +R, =
= 10 000+5000.

N x2 51
m+ 5000Na Px
x:m =0
=45000N- oe
, . ;
9000 N- 2
ue fcRi
in
vento utcalul FaAe6 000N-
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

0.90 m
Example
A pub sign is supported on a vertical wall by a hinge, H and a wire, W, as shown in
Fig. 1.1.30. Calculate the tension, 7, in W.

Take moments about H. ACM positive. Using the principle of moments:

T sin 40° x 0.90 m—50N

x 0.75 m=0 .«. T= 64.8N

Following on from this example, we can also use the equilibrium conditions to find the
force exerted by the hinge on the pub sign bar — F'in Fig. 1.1.30. We could do this using
the triangle of forces:

Fig. 1.1.30 Pub sign The three forces on the sign have a 0 resultant. Using the
result for the tension, the triangle looks like this.

We can use the cosine rule to find F and 8@.

eer > Self-test
Alternatively we use components and the fact that the
Calculate the magnitude and
direction of the force F in Fig. 1.1.30. resultant horizontal and vertical components are zero:

. Horizontally: F sin @= T cos 40° «.f sin@=49.6N [1]

and vertically Fcos 6+: 7 sin 40°= 505. F cos 6 = 8.35: N 121

lf we then divide equation [1] by equation [2] we get tan@ = aa 5.94.

So we can calculate 6 and hence F.

1.1.8 Practical work

(a) Measuring the density of solids
Finding the density of a substance involves measuring the mass and the volume and
/
dividing mass by volume. This practical is often used to test understanding of uncertainties
Fig. 1.1.31 Regular solids and how to combine them. The mass is usually determined from a single reading electronic
balance, so the absolute uncertainty is taken as + 1 in the last digit of the reading;
e.g. a reading of 159.73 g would be taken to be (159.73 + 0.01) g.

PRACTICAL TIP
The uncertainty in mass is often not as significant as that in the volume.
How the volume is determined depends upon whether the solid object has a regular
See Chapter 3 for combining and
shape, e.g. a cuboid, e.g. a microscope slide, or a cylinder, e.g. a wire.
reducing uncertainties.

(i) Regular solids PI

Volume of a cuboid = Ibh ; volume of a cylinder = AJ = 2r2/ = 72" |

For lengths up to ~15 cm, digital callipers, with a resolution of 0.01 mm are normally
used. It is important when using them to check the zero reading, i.e. close the jaws and
take a reading. Any reading should be subtracted from the reading with the object being
measured. For lengths > 15 cm a metre rule with a resolution of 1.0 mm is normally used.
The precision can be improved for a set of identical objects by laying them end to end,
_ Remember thatyou measure the
_ diameterofa wire,notthe radius! e.g. laying 10 microscope slides end to end gives a length of ~75 cm; using a mm scale
to measure the length gives a % uncertainty of 0.13%.

(ii) Irregular solids

The solid, e.g. a rock, is Suspended from a thread and lowered into a measuring cylinder
of water until it is completely submerged. The increase in volume reading is the volume
of the solid. If the solid is too large for a measuring cylinder, a displacement can is used
 Basic Physics

(Fig. 1.1.32) and the water overflow captured in a measuring cylinder. Disadvantages
of this method are: (a) the resolution of the measuring cylinder is quite large (typically
1—2 cm? for a 100 cm cylinder) and (b) the volume of water overflowing is not
necessarily exactly the same as the volume of the object.

(b) Measuring mass using the principle of Fig. 1.1.32 Measuring the volume of
a rock
moments
In Fig. 1.1.33, the long bar is a % metre or metre rule. The triangle is any pivot — it could be -
as simple as an outstretched finger. The pivot is placed at the centre of gravity of the rule. The centre of gravity is not
Z % necessarily at the midpoint of
When the bar balances, the ACM and the CM
about the pivot are equal.
— adler UPR RIG Sel MAIO
preliminary experiment to find it:
C of G
More unknown known ea c
AN gx = mgy mass, M@ mass, m
; e mg
. Mx = my. Me The C of Gis above the balance
: ; é point.
We can also use this technique to find the Fig. 1.1.33 Finding an unknown mass
mass of the bar itself. The position of the PRACTICAL TIP
C of G is found as in the Study point.
A known mass, m, iS hung near one end The results will be most accurate
of the bar. The pivot point is found and if both x andy are as large as
distances x and y measured. Mg possible. Thus, in Fig. 1.1.33, the
hiciee aon ae Fig. 1.1.34 ‘Weighing’ a ruler known mass should be similar to
mg the unknown mass.

Exercise Ge
Newton's law of gravitation states that two small bodies of masses, of mass M/, and M,, separated by a distance
d attract each other with a force, F’, given by: F = EUS where G is the universal gravitational constant.
d-

(a) Show that [G] = N m? kg”.

(b) Express [G] in terms of the base SI units, m, kg and s.

The power, P, dissipated by a resistor, R, with a pd, V, across it and a current, J, is given by P = IV.

(a) Express the unit of pd (the volt, V) in terms of the base SI units, m, kg, s, A.
(b) By using a suitable equation express the ohm, Q, in terms of the base SI units.

A cylinder of length 1.5 m and diameter 60 mm is made from iron of density 7900 kg m-. Calculate its mass.

The radius of the orbit of Mars is 220 million km. Express this in metres in standard form.

Estimate the mass of a 1 mm diameter aluminium (p = 2.7 g cm~) wire which stretches once around the Earth.

Find the horizontal and vertical components of each of v, and y9. v= 20 m= v, = 30 m=

Use components to find .

(a) the sum and

(b) the difference (v, — y,) of the two vectors v, and v4 and express
the direction of the answers as an angle to the dotted line.

Repeat the calculations of Q7 using parallelograms of vectors.

A rock balances a uniform 50 g metre rule when it is hung from the 10 cm mark and the fulcrum at the 20 cm
mark. When it is lowered into a measuring cylinder the water level rises from 150 cm? to 190 cm?. Calculate the
density of the rock.

The fulcrum in Q9 is moved to the 40 cm mark and the ruler rebalanced by adding an additional mass to the
80 cm mark. Calculate (a) the required mass and (b) the upward force exerted on the ruler by the fulcrum.
» 1.2 Kinematics
Kinematics is to do with motion and its mathematical description. It is the study of
how things move without considering why they move, which is covered in the next
topic, Dynamics.

Paine ears Mame cece it 1.2.1 Speed and velocity

Kinematics comes from the Greek
word kuvynuc (kinema) which means
motion. From this we also get
kinetic energy and cinema (motion
(a) Motion in a straight line - displacement-—
pictures). time graphs
r— Terms & definitions—— Looking at motion in a straight line is not as restrictive as it might appear. To start
4 displacement with, road and rail transport (especially the latter) are restricted to motion along linear
Mean velocity = ee eee
time taken pathways. Even the fact that the routes wriggle about somewhat needn't concern us as
we are not investigating the causes of motion. Also, when we consider motion in two
(and three) dimensions, we'll often look at the components of the motion: essentially,
3D motion consists of three sets of motion in straight lines!
SYMBOL The displacement-time graph, Fig. 1.2.1 is of a car moving along a road. We'll use
We use the symbolx for it to help understand certain terms. The displacement is the distance along the road
displacement. Many textbooks
use the symbol s,
measured to the right.

ex CEB iy cars
Se
o- point
ita Be ee

An upward-sloping x-ft graph means

that x is increasing, i.e. a positive
velocity. If the graph slopes down,
the direction of motion is reversed.

Self-test
Calculate the mean velocity in this
time shown in the first 6 seconds of
Pigaiea.

Fig. 1.2.1 x-t graph for a car

Self-test
1. An upward slope (between O and B) represents an increase in x with time, so a
Over which periods in Fig. 1.2.1 is
the velocity constant?
movement in the positive x direction; downward slope (D to E) is moving in the
negative direction; horizontal (B to C) means stationary.

2. The gradientof the graph represents the increase in displacement per second, so
the gradient of a displacementtime graph is the velocity. If the graph is a straight
Self-test line, the gradient is constant and so the velocity is constant.
Descnibe the motion in Fig. 1.2.1
qualitatively. Interrogating Fig. 1.2.1 mathematically:

The mean velocity between 3 and 8 seconds [A to C] = Ax _ (65-50)m _ 3 ns

At ons
 Gbersvents ater)

From D to E the velocity is constant. vp, = Pg Nielp92) Ta a 2 8.3 ms.

At 2.45 2.4
A (delta)
The instantaneous velocity at X is the gradient of the tangent at X: means change of displacement.
If x changes from x, to x, then
As _ (73-46)m_ 27
y= — = = 6-8 met. sXe (ty 2%)
At 4.0s 4.0
The displacement, x, for the whole journey is 37 m but the distance, d, travelled by the
car is 93 m. These are made up as follows:
The speed of an object takes no
Xop + Xpc+Xcp
= 65 m+ 0m + (-28 m) =37m account of direction, so the speed
between D and Eis 8.3 ms-!.
don + dgct deg = 65m+0m+28m=93 m

Self-test 7
Calculate the mean velocity for the
journey in Fig. 1.2.1.

(b) Motion in two dimensions

Again we'll look at a specific example to see how to understand the terms.

The Earth orbits the Sun in a (nearly) circular path at a (nearly) steady speed. The radius
of the orbit is 149.6 million km and the orbital period is 365.25 days. We'll use this
information and Fig. 1.2.2 to distinguish between various terms. You might want to look
back to Section 1.1.3.

First we'll work out the mean speed of the Earth in its orbit:

Mean speed = distance travelled

time taken

In 1 orbit, distance travelled = 27 x 149.6 x 10° km. Fig. 1.2.2 Earth in orbit

Time for 1 orbit = 365.25 days = 3.156 x 107s

Self-test
2n x 149.6 x 10° km _ Soe ce
Mean speed = What is the instantaneous velocity at
3156961073 position 4?

We'll assume that this is also the instantaneous speed at any moment because the speed
is nearly constant.

What about velocity? The instantaneous velocity at position 1, v,, Is its speed in direction x:

v, = 29.8 km s"! in direction x.

and v,= 29.8 km s! 90° from x [measuring angles anticlockwise from x].

What about v,? We could write: v; = 29.8 km s! 180° from x. We could write this as
v3; = -29.8 km s" in direction x. [Note the minus sign.]
The mean velocity is defined by:
Self-test

Mean velocity = {1time ment

Splacetaken For Fig. 1.2.2 determine

(a) v4, (0) (V;,3) (C) (3,4)

so to calculate the mean velocity from position 1 to 2, (v, ), we first need to know the
displacement Ax.
Self-test 2.7
Using Pythagoras’ theorem you should be able to show that Ax = 211.6 million km at For Fig. 1.2.2 what is the velocity,
45° from the x direction. Also the time 1-2 is '4 of a year. vy, 1 month (a) before and (b) after
position 1?

Vio= Ax _ 211.6 x 10° km = 26.8 km s“! at 45° from x.

At 0.789 x 107s
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

1.2.2 Acceleration
(a) Motion in a straight line —- velocity-time
If the velocity changes from v pO Vs)
then Av = Vasa.
graphs
Sections AB and CD of Fig. 1.2.1 represent changing velocity, i.e. acceleration.
The mean acceleration, over a time interval Af, is defined as:
Sed baRona eae
wn o} i rh pot
Ea ete Mean acceleration = Ay
At
The unit of acceleration ig m s~?.
An acceleration of 5 m s-* means An approximation to the instantaneous acceleration at a particular time is given by the
that the velocity increases by same expression but with the time interval, At, made very small.
5 ms“! every second, e.g. velocities
of 2,7, 12,17... ms! at 1 second Again it is convenient to look at this using a graph: this time a graph of velocity against
intervals.
time (a v-t graph). This time, in Fig. 1.2.3, we'll imagine a local train, e.g. an underground
train, moving between stations. It starts off at rest, accelerates uniformly for 5 s, coasts for

—&
15 s, etc., before finally decelerating to rest at 68 s.

Self-test
y/ms!
Describe the journey in Fig. 1.2.3
between 20 and 68 s.

r— Terms & definitions4

The gradient of a velocity—time
graph is the acceleration.
So a horizontal v-f line represents
constant velocity.

r— Terms & definitions—

Deceleration is negative
acceleration; e.g. an acceleration
of —1.5 m s~? is a deceleration of
Fig. 1.2.3 v-t graph for an underground train
Sms

Ave Onmse
The acceleration of the train in OA = =2.0ms—.
At LORS

Gelf-test = -l
The acceleration between D and E = Ay = Cee 2143 nS.
In Fig. 1.2.3, calculate the mean At 145s
acceleration between 10 and 35
seconds. The v-t¢ graph allows us to calculate the displacement: it is the ‘area’ between the graph
and the taxis. For example (from Fig. 1.2.3)

Displacement between B and C = area between the graph and the taxis

= area 1 + area 2 [in red on the graph]

=10s* l0ms*+
2 (10s: 10imis4)
a
cf
i =a OUI)

be the area under the graph, but The displacement for the whole journey is 945 m [see Self-test 1.2.10]. From this we can
if the velocity is negative it will find the mean velocity for the trip:
be the area under the f-axis and
above the graph.
Mean velocity = Ax _ aoe!
At 70s
 LGhetssests talons;

Example
Self-test €D 7
The v-t graph is of a bullet as it is fired into a tank of water.
By dividing the area under the graph
in Fig, 1.2.3 suitably, show that the
Use the graph to calculate: y/ms"! displacement for the joumey is 945 m.
(a) The deceleration at 2 ms,
(b) The displacement by the bullet
in coming to rest.

Answer

(a) Acceleration is the gradient of

the tangent at 2 ms.

From the red triangle

Foe Av — (l0-190)ms!
At 3.2 ms
=—56.2 x 10? ms?
t/ms
.. Deceleration is 56.2 km s~. Fig, 1.2.4 Decelerating bullet
Self-test
(b) Displacement = area under graph. Using the trapezoidal rule (see Maths check), In Fig. 1.2.5, assuming that the
with At = 1.0 ms: acceleration is always downwards
and 1.5 m s~, calculate the velocity
Area under graph = (150+ 195 + 128 + 82+52+33+20+10+0)ms"'! x 0.001 s of the ball when it hits the ground
20 s after C.
= 0.670 m [Hint: calculate Av using Av = a At,
then draw a triangle of vectors.]
.. Displacement of bullet when coming to rest = 0.67 m (2 sf.)

(b) Motion in two dimensions

We'll see in section 1.2.4 how to study horizontal and vertical components of motion
separately. Here we'll have a brief look at how to calculate acceleration when the direction
of the motion changes. Consider the motion of the cricket ball in the interplanetary test
match on the lunar Tycho base. The Jovian opening bat despatched a full toss to the
(rather distant) boundary.
50 ms!

Fig. 1.2.6 Av Ye

_ Acar takes a 90° bend at 15 m s-!,

_ It completes the bend in 7.0 s.
_ See diagram. Calculate the mean
acceleration.
w“——--——

Fig. 1.2.5 Lunar cricket

The ball was at positions A, B and C at times of 20 s, 40 s and 60 s after it was struck.
We'll determine the mean acceleration between positions A and C. Fig. 1.2.6 shows how
to calculate Av.

Av =2 x 50 sin 36.9° = 60 m s“!

60ms!
. Between A and C, (a) = a 3 = 1.5 m s* vertically downwards.
At 40s
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

1.2.3 Uniform acceleration

equations
(a) Deriving the equations

Ene I
time, 0 time, ¢

Fig. 1.2.8 xuvat

In this section, we'll consider an object which is initially moving with a velocity, uw, and
accelerates with a constant acceleration, a, for a time, f¢. In this time, it attains a final
velocity, v, and moves through a displacement, x. The motion is along a straight line. We'll
r— Terms & definitions
—+ derive some relationships between these quantities, x, u, v, aand ¢.

These equations are often

From the definition of acceleration, a= Y—“, «. (rearranging) v=uctat [1]
referred to asxuvat. t
s = displacement The displacement, x, is the ‘area under’ the v-t graph — see Fig. 1.2.9(a). The graph is a
u_ = initial velocity straight line because the acceleration is constant. For convenience we've assumed that
a> 0 [so the gradient is positive] and u > 0. The equations we derive will still be valid for
vy = final velocity
either a or u [or both] < 0.
a =acceleration
The displacement, x, is the area of the trapezium. From the formula for the area of a
t =time
trapezium, X= 5(u VG lel
lf we break up the trapezium into a rectangle plus a triangle we obtain Fig. 1.2.9(c)

Adding the areas, A, + A,, we get: s = ut + s(v wt

From equation [1] v—u=at.. x=ut+ tat [3]

From equation [1], t= Y=" | Substitute for ¢ in [2] we getx = 5(u a) eat
a

which we can rearrange to give: v=u2+2ax [4]

You should learn equations [1] — [4]. Make sure you can derive them.

A fifth equation to complete the set is: x=vt- sat [5]

velocity

Vat:

Vv

U U A,

a <—___________»
t t

Fig. 1.2.9(a) v-t graph Fig. 1.2.9(b) Trapezium Fig. 1.2.9(c) rectangle plus triangle
 Gbeteyenteinlersy

(b) Applying the equations Self-test €D _

It is important to be systematic when applying these equations. (a) Show that the answers given for
the example are correct.
P Identify and write down which of the quantities, x, a, etc., you already know and which
you need to calcutate (b) Use vy= u + at to solve part (b).

Say you know the initial velocity (uw), the acceleration (a) and the time (¢) and are asked
to calculate the displacement (x). The equation that contains these four quantities is
x = ut — ‘at’, so this is the equation to apply.
(0) Usex = ut + Year? to solve
Example part (b) in Self-test 1.2.12.
A car, travelling at 26 m s~!, decelerates at 1.2 m s? toa speed of 10 ms“,
Calculate (a) the distance travelled and (b) the time taken in this process.

(a) Writing down the quantities. w= 26ms!:v=10ms!:a=-1.2ms2,

Unknown quantity =x. ... Use the equation v? = wu? + 2ax. From this we get x = 240m. _ Although examiners apply ecf (error :
cattied forward), it is a good idea not —
(b) Now we know w, v, a and x and need to calculate ¢. So we can use any of the to rely on the answer to part (a)ofa
equations 1, 2 and 3. The easiest is x = (uw + v)t, which gives ¢ = 13.3 s. _ question when answeting pat

Comments on the example:

1. Itis possible to answer part (b) of the question before part (a).

With u, vy and a known and fto be a _~ Study point _—

calculated, equation 1 is the obvious If you have done Self-test 1.2.12(c)
route. you will have obtained two solutions:
240
p= 13r3 sands O0is:
2. If you use x = ut — Yat? to calculate =
The appropriate answer is 13.3 s.
t, then you will usually obtain two The 30.0 s answer is commented on
possible solutions — see Study point. in the main text.
In this case, f= 13.3 s or 30.0 s. To
see how this second solution arises,
look at the sketch graph of x against ¢.
A good reason for avoiding quadratics.

Fig. 1.2.10 x-t graph

(c) Vertical motion under gravity!

The image in Fig. 1.2.11 is of a ‘freely’ falling golf ball (white) and table-tennis ball.
They are lit by a strobe which is flashing at regular intervals. The distances between the
positions of both spheres increases as they fall showing that they are accelerating. We
can use the scale to investigate the acceleration.

The positions of the centre of the golf ball in the four images are approximately (in cm):
3.0, 10.5, 22.0 and 38.0. The distances fallen between the images are (approx.) 7.0,
11.5, 16.0 cm, showing a constant increase and hence a constant acceleration. We
cannot measure the acceleration because we do not know the time interval between the
flashes. Note that the golf ball is apparently overtaking the table-tennis ball, because
the relative effect of air resistance is greater on the lower mass ball.

Around 1590, Galileo famously devised a thought experiment to justify by logic that
all freely falling objects (i.e. in the absence of air resistance) accelerate to Earth with
the same acceleration. We call this acceleration the acceleration of free fallorthe Fig 1.2.11 Freely talline soheres
acceleration due to gravity. The symbol for this acceleration is g. See Section 1.3.8 for
some more discussion of this and also for the effect of air resistance on falling motion.

1 see also Section 1.38

 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

The acceleration due to gravity, g, close to the surface of the Earth is almost constant.
The value of g at 39 km, the height from which Felix Baumgartner jumped in October
2012, is only 1.2% less than at ground level. Even at the altitude of the International
Space Station (400 km) g is only 13% less than at ground level. Unless otherwise told,
assume g = 9.81 m s2. When making estimations, it is sensible to use the 10 m Ss? as
the approximate value of g.

Example
A student drops a rock from a tall building. Estimate (a) its position and (b) its speed
after 1 s, 2s, 3s and 4 s, assuming it hasn’t hit the ground!

(a) If the acceleration ~ 10 m s~, this means that the speed increases by1l0ms!
every second, so the speeds are ~ 10, 20, 30 and 40 m s" respectively.

(b) Applying x= ut — “Yat with w= 0 anda=g ~ 10 ms”, we getx= SF leading to

x=5m ,
20m, 45 mand 80 m.

Fig. 1.2.12 Galileo’s thought

experiment ee ;
Many problems involving motion under gravity involve upwards motion, which decreases
and eventually becomes downwards motion. To solve such problems we have to decide
which direction is positive.
€ Self-test
A passenger in a hot-air balloon at If we choose upwards as positive then a = —g = —9.81 m s~*; a downward velocity will be
an altitude of 200 m throws a stone negative and a position below the starting point will be negative. The following example
downwards at 10 m s-!. Calculate illustrates these points.
the speed with which it hits the
ground.
Example o
4 1
. ill A toy rocket runs out of fuel at an altitude of 250 m anda H(
ow Stud ypoint | vertical upwards speed of 80 m s-. Ignoring the effects of iy
“i PEN SY EWE ALLL & air resistance calculate the velocity with which it hits the rey
e could choose downwards feces
as positive. If we do this, ground. : 14
CSfeSscll sal G2 Anewer A | u=+80ms!
In the example, :
uis—80 ms! and fem 1 =-9 = — ee
xis +250 m at the ground u=80ms',a & 9.81 ms”. '
'
The ground level is 250 m below the point at which our {
!
Fig. 1.2.14 equations start to be applicable, i.e. x = —250 m. We J
!
need to find v at this point. i}

w~ Study point — «ve=sut 2ax. ». v2 = 802 + 2(-9.81)(250) = 11305 | x=—250m

The equations in the example cannot : ee we)
distinguish between the given -.v=+106ms Fig. 1.2.13 Toy rocket
question and the situation in which
an object is thrown upwards from ee 3 : ; :
the ground and achieves a velocity How do we distinguish between the two possible solutions? We could either say,
of 80 m s“! at a height of 250 m ‘Well, it's obvious that +106 m s~! cannot be right, so the answer is -106 m s"!,
eee eee i.e. 106 ms! downwards.’ This is certainly correct but we could look a little more
pou Reale eee Citar! deeply into it. See the Study point.
respectively.

A difficult question
A more difficult question is to calculate the time until the rocket reaches the ground.
Why ts it more difficult? Because it involves the solution of a quadratic equation!
 Gi aley eats alors

An easier solution
Some people find it easier to think of this problem in two parts:
Self-test D> a.
1. Calculate the time and distance to the top of the flight (stage 1), and Do the calculations for stages 1
and 2 and show that the total time
2. Calculate the time to fall from the top to the ground (stage 2). is 19.0s.
Why can't we find the total flight
This involves the following sequence: time of the rocket using the
equations of motion 1-4?
e For stage 1, v= 0. Use v = u + at to calculate the time to
the top.

e Usex = Alu + v)torx = ut + Yat to calculate the height

gain in stage 1. Add the initial height (250 m) to give the
total height.
Use x = ut + Yar? for the whole
e Use x = ut + ‘at? to calculate the time taken to fall 576 m _ flight from 250 m, to find the time to
impact with the ground.
from rest. This is a quadratic but the wt term is zero (because
u = 0). [Hint: it is sensible to take down as positive for this
part of the flight.]

e Add the two times together. | x=—250m

Now try Self-test 1.2.14. Fig. 1.2.15 Flight time

1.2.4 Projectiles
A projectile is an object which is thrown/kicked/made to move obliquely upwards and
carries on its path under the influence of gravity, e.g. a rugby ball during a conversion.
The study of this kind of motion is called ballistics after the Roman siege weapon, the
ballista.

Writings in military books in the middle ages suggested that the flight path of a cannon
ball was as shown in Fig. 1.2.17.

Fig, 1.2.17 ‘Impulse Scar se The idea was that the cannon ball had a
theory’ of cannonball ase & certain ‘impulse’ which carried it along.
’ io . Ui ’ : ~ 4

flight er | When this ran out, gravity took over and Fig. 1.2.16 Parabolic jets of water
i
| caused it to plummet downwards. This
is similar to the cartoon character’s path
- when running off a cliff. The image of
ow water jets shows the true parabolic path
of projectiles Fig. 1.2.16.

To see what is happening, we'll look at a strobe image of two spheres, one of which is te-
moving vertically, the other starting off at the same moment horizontally Fig. 1.2.18. _——

\
I
1
The vertical white lines are equally spaced. From this image we see that: T
!
ee es

1. The heights of the two spheres are the same at all instants, i.e. they are accelerating |
I
downwards at the same rate, which we know is g. |
|
| } ||
2. The white sphere moves horizontally at a constant velocity. !
!
1
||]}—— |

We therefore conclude that we can treat the horizontal and vertical motions of a projectile 1
i
independently. I
—— || } ||
a
Ce
a !
ee eae
aes)
Seen)
eas
beth
REGS
| lel
S04
-5eae
oo
-4---4---|---|--4--|--|-++@
Se
ee,
If we use x, y Co-ordinates, with x being horizontal, y being vertically upwards and the
projectile stating off from (0,0) with an initial velocity w at @ to the horizontal, the equations Fig. 1.2.18 Independenceof
of motion become: horizontal and vertical motion
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

pare €D Self-test
If =30 ms! and 6 = 30°, calculate
(a) the horizontal and vertical
components of u, (b) the values
of v, and v, after 5 seconds, (c) the
velocity after 5 seconds and (d) the
position after 5 seconds.

ee Ap eS,

Horizontal: x = u,f and v, = u, [i.e. velocity is constant).

Vertical: v, = 4, - gt; y = Alu, + v,)t; y = uf — Agr; v,? = uP — 2gy

where uw, = u cos @and u, = uw sin @ are the initial horizontal and vertical component of
velocity and v, and v, the horizontal and vertical components of velocity at time, f.

Look at Self-test 1.2.15. This type of question can be tackled in a straightforward way
by identifying the correct equation at each stage and substituting the data. It is strongly
suggested that you do this question and check your answer before proceeding. Some
problems, such as the example, involve a multi-stage approach. They often require a time
to be calculated before the relevant distance.

Example
A trebuchet (a medieval siege engine; see Figure 1.2.20) hurls a rock at a speed of
40.0 m s-! and an angle of 30° to the horizontal towards the vertical wall of a castle
100 m away. Calculate how high up the wall of the castle the rock will hit.

Plan Calculate the time it takes to reach the castle wall, using the Honzontal motion and
then calculate the height of the rock at this time using the vertical motion.

me 1220 1.2.5 Measurement of g by free fall

To measure the acceleration of free fall, all one needs to do is to measure the time, f, it
takes an object to fall from a known height, A.

; Self-test | Then, using x = ut + ‘AZat?, with u=0, x =hand a =g, the equation becomes:
Use the plan in the trebuchet
example to answer the question, A= or [1]
then use the time to calculate the
velocity with which the rock hits the Ah
castle wall. eS Se [2]

In principle, one could just drop an object from a high window and use a stopwatch
to time its fall. The problem with this method is that the time taken to fall 20 m [quite
a high window] is only ~2 s, so the percentage uncertainty in ¢ with a hand-operated
stopwatch is quite high and then the equation for g involves f which doubles the
uncertainty; e.g. If you can measure time with an uncertainty of 0.1 s the percentage
uncertainty, p, in 2 s is:

pee 005%
a

So the uncertainty in g will be 10%.

 cs Gbetsiestcin
lors

Electromagnet Metre rule

Steel sphere Z >

Self-test
Ifh~ 50 cm,
(a) Estimate ¢ using g~ 10 ms.
(b) Use + Imm and+ 10 ms to
estimate the % uncertainty in g.

Aluminium
hinged flap

Systematic error
With the time delay of Ar the true
relationship is:
h = Yag(t — At)?
Taking the square root gives:

Electronic timer
vh =Viagt -Vveght,
so if we plot a graph of
Fig. 1.2.21 g by free fall
vh against t we should get a
straight line with gradient Vg.
In the apparatus in Fig. 1.2.21, the steel sphere is held in position by an electromagnet,
the current for which is from the AC supply. Moving the switch from 1 to 2 simultaneously
switches off the current to the electromagnet (releasing the sphere) and triggers
the electronic timer to start. The sphere hits the aluminium flap, causing it to swing
downwards breaking the red circuit, stopping the timer.

Measurements:

e Drop height, , to+ 1 mm using the metre rule. Typically / is up to 75 cm.

e Time, ¢, using the timer. The scale might be to 1 ms or 10 ms but the measurements
of ¢ typically vary with an uncertainty of 10 ms.

Analysis of results

Commonly ¢ is measured for a range of values of h up to ~ 75 cm, and a graph of h

against ¢? plotted. From equation 1, the gradient is 2g, so g is double the gradient.

Systematic error

A problem with this technique is that there is often a small delay before the sphere is
released because it takes a short time for the magnetisation in the electromagnet and/
or the steel sphere to decay. This adds an unknown time — so the true time for the fall
is less by an unknown time, Af. The effect of this Az is to produce a curved graph for
h against #2. See the margin for a technique for dealing with this.
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

A ball is dropped from a height of 5.0 m. It hits the ground at 10.0 m s~! after 1 s. It rebounds at 8.9 m
s-! and reaches a maximum height of 4.0 m in a time of 0.90 s. Calculate:

(a) the mean speed in the descent,

(b) the mean speed in the ascent,
(c) the mean speed for the whole 1.9 s,
(d) the mean velocity for the whole 1.9 s,
(e) the change in velocity at the bounce.

Use relevant equations of motion to show that the acceleration in Q1 was assumed to be 10 m s~
downwards.

A train accelerates from rest at 0.50 m s~ for a period of 90 s. It travels at a steady velocity for 4.5 km
before decelerating to rest in a further 1800 m. Calculate the mean velocity for the journey. [Hint:
Calculate the total displacement and the total time taken. ]

A car, travelling at a steady speed of 20 m s~!, changes its direction from due North to due East in
5 seconds. Calculate the mean acceleration.
y/ms!

Use the v-t graph to determine

(a) the acceleration between 0 and 10 seconds,

(b) the distance travelled in the first 20 s,
(c) the acceleration at 30 s,
(d) the mean velocity over the 40 s.
A stone is catapulted horizontally from the top of a cliff with a speed of 30 ms". It hits the sea 5.0 s later.
Calculate

(a) the height of the cliff,

(b) the vertical component of its velocity when it hits the water,
(c) the velocity with which it hits the water.
 iGbalssaetcun
ler;

Taking the times between the positions of the spheres in Fig. 1.2.18 to be 0.050 s, estimate the time until
the horizontal and vertical components of the velocity of the white sphere are equal and hence determine
the distance between vertical white lines. For the purposes of this question you may take g to be 10 m s2.

An arrow is shot at 50 m s“ at an angle of 30° to the horizontal. Ignoring air resistance and other
aerodynamic effects, calculate

(a) the maximum height reached by the arrow,

(b) the time to the maximum height,
(c) the velocity at the maximum height and
(d) the horizontal range of the arrow.

Car A starts from rest and accelerates at 1.5 m s~!. Car B travels at a steady velocity of 30 m s~! and
passes car A as it starts off. How long does it take car A to overtake car B and how far have they both
travelled by the time this happens?

An experiment is undertaken to determine a value for the acceleration due to gravity using the apparatus
illustrated in Fig. 1.2.21. A centisecond timer was used. The measured times for the steel sphere to drop
are given in the table:

Distance, x / em 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0

Time, ¢/ ms 180 1250" 4280) 9330") 350%) 390. 12400
There is a small systematic error due to the magnet. Compare graphically the two methods of analysis
given in the text and determine the delay time before the magnet drops the sphere.
> 1.3 Dynamics
Section 1.2 was concerned with the mathematical language of motion — describing
uniform and accelerated motion in terms of equations. This topic is concerned with
the causes of motion and its changes. Before the 17th century, the natural state of
> Pointer motion of objects was considered to be at rest. Some agency was considered necessary
A car approaching a bend on an icy
for an object to be moving: it is difficult to force a log to move at all and the moment
road could well fall victim to N1.
Without the frictional grip of the tyres you stop dragging it, the log ceases motion; even a rolling ball stops in quite a short
it will plough straight on! time; the Earth was ‘known’ to be at rest at the centre of the universe.

Different rules were held to apply to objects outside the Earth, i.e. the Moon and beyond.
They were not made of normal stuff (earth, air, fire and water) but quintessence, a fifth
substance whose natural state of motion was to circle the Earth. This topic presents the
results of the revolution in the 16th and 17th centuries in which Isaac Newton built
upon the work of such famous people as Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Descartes.’

Newton’s three laws of motion may be stated as:

r— Terms & definitions—
An isolated system is one on 1. A body's velocity will be constant unless a force acts upon it.
which no external forces act and 2. The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the resultant
no particles enter or leave. force acting upon it.
3. If a body A exerts a force on body B, then B exerts an equal and opposite force on A.
r— Terms & definitions—
These laws are often referred to as N1, N2 and N3 for brevity.
An alternative statement of
Conservation of Momentum is: The principle (law) of conservation of momentum states:
The vector sum of the momenta of
the bodies in a system is constant e The vector sum of the momenta of the bodies in an isolated system is constant.
provided there is no resultant
In fact these four statements are not indpendent; the third law (N3) can be derived
force from outside the system.
from N2 and conservation of momentum. Notice that these laws are framed in terms
of velocity, momentum and force. We shall start with momentum.

1.3.1 Momentum
The momentum,p, of a body was defined by Newton by
p=m,
where v is the velocity of the body and m is the mass. Mass Is a scalar quantity which is a
measure of the the body's inertia. Inertial mass is assumed to be independent of velocity.

The principle of conservation of momentum deals with a system of particles which is free
of outside influences, |.e. it does not gain or lose particles and is not subject to forces from
the outside. We can also apply it in the case where there are external forces but they sum

—@
to zero, so there is no resultant force.

In the laboratory, we often investigate momentum changes using riders on air tracks.
Self-test A rider sits on a cushion of air so that:
Calculate pfor: : ~ steady speed
e There is zero resultant vertical force ay
(a) A 1000 kg car with a speed of
20m s1, because the upward force on the rider due
(b) The Earth in its orbit
to air pressure is equal and opposite to the
(M, = 6.0 x 10 kg, orbital speed downward gravitational force and
= 30 km/s). e There is zero frictional force on the rider and
the force due to air resistance is very small. Fig. 1.3.1 Air track

1 The effect cof Newton on our understa nding of theway that objects move cannot be overstated. In the words of Alexander
Pope's epitaph for him, ‘Nature and nature's laws lay hid in night; God said “Let Newton be!” and all was light.’
 Bhigete
teenlerss

Hence we can consider a collection of riders (usually two) on the air track to constitute a,

an almost isolated system. A single rider moving at low speed is seen to travel at very
ee

close to constant velocity, in line with Newton's 1st law (N1). eae caceama -
Momentum is an experimental law.
; In countless millions of interactions

a) When colliding objects stick together

Pe ie . 7
Hat pesatiels api Cs
which physicists have investigated,

broken.
Fig. 1.3.2 shows two collisions on the air track which are used by teachers in the
classroom to illustrate the principle. These collisions, in which the objects combine
on impact, are called inelastic collisions. For illustration purposes the velocities are
deliberately idealised! The riders are identical, so their masses are the same — say 0.15 kg.
Before After

6cm s-! 3cms"!

ne
A eS ® @ 6 @ ®
@ @ s e @' ®

2ems! :
he
Self-test
aie) once rd Use the same method to show
that momentum is conserved in
collision B.
Fig. 1.3.2 Inelastic collisions

Assuming the riders each have a mass of 0.15 kg, the momenta before and after the
r— Terms & definitions—j
collisions, Dp, and pz, are for collision A:
‘Momenta’ is the plural of
Pp, =9.15 kg x6 cms! +0.15 kgx0=0.90 kg cms" momentum.

pra Os0kes3 cms = 0:90 ke ems. r— Terms & definitions

The momenta before and after are the same. Of course, the actual mass of the riders is The kinetic energy of a body is its
irrelevant as long as they are all the same. energy by virtue of its motion and
is given by AMv?.

b) When colliding objects bounce apart

lf we mounted repelling magnets on the riders we might observe collision C in Fig. 1.3.3.
There are two differences from A and B:

e There is movement in both directions.

e The riders move apart after the collision.

This could be performed, for example, by mounting repelling magnets on the riders so
that no physical contact occurs between them.

6cm s! 0 : 2ems! 4cms"! x ;

c (a) Show that the 50% of the KE is

ose bis ae lost in collision A.
(b) Calculate the percentage loss in
KE in collision B.
Fig. 1.3.3 Elastic collision

Just as with motion under gravity (Section 1.2) we need to define a positive direction.
Let’s choose right as the positive direction.

Then: jE = 0.15 kg x6cm s!+0.15 kg x 0 = 0.90 kg cm s"! aac the minus sign (—) in a
calculation of p>. The left-hand
Py) = 0.15 kg x (-2) cm s+ + 0.30 kg x 4.cm s! = 0.90 kg cm s7. rider is moving to the left, so
v=—2ems,
The example shows how to apply the principle to calculate a final velocity.
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

Example
—€& Gelf-test An empty wagon of mass 1000 kg travelling at 6 m s“ to the right collides with a full
Show the calculations for p, and p,
in Fig. 1.3.4 with left as the positive
wagon of mass 4000 kg travelling at 2 m s“! in the opposite direction If they couple on
direction. impact, calculate their common velocity after the collision.
Before collision After collision
Step 1: a ae
Diagram: secre ae res
_ Inthe example: 2000
Fig. 1.3.4
(a) Remember that the momenta are
vectors, Step 2: CoM equation: sum of initial momenta = sum of final momenta
_ (b) State the direction as well as the
_ Magnitude of the velocity. Step 3: Taking right as positive: 1000 x 6 + 4000 x (-2) = 5000v

Step 4 — Solving this .v=-0.8ms!

Answer “. The common velocity is 0.8 m s"! to the left.

Note that in calculating KE, only
the magnitude of the velocity is -
rtant, not the direction. This is
y)? isthe same as v2.
1.3.2 Elastic and inelastic collisions
Three of the collisions in Section 1.3.1 were inelastic: collision A, B and the example.
Self-test These collisions result in a loss of kinetic energy. Note the word kinetic. Energy |s
Show that the initial and final always conserved but it can be transferred from one object to another or one form into
kinetic energies in collision C are another. You should be able to show that that the collision in the example above results
lool 22 7/< IOS Ay in a loss of 24.4 kJ of kinetic energy (from 26 kJ to 1.6 kJ).

If you've done Self-test 1.3.5 you'll have shown no kinetic energy is lost in collision C
on page 37. This kind of collision is called an elastic (or sometimes a perfectly
r— Terms & definitions—— elastic) collision. Contact collisions between macroscopic objects, |.e. objects you
An elastic collision is one in can see, such as tennis balls and cars always involve some loss of kinetic energy — It
which no kinetic energy is lost. is transferred to the vibrational energy of the molecules of the objects. Low energy
collisions between subatomic particles or between molecules of monatomic gases at
room temperature are usually elastic. Collisions between hard spheres such as snooker
balls will typically preserve 90% of the kinetic energy.

_ ~ Study point — Elastic collisions are more difficult to analyse than inelastic ones because there are two
unknown velocities. We need to solve simultaneous equations.
Conservation of momentum doesn't
only apply to collisions. It also
applies to situations where one
object ejects another, such as a Example
nucleus emitting an o particle or a
gun firing a bullet. The momentum The collision in the diagram Is elastic. Find v, and v5.
is zero before the event, so the total
momentum is zero afterwards. Before After
u=12ms! 0 ao oe
v m M y
<—— ei*@->
6 ® ® —
So: mv = MV. If we know the total
energy, E then we can write
ene vee Fig. 1.3.5
Yamy2 + 'AMV2 = E Momentum before the collision =2 x 12+4x0=24Ns
and solve the equations for v and V.
.. Using the principle of conservation of momentum: 2v,+4y, =24 [1]

Kinetic energy before the collision Stax 2x 127x420 = 144)

.. Using conservation of energy VaR ZKV + 2x4 xX Voo S44

“. Simplifying V7 +2y,? = 144 [2]

Solving equations 1 and 2 for v,, gives v, = 0 or 8 m s"!. We can ignore the 0 because
that clearly represents a ‘no collision’ [i.e. the 2 kg ball has missed!] so v, = 8 m s/.
Substituting in [1] gives v, =-4 m s-!, i.e. 4 ms"! to the left: the lower mass ball has _Ifv, -v, = 12 ms“! (Gee text
bounced back (as we might have expected). ~ undemeath the example), we can
use this as equation 2 instead. This
Notice that in this collision the balls separate at the same rate (12 m s~!) after the collision ~ makes the solution easier. Check this
as they collided. This is typical of elastic collisions and we can use this fact to simplify the by solving:
calculation of vy, and v,. See Stretch & challenge. ByAy, =24 iil
Sy in 12 el oile.

1.3.3 Force and momentum

The cricketer in Fig. 1.3.6 is playing a hook shot. The ball, which was originally moving
rapidly towards him, is suddenly moving sideways even more rapidly. The change of
momentum, Ap, is illustrated in Fig. 1.3.7.

Fig. 1.3.7 DP, Fig. 1.3.6

We know (Newton's 1st law — N1) that an object's velocity and therefore its momentum > Je
stays constant in the absence of a force. So this change of momentum occurs because ee :
something, in this case the bat, applies a force to the ball. If several forces act on an object, it is
the resultant force, F,., = X2F which
Newton's 2nd law (N2), says that the resultant force applied is ‘directly proportional to the is equal to 2
rate of change of momentum’. In SI, we define the rate of change of momentum as equal
to the force expressed in newtons, |.€.
DN fee ee ae
Ap Ap _ y Study a point .
fe At
Ol a At The first law is just a special case of
the second law:

where At is the duration of the force. If ze= 0 then F,,, = 0,

so the momentum is constant.
Example
A cricket ball has a mass of 0.16 kg. Its speed hitting the bat is 30 m s“, it turns through
a right angle, leaves the bat at 40 m s*! and the duration of the impact is 1.5 ms. Self-test

Calculate the magnitude of the mean force exerted by the bat on the ball. Ap
Use the equation F = ae
Answer to show that ‘Ns’ is a unit of
momentum.
Using Fig. 1.3.7 above: p,=0.16x30=4.8Ns
pr, =9.16x 40=6.4Ns

Ap =yp; t+py =8.0Ns

ewes ee ee s00N Os)

AP ei

Just as the gradient of a v-t graph is the acceleration of an object, the gradient of the
momentum-time graph is the resultant force upon it.

This is because F' = ay and ep is the gradient of the p-t graph.

At At
 Study the p-t graph for a car moving east along a straight road and braking to rest
Self-test (Fig. 1.3.8). Now answer Self-test 1.3.7.
The sloping straight line in momentum/ 3()
Fig. 1.3.8 is the tangent at 15 s. KN s to east
Use the graph to find:
(a) The (constant) resultant force on
the car from 0- 10 s.
(b) The resultant force at 15 s.
(c) The maximum braking force.

80
time /s
Fig. 1.3.8 Momentum-time graph for Self-test 1.3.7

e 1.3.4 Momentum and Newton’s

3rd law of motion
A
eS As promised in the introduction we are going to show that N3 is a consequence of the
principle of conservation of momentum and the definition of a force from N2. Fig. 1.3.9
Fig. 1.3.9 Body A exerts a force on B shows two isolated bodies, A and B. A exerts a force on B, which we'll call Fag. This is
drawn as a repulsive force but it could act in any direction.

Consider a small time interval Ar. From N2, body B suffers a change in momentum, Apz
given by:

DN oP Ly VANE
understand what it is saying: Pp AB
All forces arise from interactions But, if the bodies are isolated, their total momentum, pa + Pz IS Constant so body A must
between two bodies. Inthe _ suffer an equal and opposite momentum, Apa, i.e.
interaction, both bodies experience a
force. These two forces are equal and Nis Sih AT
opposite. PA AB
Because the momentum of A has changed it must have a force on it, which can only be
exerted by B (because the bodies are isolated). Then F’,,, the force exerted by B on A, is
given by:

Fag Vs —F xp (from above).

600 .N =
air resistance
In other words, the force exerted by body B upon body A is equal and oppositely directed
to the force exerted by body A upon body B. Let's consider the common examiner's
standby of a falling skydiver. The forces acting on the skydiver at a particular instant are
shown in Fig. 1.3.10.

We analyse this in terms of N3 and look for the equal and opposite force to each force in
the diagram.

1. The 800 N weight: This is the gravitational force that the Earth exerts on the skydiver,
So the skydiver exerts an equal and opposite gravitational force on the Earth. The
Earth is pulled (upwards) by an 800 N force!
[The mass of the Earth is 6 x 1074 kg so its acceleration is rather small!]
Fe 13-10 The skyciver 2. The 600 N air resistance: This is the drag of the air molecules on the clothing as
the skydiver plummets down. So (the clothing of) the skydiver exerts an equal and
opposite drag force (i.e. 600 N downwards) on the molecules of air, which doubtless
causes some air turbulence.
 Dynamics

The N3 trap: not all equal and opposite forces 20 N force

exerted by
arising are N3 pairs! sea lion on

Fig. 1.3.11 shows a sea lion holding up a ball. The ball is in equilibrium under the action the ball B20 .N force
— exerted by
of the two labelled equal and opposite forces. ) the Earth
on the ball
Why aren’t they an N3 pair? There are two reasons:

1. They act on the same body (the ball). In an N3 pair, there are two bodies: one force
acts on one body; the other force acts on ... the other!

2. The forces are not of the same kind.* The force exerted by the Earth on the ball is
gravitational, so the other member of its N3 partner must also be gravitational (it is, as
Fig. 1.3.11 Equal and opposite forces
with the skydiver, the gravitation force of the ball on the Earth).
but not N3!
3. [Additional reason] N3 is a universal law. There must always be an equal and opposite
force. Imagine the sea lion quickly whipping its head out from under the ball: the
downward force is still there but the upward force has disappeared — so they can’t
have been an N3 pair! upward force on the ball arises from
the repulsion between the molecules
*Think about reason 2. What ‘kinds’ of forces are there? Physicists recognise four of the ball and the sea lion’s nose. It
fundamental forces: the strong nuclear force; the weak force; the electromagnetic is definitely not gravitational; in fact
it is electromagnetic — caused by the
force and the gravitational force. The first two are only of significance for subatomic
repulsion of the outer electrons in
particle interactions so all other forces are gravity and electromagnetic. The forces the molecules of the ball and nose
between the molecules of the ball and sea lion nose are electromagnetic — they are which are in close proximity.
caused by repulsion of the outer electrons in the molecules in the ball and nose which
are In close proximity.

Don’t worry about this last point — any legitimate way of describing a force must also apply
to its N3 partner, e.g. the sea lion exerts an inter-atomic force on the ball, so the ball
exerts an inter-atomic force on the sea lion.

Example — A difficult example of N2 and N3

Most exam questions are about forces on single objects. We can also apply the equation

ces Ap to streams of objects, e.g. water in a pipe.

At
Water flows at a rate of V [in m3 s~!] through the nozzle shown in Fig. 1.3.12. Calculate
the force that the water exerts on the nozzle.
Self-test
Answer In the hose nozzle example, if
the water flows at 20 dm3 s“!,
The mass flow rate, m = pV, where p is the density of the water. A, =20 cm? and A, = 10 cm?,
could you hold the nozzle?

eine
The initial velocity, v,; = ue the final velocity, v.= £ [1 dm3 = 107-3 m3
1 2 p= 1000 kg m>. J
Ap of water = m(v,-v,)
.. —£ = pV
A, A, AA
2 ] A A
At

As A, <A, v2 > v; So this change of momentum is to the right.

Self-test
So, by N2, the force exerted on the water by the nozzle is P| oat to the right.
| With the above data, what is the
increase in the KE of the water per
Ad Aj
second? How is this supplied?

So, by N3, the force exerted on the nozzle by the water is pr| ues to the left.
Ar Aj
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

1.3.5 Forces between materials in

contact
Forces arise between objects due to molecular interactions. We shall consider some of these
forces: the normal force, friction and air resistance. This section links to Section 1.4.5.
the normal reaction. This sounds too
much like part of a poor statement of
Newton's 3rd law! (a) The normal force, Fy
lf an object rests against a surface, the surface exerts a force on the object. This force
arises because the molecules in the two bodies are placed in close contact. If molecules
are close together the electrons in the outer shells repel one another and so, in this case,
the bodies experience a force at right angles to the surface. The word ‘normal is used to
mean ‘at 90°.

(b) Friction
The box on the slope in Fig. 1.3.13 will remain
stationary on the slope as long as the gradient is not
too great. This can only be because a force acts on the W cos@
Fig. 1.3.13 Normal contact force
box up the slope which counteracts the component of
examples
the weight, W cos 6, down the slope, see Fig. 1.3.14.
This force is called static friction, Fg, or grip.
Fig. 1.3.14 Static friction

Pam, dipne ca Soca ct res 5

This force acts to stop the two surfaces sliding over each other, i.e. it opposes relative
_ w Study poir Sef motion. For the stationary box, Fp= Wcos @, i.e. the friction is just big enough to stop
Static and dynamic fiction oppose motion. Fp has a maximum value, often called /imiting friction. |n the case of the box on
relative motion between surfaces. If the slope, if the slope is gradually made steeper, the value of Fp will increase up to this
a surface would slide to the night, the limiting value; at greater angles, W cos @> FRand the box will start to accelerate down
frictional force on it is to the left.
the slope. Grip arises from bonds between molecules of the two surfaces in contact.

The force which opposes the relative motion when one surface slides over another is also
—ED Qelf-test called friction — in this case dynamic friction. |t arises from temporary bonds which form
as molecules in the surfaces move past one another. When they stretch and break, the
Sand is fed vertically onto a
horizontal conveyor belt which is stored energy in the bonds is converted to vibrational energy of the molecules, i.e the
moving towards the nght. In which temperatures of the bodies increase. The value of dynamic friction is typically smaller
direction does the friction act on than the limiting value of grip. This means that once an object starts to slide, it usually
(a) the sand and (b) the belt?
accelerates rather than just moving very slowly.
Explain your answers.

(c) Air resistance

Air resistance, is one example of viscous drag, or just drag. As with friction it opposes
relative motion between the object and the fluid [= liquid or gas] through which the object
is moving. It also exists when the fluid flows past a stationary object, e.g. the wind on a
building. The mechanism of viscous drag is complicated but a simplification is that the
molecules of a fluid bounce off a moving object slightly faster than they hit it: they gain
velocity in the direction that the object is moving. So there is a momentum transfer to the
fluid — and momentum transfer means a force on the fluid in the direction of the object's
Fig. 1.3.15 Viscous drag
motion. By N3 the fluid exerts an equal and opposite force on the body.

The drag force, Fy, is given by the following equation:' Fy, = 4pv?c,4, where p is the
density of the fluid and cy is a dimensionless quantity called the drag coefficient, which
1.3.11 Self test
depends upon the shape of the object. You do not need to know this equation but you
Show that cy has no units (..e. it is should know that Fy increases with the area of the object, the velocity and the density
dimensionless).
of the fluid.

1 Stokes' formula onpage11isapplicable only at low speeds.

 iDhigatctent
lars

1.3.6 Free-body diagrams

An ae 5 air resistance is to
Drawing a free-body diagram is useful in identifying the forces which are on interacting transfer energy from the moving
objects. Let’s go back to the sea lion and her ball. See Fig. 1.3.16(a). body to the molecules of air, as
kinetic energy.
N3 pairs are drawn in matching colours but identifying them is still quite difficult, not least
because lots of them overlap. To make the forces easier to identify, we take each object
in the diagram and separate it from the others. We'll isolate the sea lion and the forces
acting on it — see Fig. 1.3.16(b).
Fig. 1.3.16 Forces on a sea lion
Now the forces are much easier to identify: and her ball!

1. Contact force of ball on sea lion.

2. Gravitational force of Earth on sea lion.

3. Contact force of ground on back flipper of sea lion

—at right angles to the slope.

4. Contact force of ground on front flipper of sea lion

— at right angles to the slope.

5. Frictional force of ground on back flipper of sea lion

— up the slope.

6. Frictional force of ground on front flipper of sea lion — up the slope. | Self-test ep a)
Identify the N3 partner to each force,
1-6, on the sea lion in Fig, 1.3.16.

1.3.7 Force and acceleration

When Newton’s second law of motion is applied to a single body with constant mass,
acted on by a number of forces, the equation is often written in the form: | Self-test
Draw a free-body diagram for the
Wh EET: ball in Fig. 1.3.16(a) and identify the
forces.
We can derive this from F' = Ap as follows:
At
By definition, p = my, .. Ap = A(my) = mAv because m is constant.

Note that a and {=F are vectors and

aes Ap = m AY . But Av = nd mis a scalar (> 0) so the direction of
At hay At the acceleration is the same as that
of the resultant force.
We can re-arrange this as a = a
m

So, in words, the acceleration of an object is the resultant force acting on it divided by its
inertial mass.

Example
Calculate the acceleration of the body in Fig. 1.3.17

Step 1: Calculate the resultant force:

Fg. Leuh7 aie ie

From the force diagram F,., =v 8? +ape=14.4N

8 12N
and @ = tan
aye eae
ce 3307.
e Menge 2°
et Lene oan roe
oe
Acceleration isavector so,ifasked
foranacceleration,youshould
Step 2: Calculate the acceleration: Ge Pres=as =5./6 1m s*. - normally give a direction as well ee
a
m ;
oe
Answer: The acceleration is 5.76 m s~ at 33.7° to the 12 N force (see Exam tip).
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

1.3.8 Gravitational force’

It is an experimental fact that if an object falls freely, i.e. in the absence of air resistance,
its acceleration is independent of its mass, density or shape. The classic ‘guinea and
vacuum feather’ illustration of this is shown in Fig. 1.13.19. This is a modern version of Galileo’s
famous thought experiment, in which he imagined dropping two cannon balls of different
masses from the top of the Leaning Tower of Pisa. US Apollo 15 astronaut, David Scott,
repeated this experiment live on the Moon in 1971 using a hammer and a feather; more
recently Brian Cox used a NASA facility to show the same experiment — you can find
videos of these using a Search engine.

The acceleration of free fall is given the symbol g for (gravity) and is also known as
the ‘acceleration due to gravity’. It value on the surface of the Earth is approximately
9.81 m s~%, though this depends on the location because of the shape of the Earth and
height of the terrain.

Consider a falling object of mass m. Its acceleration is g, so N2 tells us that the

Fig. 1.3.19 gravitational force on it, which we call its weight, W, is given by
Guinea and
feather Wang,

The following example illustrates the use of W= mgin conjunction with other concepts,
7 Pa et
which we have already met.
Study point
We can rearrange the equation

W=mg,as g= W ,s0N kg"! Example

m
Fig. 1.3.20 shows a box accelerating down a slope. F’, the frictional force has a value
can be used as the unit of g. If
N kg-! is used, ¢ is referred to as the which is 0.3C, where C is the normal contact force. Calculate:
gravitational field strength — it gives Dies
the force per unit mass on a body (a) the minimum value of @ for the box to accelerate down the slope,
placed in the gravitational field.
(b) the acceleration of the box if 0= 20°. [Take g = 9.81 m s?]
G

(a) There is no motion perpendicular to the slope so the resultant force in this
direction is O,

. (Resolving perpendicular to the slope): C = mg cos 6

But OSC F=0.3 mg cos 0

ae The component of W down the slope =W sin @=mg sin @

Fig. 1.3.20 Accelerating box on a slope “. The resultant force, Xf’, down the slope = mg sin 0- 0.3 mg cos 6

= mg (sin 0- 0.3 cos @)

The box can only accelerate if LF’ > 0. .. sin @> 0.3 cos 0
ED Qolf-test
sin 0
Calculate the acceleration of a ; =tan @.. tan @>0.3 .. 6 must be at least 16.7° (0.29 rad)
cyclist who is freewheeling down COs
a 10° slope. The mass of the cyclist
and bike is 75 kg; the resistance
force is 50 N.
(b) At 20°, XF down the slope = mg (sin 20°- 0.3 cos 20°) = 0.590m.

“. Using mal the acceleration is 0.590 m s2.

m

1 Thissection links toSection 1.2.3(c)

 iDaigatcueenters)

Your sensation of weight is not the same as the force of gravity on you. It arises
from the compression of your body between the force of gravity, which is distributed
through your body, and the upward contact force on you from the ground. Hence an
astronaut in the /nternational Space Station has no sensation of weight. When you are
in a lift, your apparent weight depends upon the motion of the lift. Our final example 2
illustrates this effect.

Example
A man of mass 85 kg is standing on a bathroom scales whilst in a lift, which is
accelerating upwards at 1.5 m s~, as shown in Fig. 1.3.21.

(a) Calculate the upward force, U, exerted by the scales on the man.

(b) The scales measure this upward force but their reading, R, is in kg, which relates
to U by:

Ua Ke: Fig. 1.3.21

What is the reading on the scales?
Answer

a) Wes ing = 85 9.81 = $33.9 N. Self-test

What would be the reading on the
From NZ: 2F md. «. ~833.9=85« 15=127.5N scale if the lift were accelerating
downwards at 1.5 m s2?
“, U= 127.5 + 833.9 = 961.4 N [= 961 N to3sf.] What would be the result on the
Moon (g = 1.5 m s~2)?
(Ro Lt on ake
go 9

Motion under gravity and air resistance

If the ‘guinea and feather’ in Fig. 1.3.19 are dropped in air, the former reaches the ground
first. Whereas the feather appears to drift downwards at a constant speed, the coin
accelerates all the way down.

The acceleration of falling objects, such as the guinea, the feather or a skydiver is
determined by the resultant force on them. The two significant forces are:

e The weight, W, which is a constant for objects close to the Earth.

e Air resistance, Fy, which varies according to Fy = 4p v?c4A — see Section 1.3.5(c).
Fig. 1.3.22 Guinea and parachute
Fig. 1.3.23 shows the effect of this combination of forces for a skydiver.

(Fig. 1.3.22) would drift downwards

after an initial acceleration.

Fig. 1.3.23 Air resistance on a skydiver

 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

—&>
If we assume, to a first approximation, thatp,the air density, is constant, the only significant
Self-test variables which affect ’, are v and A, so the resultant force (F,,, or ZF’) is given by:
Sketch a y-t graph for the skydiver F_., = mg —Yapv?cgA
on the assumption that the air
density increased as the skydiver
descended. Justify your answer. Acceleration, a = Fes “ a=g-kAv (where k= 4 a constant)
m 2m
Hint: Concentrate on section BC.
So, to take the descent in stages:

— & Self-test
OB AtO, v=0so the acceleration, a = g. As the skydiver speeds up, Fy increases so
F.,.and
Tes
a decrease. At B, F, = mg, the two forces balance, so F’,,, = 0 and a = 0.
The velocity is constant = v, in Fig. 1.3.23. This is called a terminal velocity.
Assuming that c, = 1, estimate the
terminal velocity, v,, of a skydiver. BC Assuming the density of the air stays constant, F', is constant so the skydiver
Take p,i, = 1 kg m™3. State your continues to fall at vy.
assumptions for other quantities.
C The parachute opens: A increases (massively); Fy increases so F,., « 0 and so
a <0, i.e. the skydiver very rapidly decelerates.
CD As the speed decreases, F, decreases («v2) until once again F,,, = 0 and soa = 0.
This is the second terminal velocity, v5.
DE As BC (at velocity v, this time).
EF Contact with ground. The ground exerts a large upward force on the skydiver. F’., iS
now large and upwards. It quickly reduces the speed to O.

1.3.9 Investigating Newton’s 2nd

law of motion
The rider on an air track consists
of two flanges at 90° to each other In A Level Physics, this normally involves demonstrating that experimental results are
on either side of the track. A blower consistent with F’ = ma, which means that
pumps air into the track. This
escapes through holes and the nder e Forconstant mass:a * F
sits on this cushion of air.
e For constant force: a « zt
50 g masses m
can be added
to spigots on In order to investigate these relationships, a preliminary experiment is useful, to show that
each flange. a constant force on an object produces a constant acceleration. This lets us subsequently
measure accelerations with just three variable measurements, with the help of the
equations of motion:
Fig. 1.3.24
x=ut+ Yat? and v2 =u? + 2ax
It also establishes the general technique.
Technique 1
increasing the accuracy The apparatus normally used in school is the air track, a hollow, triangular-section tube
If a broader light shield is used, the with air holes. Air is pumped in and metal riders are held above the track by a cushion of
time for the shield to pass through air which escapes from the air holes (see Detail). Fig. 1.3.25 shows the setup.
the light gate is increased. The timer
is usually a millisecond timer. The
greater the time, f, the lower the e=5 x

uncertainty in y. Light |Har Light low-friction

air holes eae |
| Light shield gate 2 pulley
poeeerm—=4
beewnnns
thin thread

mm scale low mass

object
Fig. 1.3.25 Air track used for F= ma e.g.22
 Bhigatebaan
lors

The accelerating force is provided by the gravitational force on the ‘low mass object’ and
transmitted along the thin thread to the rider. Results: x = 2.5 cm.

Experiment 1: showing that a constant force gives a constant acceleration ~” =on

Technique 1: Using only one light gate, light gate 2 (LG2) 40 62
e Release the rider from rest and use the light gate (LG2) and electronic timer to 60 51
measure the time, Az, taken for the light shield of width Ax, to cut off the light. 80 45

e Use the equation v = = to calculate the velocity, v, acquired by the rider after 100 AO

travelling a distance, x, from rest. Show that the acceleration is

constant and find its value.
e Repeat for a series of distances.
Data analysis: technique 2
e Draw a graph of v againstx. If the acceleration is constant, v and x are related by Racuia
v? = u? + 2ax, so the graph should be a straight line through the origin (w = 0).
The gradient is 2a, allowing a to be calculated. x7 Cn At/ms |

Measurements: x, the distance between the position of the midpoint of the light shield 10 148
at the start and at the light gate; Ar; Av. 29 268
Technique 2: Using two light gates: Release the rider to the left of LG1; set the timer to 40 3H
record the time, f, to travel the distance, x, between LG1 and LG2. Varyx and repeat. 70 4715
© 100 5/5
x=ut+ at, «.- =u+t Yat. A graph of x against t should be a straight line of 140 684
t
gradient ’Za if a is constant. Show that the acceleration is
constant and find its value.

Experiment 2: Showing that acceleration is proportional to force

We vary the accelerating force by suspending a series of low mass objects from the Experiment 2 analysis
end of the thread, e.g. 2 g,5 g, 7g, 10g, 12 g, 15 g. Alternatively, we can just use Calculate the acceleration for each
numbers of paper clips or other objects of uniform mass. We measure
5
the acceleration NCSC apirente Nek MSEC
plot a graph of a against m. It should
for each of these accelerating masses using the method of technique 1 above with one here ae :
light gate (LG2) and a suitable value of x (the larger the better).
a

Problem: How do we keep the mass of the system constant? This is not quite as easy
as it sounds because the small mass on the end of the thread forms part of the mass
which is accelerating.

Solution: We take all the masses we intend to use as the weight on the thread, and
load them onto the rider. If we put any of these, e.g. a 5 g mass, onto the end of the
m
thread, the total mass stays constant but the accelerating force will be determined by
mg hanging on the thread. Experiment 3 analysis
Calculate the acceleration for
each value of the total mass,
Experiment 3: Showing that acceleration is inversely proportional to mass remembering to include the mass
on the thread on the thread. Plot a
We vary the mass, M, of the system by adding or subtracting pairs of 50 g masses graph ofaagainst _L. It should be as
to the rider. The rider itself typically has a mass of ~150 g and will take up to an follows:
additional 300 g. .

The force is kept constant by keeping the accelerating weight on the thread the same.
We must remember to include its mass in the total mass of the system.

Again we use technique 1 to measure the acceleration over a suitably large x.

WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

Two objects, A and B, have masses, 20 kg and 30 kg, and speeds, 25 m s-! and 10 m s~! respectively.
Calculate the total momentum of the objects if:

(a) Aand B are both travelling to the right,

(b) A is travelling to the right and B is travelling to the left,
(c) A is travelling due North and B is travelling due East.

Calculate the total kinetic energy for the bodies in question 1.

On an air track, two riders together travelling at 6 cm s~! collide inelastically with a third identical rider at
rest. The common velocity after the collision is 4 em s-!. Show that this is as predicted by the principle of
conservation of momentum.

Calculate the fraction of the initial kinetic energy which is lost in the collision in question 3.

A car of mass 1300 kg travelling at 40 m s~! collides head on with a second car of mass 1200 kg
travelling at 20 ms"! and they stick together. Calculate

(a) the total momentum before the collision and

(b) their velocity immediately after the collision. What have you assumed?

A neutron travelling at 1200 m s~! collides with a stationary U-238 nucleus and is absorbed. Estimate the
speed of the resulting U-239 nucleus. You may assume that protons and neutrons have the same mass.

Samarium-147 undergoes a decay. The a particles of mass 6.68 x 10°?’ kg are ejected at
1.00 x 107 m s+, leaving ' Nd nuclei of mass 2.39 x 10-5 kg. Calculate
(a) the recoil velocity of the nuclei and
(b) the kinetic energy released in the decay.

Find the resulting velocities if the objects in question 1 collide elastically head on.

A football of mass 450 g and is kicked at 30 m s~! against a wall at right angles. It rebounds at 25 ms.
If the duration of the collision is 0.04 s calculate the mean force which the ball exerts on the wall. Explain
your answer clearly in terms of N2 and N3.

Two forces of magnitude 5 N and 12 N are simultaneously applied to a body of mass 1.55 kg. The
directions at which the forces act can be varied.

(a) Calculate the magnitudes of the maximum and minimum accelerations.

(b) Calculate the acceleration of the object if the two forces act at right angles to each other.

The diagram shows an air track set up. The chord joining the 40 g mass and the rider has a tension, 7.

(a) Calculate the weight, W, of the small mass.

(b) Write equations in terms of 7 for the acceleration of
(i) the 40 g mass and
(ii) the 200 g rider.
(c) Solve the two equations and hence determine the acceleration, a.
 1Dhigetebentlors

The tension, 7, in the longbow string is 4700 N. The mass of the arrow
is 0.065 kg.

(a) Calculate the acceleration of the arrow.

(b) The arrow leaves contact with the string after 70 cm. Estimate the
speed with which it leaves the bow. State your assumption. T

The diagram shows the flight of a thrown ball.

Draw free body diagrams for the ball in each of the 3 positions

(a) without air resistance,

(b) with air resistance.

A student obtained a set of results to demonstrate that a constant force produces a constant
acceleration, using technique 2 (Section 1.3.9).

x/em 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 SOO cs, 60.0

t/s 0.45 0.74 1.00 bg, 1.38 155

The suspended mass, m, was 5.0 g. By drawing a suitable graph, use the results

(a) to show that the acceleration is constant,

(b) to calculate the acceleration, a, and
(c) to determine the mass, M, of the rider.

The uncertainty in each of the times in question 14 is estimated to be +0.02 s.

The uncertainties in x and m are negligible. Add error bars to your graph and estimate the
uncertainties in a and M.
a 1.4 Energy concepts
The concept of energy is one which physicists developed over a long period, between
the late 17th and the early 20th centuries. Unlike momentum, which is a vector
r— Terms & definitions—j quantity and only conserved if there are no external forces, energy is a scalar quantity.
The first type of energy to be identified was kinetic energy —the energy due to motion.
Work is done when a force moves
An object that possesses energy can cause events to happen, which means that it can
its point of application.
make things move. For example, an asteroid hitting the Earth can cause a large crater
to be formed — moving huge quantities of material (and finishing off the dinosaurs
r— Terms & definitions—, in the process). We shall refine these ideas in this section of the book and start by
Energy is the ability to do work. considering the work done by a force.
The unit of work is the joule (J).

1.4.1 Work and energy

aa If a force moves something, we say that the force does work. For example, the following
+ Be forces are doing work:
The force exerted by an electric winch which pulls a car out of a ditch.
100N The force exerted by the wind which turns a turbine connected to a dynamo.
The force exerted by an archer’s muscles when he draws a bow.
The force exerted by the archer’s bow when it straightens up and shoots the arrow.

You'll recognise that all these examples need something to drive them, unlike, for
example, the force exerted by a table in holding up a book or the force exerted by a nail
Fig. 1.4.1 Work done which holds up a shelf. In these last two examples there is no motion, So no work is done
— and there is no need of any ‘input’ to keep the objects in place. We use the concept of
work to define energy.

r-— Terms & definitions— The work done by a force is defined as follows:

The internal energy of an Work done - Force x Distance moved in the

object is total energy (KE + PE) (J) (N) direction of the force
possessed by its particles. This (m)
should not be called heat. or, insymbols: W= Fx.

Applying this to Fig. 1.4.1:

_ y Study point — The work done by the 100 N force, W= 100 Nx 50 m=5 000 J (or 5 kJ)
Work _ Energy
done transfer We define energy in such a way that the quantity of energy transferred is equal to the
So,
ifaforce does 5 kJ of work. 5 kJ work done by the force. How is this energy transferred? This depends upon the details.
of energy
is transferred. Various possibilities are shown in Figs 1.4.2 to 1.4.4.

Fig. 1.4.2 Kinetic energy Fig. 1.4.3 Internal energy Fig. 1.4.4 Gravitational potential energy
 Energy concepts

The labels in Figs 1.4.2 to 1.4.4 give the form the energy takes following the transfer. ~ Study point
The crossbow stored energy as elastic potential energy before it is transferred to the
Work is not the only way of
quarrel; in the other two diagrams the energy was previously stored in the muscles by transferring energy. Internal energy
the compound ATP. can be transferred by heat, i.e
conduction, convection or radiation.

Example
A 20 kg load is raised by 5.0 m using a winch as shown in Fig. 1.4.5. The handle of the
winch ts 0.60 m long and the radius of the drum on which the rope is wound is 0.15 m.
A force of 50 N is required to turn the handle. Calculate:

(a) the work done on the 20 kg block and

(b) the work done by the 50 N force

Answer
Fig. LAS
(a) The force needed to raise the load is mg = 20 x 9.81 = 196.2 N Work done using a winch

The work done, W, on the 20 kg block = Fx cos 6

* W= 1962 «5 cos 0° = 980 J (2, sf)

Self-test <>
(b) We need to calculate the distance moved by the 55 N force. The length of the
What is the excess energy in the
handle is 4x the radius of the drum, so the distance moved is 4 x 5m =20 m. example transferred to? [Do not say
heat or sound!]
“. The work done by the 55 N force = 55 x 20 = 1100 J

Note that the work done by the person winding the crank is more than the work done
raising the load. We'll return to this in Section 1.4.5.

1.4.2 Directions of the force and

the displacement
In the examples in the last section the force and displacement were in the same direction.
What if this is not the case?

The tug in Fig. 1.4.6 is pulling at an angle 6 to the direction of motion of the ship.
Force
A The vector diagram shows this more clearly. The distance moved in juaurasR]dsiq
am the direction of the force is AB = Fx cos @. Fig. 1.4.6
\ Motion at
se .. W = Fx cos 0. an angle to
KH F the force
B The expression x cos @ is the component of x in the direction of F’.
ors. Also x cos @ is the component of the force in the direction of the
1 ha ‘\ displacement.
Fig. 1.4.7

So the definition of work done can be written:

Self-test 142) cca
Either; Work _ F Component of displacement
s in the direction of the force Calculate W given the following
done ae
data:

or: Work i Component offorce in the x Displacement F = 500 kN:

done direction of displacement x= leo mim = s5e

We can see that these two ways of writing the work equation give the same answer if we
consider the cyclist on a slope in Fig. 1.4.8.
 EC
i cee
AS Level PhysicUni
s: t1
ie Fe

=
= =
= =
= | =
| |=
= =
= =
= =
= =

!
ae or
ans
~@ =
=

on the slope, the cyclist loses

gravitational potential energy and
900 N
either picks up a lot of speed (i.e.
gains kinetic energy) or the brakes
get very hot — or both! Fig. 1.4.8 Cyclist freewheeling downhill

Using the data in the diagram:

The vertical component of the displacement is 300 sin 15°; the component of the weight
velocity down the slope is 900 sin 15°. So applying the either/or from above:

Either: W = (900 N) x (300 sin 15° m) = 270000 sin 15° J = 70 kJ (2 sf.)

Or: W = (900 sin 15° N) x (300 m) = 270000 sin 15° J = 70 kJ

7 fh \
4 gravitational \
' \ The angle between the force and the displacement in Fig. 1.4.8 was 75°. Here are some
' force 1
| | examples where the angle is 90° or more:
‘ '
\ U
1. Asatellite in a circular orbit. The gravitational force is at right angles to the movement
if the satellite in its orbit. Hence, @= 90°, so W = 0. The gravitational force does no
work! This fits in with the fact that the energy of the satellite is constant — there is no
change in either the potential or kinetic energies. Conclusion: If @= 90°, no work is
done; no energy is transferred.

2. A bullet fired into a tree. The diagram shows the frictional force exerted on the bullet
by the tree. The angle between the motion and the force is 180°. But cos 180° =—1,
so the work done by the force is negative. This negative work means that a negative
energy is transferred to the bullet — hence its kinetic energy decreases, i.e. it slows
down. Conclusion: If 6 > 90°, the work is negative and energy is transferred from
the object.

Fig. 1.4.9 & 1.4.10 Large values of 8

1.4.3 Energy conservation: kinetic

and potential energy
(a) The principle of conservation of energy
Consider the box sliding to a halt on a surface in Fig. 1.4.11. Free body diagrams for
these two objects are shown in Fig. 1.4.12:
Force exerted by
——_ box on surface
Fig. 1.4.11 Interacting objects
F

F eee
ear en aera
Force exerted by
r— Terms & definitions—j surface on box Fig. 1.4.12 Free body diagram

The principle of conservation

of energy: the total energy of From N3, we know that the two objects exert equal and opposite forces, F’, on each
an isolated system is constant other. In a short time Af, the box slides vAt to the right. In this time, the surface does an
though it can be transferred amount of work —F'vAt on the box, reducing its kinetic energy by /vAr .At the same time
within the system. the box does an amount of work +FVAt transferring this quantity of energy (as internal
energy, shared between the surface and the box).
 Hp alo) €@ pigere) 16,2) 0)Rs

Hence the total quantity of energy in the system is constant; i.e. r— Terms & definitions

AE = FvAt- FvAt=0 Kinetic energy is the energy

possessed by a body by virtue of
This illustrates the principle of conservation of energy. its speed.

We shall now use the principle that:

r— Terms & definitions—
Work done = energy transfer
Gravitational potential energy
to derive expressions for kinetic and potential energy. is the energy possessed by a
system of gravitating bodies by
virtue of their separation.
(b) Kinetic energy
A moving object can do work on other objects in coming to rest. Thus it possesses energy
because of its motion. We call this kinetic energy. Its symbol is £,, but it is often just
abbreviated to KE. r— Terms & definitions4
Uu v
Kinetic and potential energies
Consider an object of mass m moving with :
eo & are often grouped together as
velocity uw subject to a force F over a F
mechanical energy.
displacementx as shown in Fig. 1.4.13:
xX

Fand'xareinthesamedirection,..W=Fx. =
Fig. 1.4.13 Deriving the formula for KE
But F = ma ‘. W=max

The 4th kinematic equation for constant acceleration is v? = u? + 2ax.

-, Rearranging, ax = “v2 — Yaw

So substituting for ax above «. W = Yamv* — Yamu

From this equation we see that the work done is the change in the value of the quantity
¥%% mass x velocity2. So, because work done is the same thing as energy transfer, we
conclude that “my is the kinetic energy of a body of mass m travelling with velocity v.

Example
A car of mass 800 kg, travelling at 15 ms" is accelerated by a force of 1200 N over
a distance of 250 m. Calculate the final velocity.

Answer
Self-test
Work done = change in kinetic energy The example can be solved by
using F' = ma to find a and then
z 1200 x 250 = % x 800(v? — 152)«..300000= 400(v2 - 225) using v2 = uw? + 2ax to find v.
Do this and compare the methods.
. Dividing by 400 and rearranging: v? = 750+ 225=975 -v=31.2ms'.

(c) Gravitational potential energy

An object in a raised position can do work on other objects as it descends. Thus it
possesses energy because of its height. We call this gravitational potential energy. The
symbol is E,, or U, but it is often just abbreviated to GPE or PE. Strictly speaking, the
energy IS possessed not by the se on its own but by the Earth-body system: the GPE
depends upon their separation.

As with the kinetic energy, we'll imagine doing work on an object of mass m in such a way
as to increase its GPE by raising it a distance Ah.
mg
This is shown in Fig. 1.4.14. This will be carried out at constant speed, so that there is no
change in kinetic energy. Fig. 1.4.14 Deriving the formula for GPE
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

lf the body is not accelerating, ZF = 0 [Newton’s 1st law]

Unlike kinetic energy, gravitational el Se
potential energy has no obvious
place where E, =); Because only potential energy is changing, no other kinds of energy are involved.

.. By definition, AE, = work done by ew AV)

“. AE, =mgAh
Warning. This equation for AZ’, is only valid for small changes in height. Small? Small
compared with the distance from the centre of the Earth. Because the radius of the Earth
is approximately 6400 km this restriction is not a problem for changes in height within the
atmosphere, even up to Felix Baumgartner’s free fall jump from 39 km!

(d) Elastic potential energy

Elastic objects (e.g. rubber bands, springs, rulers) which are deformed (stretched,
compressed or bent) are able to do work on other objects when they return to their
normal shape. Thus they possess energy because of their deformation. We call this
r— Terms & definitions— elastic potential energy. The symbols used are the same as for gravitational potential
Elastic potential energy is the energy.
energy stored in a body by virtue
When an object is stretched, squashed or bent, the extent of the deformation depends
of its deformation.
upon the applied force. Many objects obey Hooke's law, at least for small deformations.
(See Section 1.5.1.)

Spring
anchor

Extension x

Fig. 1.4.15 Elastic potential energy

The spring constant, k, is defined by F’ = kx, where F is applied force and x the
deformation (e.g. stretch) as shown in Fig. 1.4.15. Calculating the work done by the
A stationary object can only be
varying force is analogous to calculating the displacement from a velocity-time graph: the
stretched or squashed if two forces
are applied in opposite directions. work done is the area under the graph.

“. The work done in stretching the spring, W= Fx.

. Substituting for F from F = kx, W = Vokx?,

If the spring is allowed to relax, it can do work as it does so equal to the work done in

stretching it, so the elastic potential energy is given by vB = Akx.

 I
Energy concepts

Example
A 200 g mass is hung on a spring of constant 15 N m~!, as in Fig. 1.4.16, and dropped.
Calculate:

(a) The distance the mass falls before it comes to rest.

(b) The speed of the mass when it has fallen half this distance.
Answer

(a) Using conservation of energy: Loss in GPE = gain in elastic PE.

Let x be the distance fallen

Then: mex = Kx; x= ee = ee 6a Fig. 1.4.16 Mass on spring

(b) When x = 0.131 m, Kinetic energy = Loss in gravitational PE — gain in elastic PE

r— Terms & definitions+
“. Yamv? = mgx — Yrakx?
Power is the rate of transfer of
energy. Its SI unit is the watt (W)
Putting in the values and rearranging leads to v2 = 1.28, .. v=1.13 ms! which is equivalent to J s~!.

1.4.4 Energy and power Self-test =>

By considering a power of 1 kW and
|
energy transfer a time of 1 hour, find the number of
Power, P, is calculated using Power = or, in symbols, P = -
time joules in 1 kW h.
It is not restricted to energy transfer in the context of mechanical work. For example, a
15 W light bulb transfers 15 J into electromagnetic radiation and internal energy every
second. For many purposes, the watt is a rather small unit, epecially in the context of Cg—
heating. A domestic electric kettle typically has a power of 2-3 kW, a small windfarm
Self-test
might have an installed power of ~10 MW and a typical thermal power station has a
Calculate the energy transferred by a
power of 1-2 GW. A similar approach could be taken with energy (using kJ, MJ, GJ, 2.5 kW electric kettle in 3 minutes.
etc.) but often a different approach is taken:

Rearranging P = :, Energy transfer = Power x time

If we express power in kW and the time in hours, the unit of energy transfer is the
kilowatt-hour (kW h).
British national grid is sensibly
Example expressed in TW h.

A nuclear power reactor has an electrical power output of 1.2 GW. Estimate electrical
energy output in 1 year. Self-test <> c
No. of hours in 1 year = 365.25 days x 24 hours / day = 8766. Express the electrical energy output
of the nuclear reactor in J.
. Electrical energy output = 1.2 GW x 8766 h= 11 000 GWh=11 TWh (2s f.)

If the energy transfer arises from mechanical work, then we can re-write the power
equation as: torone W
Power = Lee =
time t

Consider a force F applied to an object moving at velocity v at an angle 6 to F (see Figure

1.4.17). In time Az, the work done is given by: W = FvAt cos 6
Fig. 1.4.17 Power and velocity
“. Dividing by At Pp au = Fy cos 0

lf F and v are in the same direction, i.e. @=0, then P = Fv

"WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

1.4.5 Dissipative forces and energy’

The formula P = V7is equivalent to 5 ;
P = Fy.The pd, V,drives the current, In Section 1.4.3 we derived the formulae for various forms of energy by considering the
/, similarly to the way F’ drives v, work done against external forces:
e The increase in gravitational potential energy is equal to the work done against the
1.47) force of gravity

as Self-test e The increase in elastic potential energy is equal to the work done against the tension
The drag, F,, on a car is given by within the object when we stretch it.
Fa=0.3p 4%". | The reason that we can do this is that these processes are reversible. If we release the
a Show that the unit of the 0.3 term systems, they will naturally return to their previous states — the energy can transfer in the
190K
opposite direction.
(b) Calculate the power developed
by the engine at 25 m s"!. However, if a force does work by moving an object against a frictional force or
air =1.3 kg m3) aerodynamic drag, the energy that is transferred cannot be recovered in the same way.
This is because the energy is then possessed in an increase in the disordered motion
of the molecules of the system (the internal energy) and generally results in a rise in
temperature. Reversing the process and turning some of the energy of random motion
once more into ordered motion is possible but the efficiency is limited by the 2nd law of
thermodynamics, which is beyond the scope of this course.

The familiar pattern in Fig. 1.4.18 is of the behaviour of water after an object, e.g. a
pebble, is dropped in. A very small fraction of the energy is retained as ordered motion
in the rising of the small water droplets and the spreading ripples. This energy is soon
converted into random motion of water molecules by the action of viscous drag forces.

Fig. 1.4.18 Energy dissipation Looking back to the example in Section 1.4.1 and to Fig. 1.4.5, the work input into the
system is 1100 J but the increase in GPE is only 980 J. This is the usefu/ energy transfer.
The remaining transfer, 120 J, represents a loss of useful energy. We define the efficiency
of the system as the fraction of the energy input which is transferred usefully by the
i Yr D
Prion Je system. This is often expressed as a percentage, i.e.
Theeen n ((eta) is often used for useful energy transfer
efficiency. Efficiency = x 100%
total energy input

study poimt 980 é -

- ' — In the example this becomes: 7 = —— x 100% = 89%
What constitutes useful transfer 1100
depends on the context. The nse in ; Hisee
temperature produced by rubbing In calculations, efficiency Is most SUN IC MNO uIe Sc as a number between 0 and 1
your hands together could be desired (i.e. 0.89 for the winch), with the % figure being reserved for a final communication. In a
output! The ‘waste heat’ from a car chain of energy transfers, the total efficiency is the product of the efficiencies at each stage.
engine can be used to warm the
passengers.
Example
A gas turbine power station, with an electrical power output of 1.0 GW has anhence,
of 60%. It is connected to consumers via a step up transformer (98% efficient), the
national grid (97%) and local distribution network (95%).

Calculate the overall efficiency ee

Useful power output : ean as
SeTot cone Hat ee The power input to the power station is given by

*, Total power input = ee = 1.67 GW

Power delivered to consumers = 1.0 GW x 0.98 x 0.97 x 0.95 = 0.90 GW

0.9 GW.
“. The overall efficiency = = 0.54, i.e. 54%
1.67 GW

1 Seealso Section 1.3.5(b)

and (c)
 Energy concepts

Er 2) ieee eee ene eee

Calculate the kinetic energy of

(a) a car of mass 1200 kg travelling at 30 m s",

(b) a bullet of mass 0.04 kg travelling at 500 ms".
A car of mass 1600 kg, travelling at a speed of 25 ms", brakes uniformly to rest in a
distance of 100 m. Calculate

(a) the initial kinetic energy of the car and

(b) the braking force.
A cyclist and cycle, of joint mass of 85 kg, freewheel from rest down a sloping road of
height 20 m and length (measured along the slope) of 200 m.

(a) Calculate the loss in gravitational potential energy.

(b) Calculate the speed the cyclist would attain in the absence of resistive forces.
(c) The cyclist attains a speed of 10 m s-!. Calculate the mean resistive force acting.

A steel sphere of mass 4 g is pushed against a spring with a

force of 5 N, compressing the spring by 20 cm. Calculate:

(a) The elastic potential energy when the spring is compressed.

(b) The speed the sphere attains when the spring is released.
State your assumptions.

A small heavy sphere is suspended from the ceiling

by a 1.00 m long thread. A horizontal pin, P, is placed
50 cm below the suspension point. The pendulum is
pulled aside to the left by 30° and released. Calculate:

(a) The speed of the sphere at the lowest point.

(b) The greatest angle attained by the pendulum
thread on the right.

Show your reasoning and your working clearly.

A rolling ball possesses kinetic energy in its rotation as well as its translation (forward movement).
The rotational kinetic energy is 28.6% of the total. A ball rolls down a slope of height 1.00 m which
becomes horizontal before ending in a step of height 1.00 m. Calculate the horizontal distance from
the step to the point where the ball hits the ground.

[Note: You can take g = 9.81 m s~ but, in fact, the answer is independent of the value of g! You
should check this algebraically. |

A 60 g arrow is nocked onto a long bow which is drawn a distance of 0.70 m with a maximum draw
force of 650 N. The arrow is fired into the air at an angle of 30° to the horizontal.

(a) Assuming the bow transfers 95% of its potential energy to the arrow and that the draw force is
proportional to the draw distance, calculate the speed given to the arrow.
(b) Neglecting aerodynamic and air resistance effects, calculate the maximum height attained by the
arrow and its range.
™ 1.5 Solids under stress
lf equal and opposite forces are applied to the opposite ends of an object, its
particles (molecules / atoms / ions) will be forced into new equilibrium positions with
respect to one another. The forces can be: (a) compressive, (b) tensile or (c) shear
(see Fig. 1.5.3). The objects are said to be under stress. The forces shown are those
applied externally to the object; by Newton’s 3rd law the object exerts equal and
opposite forces on the external objects.

Fig. 1.5.3 Different types of stress

Transverse waves cannot propagate Bice ies lemme

through gases and liquids because Solids under stress
of their lack of ability to withstand
shear forces — hence the inability of The material of Nelson’s column is clearly under compression from the weight of the
of S-waves to propagate through the
Earth's outer core.
material above, the bungee cord is subject to tensile forces and the rivet is under shear.
The response of different materials to stress is very variable: gases cannot be put
under tension because the molecules are not bound together; liquids and gases cannot
withstand a shear because they have no rigidity to their shape; many engineering
r— Terms & definitions—j materials, e.g. masonry, fracture easily under tension whereas steel is very strong. This
Tension is the force which an section of the book deals with how materials behave under (mainly) tensile forces.
object exerts on external objects
because it is being stretched.

r— Terms & definitions 1.5.1 Hooke's law

Hooke’s law: the tension is
directly proportional to the When an object is subject to a tensile force it stretches. For most objects the degree
extension provided that the of stretch is directly proportional to the tension — at least for small extensions. This is
extension is not too great. Hooke’s law (after Robert Hooke, the 17th-century physicist). Where Hooke's law applies ’

an object also exhibits elastic behaviour. If an object is subject to too great a stress it will
r— Terms & definitions— fracture but, often before that happens, the tension—extension graph ceases to be linear.
A material is elastic if it returns Some objects, particularly made of ductile metals, enter a plastic region, in which they
to its original form when stress is are permanently deformed by the tension.
removed.
The usual graphs of tensile behaviour are of tension against extension (rather than the
other way round). There are several reasons for this:

—&@
e Tensile testing machines are usually designed to apply a specific extension and
measure the tension produced.
Self-test
Aspning stretches by 12.5 cm when e The gradient of the graph gives the stiffness of the object, which is called the spring
a load of mass 300 g is suspended constant in the case of a spring.
from it. Calculate the spring constant
k(F=k AD.
e The area under the graph is the work done in stretching the object, which for elastic
materials is also the elastic potential energy stored.

You should refer to Section 1.4.3 for further treatment of these concepts.
 Solids under stress

1.5.2 Stress, strain and the Young =—_ tS semitone

Tensile stress, O = 3 and tensile
modulus
strain, € = = where F is the

The tension, F, extension, A7 and spring constant, k, relate to an object: a particular tension,A the c.s.a., / the original
spring, piece of wire, block of concrete, etc. It is more useful for engineers to have length and A/ the increase in
quantities which relate to materials and which can be used to predict the properties of length.
many different objects.

The bar in Fig. 1.5.4 of length 7 and cross-sectional area (c.s.a.) A, is stretched by AZ,
which requires a force F’.. lf we imagine two such bars side by side, making a total c.s.a. r— Terms & definitions
—4
of 24, then each will require F to stretch it by AZ, so the total tension is 2F. For a material that obeys Hooke’s
law, the Young modulus, £ = 2,
l
QS ee where @ is the stress and € the

Paes Bae ota name

1+ Al
<<.

=o F The compressive stress and

strain are defined in exactly the
Fig. 1.5.4 Tension « c.s.a same way as tensile stress and
strain. The ratio of compressive
ve , , stress to strain is called the
Conclusion: two bars of the same composition, with the same length, will be stretched by compression modulus ana, for
small compressions can be taken as
the same amount if the ratio is the same. This quantity is called the (tensile) stress, o.
having the same value as the Young
modulus.
We now imagine the two bars being welded end to end, making a total length 2/, and the
same stretching force applied. The tension has the same value, F’, in each half of the
composite bar, so each half extends by A/ making the total extension 2A/, as in Fig. 1.5.5.

21 + 2Al

Fig. 1.5.5 Extension « original length

Conclusion: for two bars of the same composition, with the same c.s.a. and tension,

the ratio = is the same. This quantity is called the (tensile) strain, e.

lf the bar obeys Hooke's law, then F’ « AJ, so from the definition of o and e, it must be
true that 0 « e and we define the Young modulus, E, of the material by:

of o and «.
Ve z which we can rewrite as E = a , from_the definitions
2 eee hasaoe
large valuettypie

Typical values of FE, o and ¢ atecntheopan hesti onesa

on the aS oftheHOO
The newton is, in engineering terms, a rather small unit of force. The m2 on the other
hand is quite a large unit of area. Engineering materials, such as steel and concrete, are
very resistant to deformation. Taking these points together it is not surprising that values
r— Terms & definitions—
of stress are very large (in the 100 MPa range) and strains are typically very small: a
strain of 0.001 or less for a Hookean material. Hence, the Young moduli tend to have A Hookean object (or material) is
values in the 100 GPa range. Table 1.5.1 gives E for some common materials. one which obeys Hooke's law.
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

Working with E, o and e requires care with the use of SI multipliers and standard form.
Study the following example.

| Example
Mild steel 10 Calculate the extension of a 100 m long steel wire of diameter 1 mm if it is placed
under tension by suspending a 10.0 kg mass from it. [E4e, = 210 GPa.]
Copper 117
Aluminium 69 ee
Human long bone 14 Tension = mg = 10.0 x 9.81 = 98.1 N; csa = (0.5 x 10)? = 7.85 x 1077 m?.

ee nae
11
sates 02 = EN
A > 785% 107° m2
os 10a 8 ira
Oak (along grain)

noe 30-20 ee. 6 10 a

Rubber (small strain) ~0.1 € E 210 x 10° Pa
Diamond 1220 -, Al=e1= 0.000 595 x 100 m= 0.059 5m =6.0 cm (2 sf.)

Alternatively, we could just start from E = - and substitute forF and A.

—~—@ W Golf-test The approach to take is a matter of choice.

A 1 cm? cs.a. bar of length 2.0 m
is subject to a tension of 1 kN. The
Young modulus is 100 GPa.
Calculate the extension and give
your answer in pum.
1.5.3 Work of deformation and
strain energy
As we showed in Section 1.4.4(d), the work done in stretching a Hookean object is
given by ZF AZ this being the area under the force-extension graph. Refer to the
for extension and sometimes A/, so
Study point for alternative ways of writing the formulae for W. Releasing the tension
the formula for the work done in and allowing the object to contract allows it to do work in its turn and, because the
stretching can be written: graph for relaxation is the same as for tensioning (for Hookean materials), the work
W='”’FxorW=%2FAl done by the object in relaxing is the same as the work done on the object during
deformation. Hence the same expressions — YF A/, etc. — give the energy stored in a
Because F = kx [or kA/] we can also
body by virtue of its deformation. This energy is variously referred to as strain energy
wnite:
or elastic potential energy.
W =ekx?2 or W = Yak(Al?2 and
Fre F2 lf the extension of a rubber band
a
ees
or W=2y
if At
is measured when it is loaded
(e.g. by hanging 100 g masses)
and then unloaded, a load-extension
curve similarto that in Fig. 1.5.6
For Hookean materials, the product is obtained. The unloading curve
’%o€ is the strain energy per unit is below the loading curve. This
volume. To show this:
phenomenon is called hysteresis
and is responsible for rolling
Energy stored, W = '2FAl
resistance in car tyres. The work
W FAl F Al done on the rubber in extension is
Al
We A
= 1208 the area under the loading curve;

—®
the work done by the rubber in
contracting is the area under the
Self-test unloading curve. Fig. 1.5.6 Hysteresis in rubber

Calculate the strain energy in the bar

in Self-test 1.5.2.
 Solids under stress

The area between the curves represents the mechanical energy loss in the cycle: it is
transferred to internal energy in the rubber and then lost as heat. The elasticity of rubber
Qelf-test L154 a
is dealt with in Section 1.5.7.
Show that the W/V can also be

written by 4 a and %262E

1.5.4 Stress and strain in ductile

metals
r— Terms & definitions —
The mechanical properties of solids depend on their structure, that is the way its particles
are arranged and the nature of the forces between them. The next three subsections Ductile — able to be drawn (into
discuss this for different classes of solids. a wire, not ‘drawn by Picasso’).
Malleable — able to be
hammered into shape.

(a) Structure
Many metals, such as steel, aluminium and copper, are ductile, which means that they
can be drawn out into wires. Ductile materials are also malleable, especially when hot.
These metals are crystalline: they have a periodic structure called a lattice. The lattice The crystal lattice and non-
particles in metals are positive ions — atoms that have lost one or more electrons. They are directional nature of metallic
held together by a ‘sea’ of negatively charged delocalised electrons which are free to move bonding allows for movement of
dislocations giving rise to ductility.
between the ions.

COSC CCCEOSCESCES
©0080 OC8CCEOOEe TTT TTT TTT TTT Pt
©0800 00808088808 rrrrrrrr rrr rr
SOCOCOCOCOCEOCECE rT TT TTT TTT TTT
©080C0CCSOSCCCCe rrrrrrrrrr rr?
©0000 06880800808068 rT TTT TTT TTT TT
©0000 COSCCSEECe rrrrrrrr rrrrt
(a)

Fig. 1.5,7 Hexagonal packing in metals

Because metal ions are spheres, they pack with the least potential energy into planes with
the hexagonal arrangement shown in Fig. 1.5.7(a), with ions in the plane above nestling
in the gaps, the red spheres in (b).
Fig. 1.5.8 A titanium-aluminium alloy
Gas-turbine blades have been developed consisting of single crystals of a ‘superalloy’ of
showing grains
nickel. Most metal samples, however, are polycrystalline. When they solidify from the
molten state, crystallisation occurs at many points independently.

This results in a large number of very small interlocking crystals (grains) as shown in Fig.
1.5.8, which represents a ~100 um square region of a polished and etched surface of a
sample of Ti-Al alloy. A notional arrangement of the metal ions is shown in Fig. 1.5.9. The
orientation of the crystal planes is random from one grain to the next. Note that the lattice
ions are not shown to the same scale and, in reality, a typical grain will have ~10® lattice
planes. The grain boundaries have a large component of impurity atoms which are forced
out of the grains during crystallisation.

Another important feature of the structure of ductile metals is the presence of irregularities
within the lattice. An edge dislocation is where an additional ¥2-plane of ions is present
and a point defect is where a lattice ion is missing or a ‘foreign’ atom or just an additional
ion is present. Fig. 1.5.9 A schematic representation
of ions
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

> Study point

Sag ; - Sat ae mee -

If you look carefully at Fig. 1.5.10

)

rt >t
Sr eth
tt
you'll notice that that the ions @[email protected]. @
immediately surrounding the point & 2 & @ a @ ® =) @ & @
defect are pulled away from their 2 @ @ @ S ) @ r) © e@ @
neighbouring ions by the gap in the 8 @ e@ e S ® S @ ] e @
structure. This is also the case at the @e.9.8 8.8, 9
end of the edge dislocation: these are e® e® e@@ oe @ e
regions of weakness in the lattice. e® e? e@ ee Ce
e,®@ e,.®@
@2%9,. 90,0, 8
@,@ ee
ofefeefece
Fig. 1.5.10 Edge dislocation Fig. 1.5.11 Point defect in a metal lattice

In both types of dislocation the combination of regular lattice, grain boundaries and
dislocations is responsible for the mechanical properties of polycrystalline metals.

stress, 7 (b) Stress-strain graphs

Samples of ductile metals typically have stress-strain curves similar to that in Fig. 1.5.12,
in which we can identify the following features:

A linear portion OP. P is called the limit of proportionality. The gradient of this section
is the Young modulus of the material.

Point E is the elastic limit. Only strains up to P are elastic; beyond P they are plastic.

The yield point, Y, at which the material shows a large increase in strain for little or no
increase in stress. The stress here is called the yield stress, aéy.
0
strain, €
An extensive plastic region, YX. The maximum stress is called the breaking stress or
Fig. 1.5.12 o—é curve for a ductile metal
ultimate tensile strength, o,. X on the graph marks the breaking point.

The largest strain region of the o-é curve typically bends downwards. In this region,
the sample exhibits necking, which is a narrowing of the region where Is will eventually
break.

The precise shape of the o—€ curve varies with material and also the history of the
The stress, o, inFig. 1.5.12 is the material (e.g. heat or working treatment).
so-called engineering stress. The
tension is divided by the unstressed
cs.a. When necking occurs, the cs.a. ~
decreases and the true stress is
_ greater than the engineering stress. Fig. 1.5.13 Ductile
In a graph of true stress, the o-€ a metal specimen
graph does not curve downwards at _ 2a SCR SESS ea SRN ao a eo ae se ese |
before and after
the end but continues to rise. :
destructive testing
eM aed jeea
Sed i

The ‘before and after’ image in Fig. 1.5.13 shows the effect of necking and plastic
deformation in a specimen of mild steel. A clip of this tensile test is available on YouTube.

(c) Structure and properties

F Le When a material is put under a low tension, |.e. so that o < og, the separation between the
lattice particles (ions) is increased. This is elastic deformation because the forces between
the particles pull them back to their initial position when the tension is removed. This
is illustrated in Fig. 1.5.14 —a cubic lattice arrangement has been used as the effect is
Fig. 1.5.14 Elastic strain easier to see — and it is easier to draw!
 Solids under stress

Fig. 1.5.15 Dislocation movement produces plastic strain

Self-test 155) ial

Plastic deformation is caused by an irreversible rearrangement of particles. This is
Sketch a diagram of what is likely to
made possible by the presence of edge dislocations. The dislocation shown in Fig.
happen next to the crystal with two
1.5.15 moves to the right under the influence of the applied forces. The individual ions edge dislocations meeting,
only move slightly; the ions above the dotted line drop into a lower potential energy
position in the next plane, so that the extra ¥%-plane moves to the right until it reaches
the grain boundary; the crystal becomes more elongated. The stress at which this
happens is the yield stress. The dislocation does not move back when the stress is
removed, so this elongation is plastic.

The details of what happens next depend on several factors:

1. Edge locations can get entangled (see Self-test 1.5.5) limiting their movement.
2. The size of the grains — the larger the grains, the greater the freedom of movement of
the dislocations.
3. The presence of point dislocations: foreign atoms can inhibit the movement of edge
dislocations; a void in the lattice spawns more edge dislocations.

For different metals, especially alloys such as steel, changing the composition can affect
all these factors. Heating and quenching regimes, depending on the metal, can make x
the metal more or less ductile and cold working generally makes a metal stiffer and less
ductile because it causes dislocation entanglement.

Fig. 1.5.16

1.5.5 Stress and strain in brittle oe graph for

brittle material

materials
Brittle materials, such as cast iron, ceramics and masonry are totally elastic and generally
Hookean. Brittle non-metals have an amorphous (non-crystalline) structure. Figs 1.5.17
and 1.5.18 show the distinction between crystalline (quartz) and amorphous (glass)
structures for silicon dioxide, SiO, which is covalently bonded.

Glasses form when the SiO,

cools down too rapidly from
the molten state for the
molecules to arrange into
the crystalline form.

Fig. 1.5.17 Crystalline Fig. 1.5.19 Snowflake obsidian

and 1.5.18 Vitreous
(glass) silicon dioxide
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

Glasses are not stable in the very long term. Obsidian, a volcanic glass gradually
crystallises. The sample of ‘snow flake obsidian’ in Fig. 1.5.19 is starting to convert to
quartz: its molecules are gradually re-arranging themselves. Because of this process, no
In covalent structures, atoms are
bonded individually to others by
obsidian is found dating from before the cretaceous period (144-66 Mya).
the shared electrons. Because of
this atoms cannot swap bonding to Amorphous materials are brittle because the absence of a crystal structure means that
2ee
i)aa
another atom, so plastic deformation — there can be no dislocations to move and produce plastic deformation. Cast iron Is
is notpossible. e crystalline, but the crystals are very small and the presence of a large fraction of impurity
atoms means that dislocations are pinned down.

Brittle fracture
Brittle materials are weak in tension, i.e. their breaking stress is low. Unlike in ductile
fracture, the broken pieces can be fitted back together — a broken cup can be glued. This
is because of the absence of plastic deformation.

The failure in tension is due to crack propagation. This is shown in Fig. 1.5.20. The
so-called stress lines are shown in red. These show how the tension links the atoms in
the material. The interatomic forces cannot cross the gap because the atoms are too far
Crack apart, so the forces must be transmitted around the tip of the crack, leading to a greatly
magnified stress. The brittle material starts to break at the crack tip: the crack extends
which increases the stress at the tip and so the crack propagates (at the speed of sound
in the material) resulting in catastrophic failure.

Brittle materials can be used in load-bearing structures if the brittle member Is:
Fig. 1.5.20 Crack failure
e always under compression by the design of the structure, as in the Pontcysyllte
brickwork pillars which hold up the Llangollen canal,
¢ or compressively pre-stressed in manufacture.

The bottom of the concrete beam in Fig. 1.5.22 is under tension and is in danger of
failure by crack propagation. The diagrams in Fig. 1.5.23 show how a steel pre-tensioning
tendon, T, is inserted into a concrete beam:

Fig. 1.5.21 Pontcysyllte aqueduct

Fig. 1.5.22 Crack failure in a beam

(a) The tendon is placed under tension by tightening

the nut, N.
(b) The concrete to be cast is poured into the mould,
M, and allowed to set.
(c) The tendon is then cut and contracts putting the
lower surface of the concrete under compression
(and flexing it slightly as shown).

If the beam is subsequently loaded at the top as in Fig.

1.5.22, the lower surface of the beam will not be under
tension unless a very large load is applied.

Fig. 1.5.23 Pre-stressing

 Solids under stress

1.5.6 Polymers
(a) What are polymers? r— Terms & definitions—
Rubber, polythene, melamine and nylon are polymers, i.e their molecules are long chains A polymer is a substance whose
of repeat units. molecules consist of long chains
of identical sections called repeat
The simplest in terms of composition is polythene, which is made from the monomer units.
ethane.
A monomer is a molecule with
a double bond which is broken
H H open to form the repeat unit of a
polymer.
Pied ad
Spada eC
H H 7 jie’
H HI,
Fig. 1.5.24 Ethene, and polythene repeat unit An artist’s
impression of an
A significant feature of the C-C bond is that it can rotate so the polymer molecule can ethane molecule
showing the
assume a huge number of random shapes, which is significant in the stress-strain electron orbitals.
properties of rubber.

Rubber is polymerised isoprene, CH,=C(CH3)CH=CH,. In the process of polymerisation, Fig. 1.5.25

the two double bonds are opened up, enabling the repeat units to link together to produce
poly-isoprene. In the process, the two central carbons become double bonded: C=C.

H CH, H CH, H CH
Ripper e NI eS Ns) doris
C=C C=C C=C
EE / anes
Ram xt a Clas er ee a H.C = Chl, HC Stal a ik H.C

Fig. 1.5.26 Rubber: (a) the polymer; (b) the monomer

(b) Stress, strain and Young modulus of rubber Self-test

The load-extension / stress-strain characteristics are as follows: When rubber stretches, its volume
stays roughly constant in spite of
1. The (engineering) stress-strain graph is non-linear: rubber is stiff for low extensions, its huge extensions. Estimate the
change in thickness of a rubber band
becomes less stiff and finally much stiffer. See Fig. 1.5.6. which is stretched to 4 times its
original length.
2. Loading and unloading curves different: called elastic hysteresis.

3. It exhibits large strains: strains of up to 5, i.e. the final length is ~6x the original length
are possible in some types of rubber

4. The stress values are much lower than most engineering materials. The ay value is
~16 MPa, compared to ~80 MPa for glass and 400 MPa for mild steel.

5. The volume stays roughly constant in spite of its huge extensions. Thus it is important
to distinguish between true stress and engineering stress.
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

Because of the non-linearity we need to be careful when referring to the Young modulus
of rubber. Depending on the context it could refer to:

e The gradient of the tangent of the o-e curve at the origin.

e The value of 2 for a particular stress, e.g. halfway along the almost linear region.

These are the gradients of the red lines in Fig. 1.5.27. Then there is the problem of
hysteresis... Whichever we use, the value of & is something like 10-20 MPa; much
smaller than the 200 GPa for steel.

Fig. 1.5.27 Which Young modulus for

rubber?

(c) Structure and properties of rubber

The angle between adjacent carbon-carbon bonds is approximately 110°. Looking at the
—@ Gelf-test structure of the rubber molecule in Fig. 1.5.26, it would seem that its shape should be:
A rubber sample has the same
dimensions as a steel wire. The same
tension is applied to each. Estimate
the ratio of the strains of the two
objects.
However, this is wrong, or at least, very unlikely.

The molecule can rotate freely around each of the single C-C bonds (but not the double
bonds, C=C), so the natural shape of rubber molecules is randomly tangled.
(b) 27 44

Fig. 1.5.28 (a) Extended and (b) tangled rubber molecules

tatisticalra om walk theory Sat
predicts that, ifaroute ismade of
— Sans inrandom lf a rubber molecule is placed under tension, it responds by straightening out:
directions, the total displacement
~Alvn. A rubber molecule consists —
of 10° repeat units of length
a
a
=hat om,‘Estimate the ile es
OL aT POLSCUNG ia a

Fig. 1.5.29 Straightening a rubber molecule

This extension allows the rubber (band) to stretch to several times its original length.
The force required is much less than when stretching crystalline or amorphous materials
because bonds are not being stretched — just rotated. The presence of cross-linkages
between molecules or just the entanglement of different molecules limits the total
extension possible. The thermal motions of the atoms in the molecules, which tend to
randomise the shape, provide the opposition to the extension, i.e. the stiffness.

When the tension is removed, random molecular motions of the atoms within the
Matenals scientists often introduce
additional S-S cross linkages into
molecules re-randomises the shape the molecules, leading to the rubber contracting.
rubber in order to make it stiffer. The some energy is converted by intermolecular collisions into random kinetic energy of the
process is called vulcanisation. molecules, so not as much work is done in contracting, leading to the hysteresis effect.
 Solids under stress

1.5.7 Practical work

The Young modulus is given by the

(a) Determination of the Young modulus of the

equation E = at . Alis made large

material of a metal wire

enough to be measurable with a
reasonable precision by making /p as
long as possible, e.g. the length of a
Fig. 1.5.30 shows a common set-up used in A level physics classes for the determination lab bench (perhaps 4 m).
of the Young modulus of metals, such as copper and mild steel, in the form of wires.

clamp paper rider

wooden
blocks ~~~»
length, / _y Study point
The wire is clamped using the
wooden blocks. This prevents
damage the wire at the point of
clamping.

Fig. 1.5.30 Young modulus determination

PRACTICAL TIP
Procedure:

1. Measure the diameter, d, of the wire using a micrometer or vernier calliper See Section 3.2 for a suggestion
on measuring the diameter of
of resolution 0.01 mm. Calculate the c.s.a., A, from A = n(S\ a wire.
2
2. Attach a small load to provide original tension to straighten out the wire.

Ww . Measure the original length, /p, of the wire, using a metre rule with resolution | mm,
from the blocks to the paper rider.

4 . Add a known mass, such as a 10 g/ 50 g/ 100 g mass, to the hanger.

5 . Measure the extension, A/, from zero load.

6. Repeat 4 and 5 to obtain a series of values of A/ and m.

7.. Repeat 4 and 5 with decreasing values of m.

:
8. Plot a graph of tension, 7, calculated from 7 = mg, against A/.
Al
5 . Measure the maximum and minimum gradient of the straight line graph. Fig. 1.5.31 Typical 7 v Al graph
10. Calculate E and its uncertainty using £ = : x gradient.

Notes:

1. The best fit graph might not go through the origin. This is because the wire often has
some slight kinks which need straightening. —
2. The accuracy of the A/ measurements can be improved by using a hand lens or
(better) a travelling microscope.

(b) Investigation of the force—extension

relationship for rubber
This is simply a case of loading and unloading the rubber band and measuring the
extensions from the original length (actually the length with a very small load so that the
band is initially straight). The band should be loaded until its additional extension with
Fig. 1.5.32 Investigating load
additional loads is very small. In this experiment, to reveal the hysteresis, the loading and
and extension for rubber
unloading extensions are plotted separately rather than averaged.
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

A spring extends by 8.0 cm when a load of mass 200 g is hung from it. Calculate

(a) the spring constant, k, and

(b) the elastic potential energy in the spring with the load,
(c) the reduction in the gravitational potential energy of the load when it extends the spring by 8.0 cm.
[Take g= 10 ms]
The load in Q1 is hung from another spring which has a spring constant half that in Q1. Without repeating
the calculations, write down the extension of the spring and the answers to (a), (b) and (c).
+

The load is placed on the unstretched spring in Q1 and dropped. Calculate

(a) the speed of the load when the extension is 8.0 cm and
(b) the maximum extension of the spring,
(d) the upward acceleration of the load at the point of maximum extension.

The constant, k, of a spring is 24 N m~!. Giving your reasoning clearly, determine the constant of two such
Springs joined

(a) end-to-end and

(b) side-to-side [sometimes called ‘in series’ and ‘in parallel’ respectively].

A cylindrical rod of length 50 cm diameter 5 mm is made out of glass with an ultimate tensile strength of
33 MPa and Young modulus 60 GPa. Calculate the maximum tension the rod can take and its increase
in length at a tension of 50% of this maximum.

A steel wire of diameter | mm is fastened horizontally to 2 rigid Supports "=

Lae2 al
separated by 2 m. The initial tension is negligible as is the sag in the wire. Sasa

A load of mass 0.10 kg is suspended from the midpoint of the wire, which
caused the wire to deflect downwards by 2.0 cm at that point. The diagram
is not to scale. Calculate:

(a) The tension in the wire.

(b) The Young modulus of the material of the wire.

By considering a range of loads (e.g. 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4 kg) for the wire in Q6, determine how accurately
the deflection in the wire is directly proportional to the applied load. If the yield strain of the steel is
1.0 x 10-3, what is the maximum load which can be applied to the wire without it passing the yield point?

A hawser (a rope) is made from nylon with a Young modulus of 3.0 GPa; it is designed to be used safely
at stresses of up to 30 MPa. The diameter of the hawser is 5.0 cm and its length is 1 km.

(a) Calculate the maximum load to which the hawser should be subjected.
(b) Calculate the energy stored in the hawser with this load.
(c) The hawser is attached to a boat of mass 20 tonnes [1 t = 10° kg] which is drifting away at 4 m s“!, to
bring it to a halt. Calculate how far the hawser stretches before stopping the boat.
(d) Determine the shortest length of hawser which would stop the boat without exceeding its maximum
safe stress.

Pre-stressed glass, also known as sight glass, is manufactured in sheets in such a way that its outside
layers are under compression and the middle is under tension. Explain why this glass is more resistant to
breaking than ordinary glass.

Two cylinders of identical length and diamter are joined firmly end to end. The Young modulus of the
material of one cylinder is twice that of the other. The composite cylinder is put under tension. Compare
the values of the following quantities for the two sections: the tension; the extension: the stress; the strain;
the energy stored.
 Solids under stress

Calculate the effective Young modulus of the composite cylinder in Q10 in terms of the lower Young
modulus, £, of the two components. [Hint: Calculate the total extension for a given stress, o.]

A cylinder is made of a composite of a cylinder inside a second cylindrical shell. The cross sectional area
of one component is twice that of the other. The Young modulus of the larger area component is FE, and
that of the other is £,. The composite cylinder is put under tension. Compare the values of the following
quantities for the two sections: the tension; the extension: the stress; the strain; the energy stored.

Calculate the effective Young modulus of the composite cylinder in Q12 in terms of E, and £5.

Mass Tk 30 [100 [150

Extension/m 28 [5.0
Mass/kg
Extension /em 14.8
(a) By drawing suitable graphs, use these results to calculate:
(i) The work done on the elastic in stretching it from 0 to 25 cm.
(i) The work done by the elastic in contracting by 25 cm to 0.
(ii) The change in total potential energy if a 5 kg mass is suspended from the elastic and gently lowered by 25 cm.
(b) The student places a bullet of mass 5.0 g into a catapult, draws the elastic back by 25 cm and releases the bullet at
an angle of 30° to the horizontal. Ignoring air resistance, calculate the horizontal distance that the bullet travels.
(c) Estimate the magnitude of the effect of air resistance on your answer to (b).
[Hint: See Section 1.3.5(c) and take c, ~ 0.5 for a rapidly moving sphere.]
a 1.6 Using radiation to
investigate stars
Almost all the information we have about the universe comes from electromagnetic
radiation. The image of the constellation of Taurus was taken using visible radiation,
i.e. with wavelengths between ~400 and 700 nm. Until recently this was the only
wavelength range available to us because the Earth’s atmosphere is opaque to most
of the electromagnetic spectrum. However, space telescopes such as Spitzer and
Chandra, have allowed us to ‘see’ the universe across the complete range from
radio to gamma rays. Multi-wavelength astronomy gives us a much more complete
understanding of the processes in the universe.

The following images of the Sun, Fig. 1.6.2, were taken in visible light (450 nm) and
Fig. 1.6.1 Taurus
ultraviolet (17.1 nm) from the Solar Dynamics Observatory 10 October 2014.

~ Study point
The sites of the sunspots which
are visible on the 450 nm image are
also noticeably sites where violent
processes are seen on the 17.1 nm
image.

Several neutrinos were received from _

supernova SN1987A providing useful —
information about the supernova and —
testing our understanding of particle .
physics. Astronomers are also Bi
attempting to detect gravitational
Fig. 1.6.2 The Sun in (a) visible and (b) UV light
waves.

Section 1.6.4 considers multi-wavelength astronomy in more detail.

Scientists analyse the light from stars by separating out the different wavelengths,
r— Terms & definitions — e.g. by passing it through a prism or a diffraction grating, and then either making an
Diffraction grating — see image or plotting the energy density at different wavelengths. Examples of both of
Section 2.3. these spectra for our nearest star, the Sun, are shown on the next page in Fig. 1.6.3.

r— Terms & definitions — The graphical spectrum of the Sun, published by the World Meteorological
Organisation, is the continuous graph in the upper part of the figure. The wavelength
A continuous spectrum consists
range is ~ 200-1500 nm. We'll ignore the dashed curve for the moment. The colour
of all wavelengths within a range.
image is the appearance of visible solar spectrum. This is what you can actually see
A line spectrum consists of a (or image) if sunlight is dispersed though a prism or passed through a diffraction
series of individual wavelengths grating. The wavelength range is approximately 400-700 nm and its relationship
(or, more accurately, a series of with the spectrum graph is also shown.
very narrow wavelength bands).
The spectrum of the Sun consists of two parts:
r— Terms & definitions —j
e Acontinuous spectrum (the bright band).
The plural of spectrum is spectra. e A line spectrum (the dark lines, also visible on the graph).

These spectra contain a huge quantity of information about the star, in

particular the temperature of its outer layer and its chemical composition.
 LUShale meelebt-taleyeninesiahigcicinler-lnomciretas

~ Study point
The dark lines in the solar spectrum
are called Fraunhofer lines after the
German scientist who noticed them
in 1814. The English chemist, William
Hyde Wollaston, had discovered
them in 1802.

‘ 5800K Blackbody
$e pea
‘

Irradiance
(W
nm-!)
m2

- ~ ~~
ele oe I he a

800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200

Wavelength (nm)

Fig. 1.6.3 The solar spectrum

This information is contained in both the continuous and line spectra. Using
the shape of the continuous spectrum and the positions of the dark lines (the
Fraunhofer lines), astronomers can compare stars and also obtain evidence
about their motion and even the age of the universe. This section will explore
how such information is obtained. Fig. 1.6.4 Thermal radiation

1.6.1 Black body radiation r— Terms & definitions

—}
When a farrier heats up a horseshoe in a forge, it starts to give out visible radiation. A black body is defined as one
Initially it glows faintly dull red; as the temperature increases, the brightness increases that absorbs all radiation which
and the colour changes from red to orange to yellow, as shown in Fig. 1.6.4. The is incident upon it. It also emits
precise details of the spectrum of the emitted radiation vary from material to material: more radiation at any wavelength
in general, the more a material absorbs radiation, the more it will emit. Scientists use than a non-black body in the
the idea of a perfect black body (see box) as a theoretical standard against which to continuous spectrum.
compare other bodies.

As an excellent approximation to perfect black body radiation, scientists have made ~ Study point
measurements of the radiation coming from a small hole in the side of a furnace. The albedo of an object is the
This radiation is also known as cavity radiation. Fig. 1.6.5 shows the principle of this. fraction of e-m radiation that it
reflects. The optical albedo of the
If radiation enters the cavity through the opening, it will undergo multiple reflections. Earth is ~0.3. Some trans-neptunian
lf the material lining the cavity is very dark, it will absorb most of the radiation at each objects (TINOs) and comet-like outer
solar system objects (centaurs) have
reflection so hardly any of the incident radiation will re-emerge from the aperture.
measured albedos as low as 0.02.
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

Because the furnace is hot, it also emits radiation, some of which escapes through the
hole. The spectra of this radiation at various temperatures are in Fig. 1.6.6. These results
fit in with the observations of the glowing wire:

e Below about 1000°C no visible radiation is seen.

e At 1400°C a small amount of red light is emitted.

e At1800°C much more visible radiation is emitted, mainly at the long wavelength (red)
[S end but with some shorter wavelengths.

x
Fig. 1.6.5 A cavity absorbs almost all
incident radiation

1000°C
r— Terms & definitions
—— Intensity
(a.u.)

Absolute temperature, 7, |s
expressed in kelvin (K).
Fig. 1.6.6
Celsius temperature, 0, is
Black body spectra
defined by: 5
Wavelength / um
O/° aT K=273.15
On the kelvin scale, ice melts at Studies of these spectra in the 19th century produced two empirical laws which were later
273.15 K, water boils at 373.15 explained theoretically by the German physicist, Max Planck.
and absolute zero is 0 K.
1. The Wien displacement law: The peak wavelength of radiation emitted by a black
body is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of the body,

i.e. Xrmax = = where T'is the kelvin temperature and Wis a constant,

now called the Wien constant, which has a value of 2.898 x 107 m K.

2. The Stefan-Boltzmann law: The total power of the radiation emitted by a black
body, per unit area is directly proportional to 7%, i.e. the fourth power of the absolute
temperature, i.e P = AoT* where A is the surface area and o a constant, called the
Stefan constant, with a value of 5.67 x 10° W m? K+.

—@® Self-test Example

In the example: A sphere of tungsten of diameter 1.0 cm has a temperature of 3000 K. Assuming
(a) Express /,,4, in nm. the sphere acts as a black body, calculate (a) the power of the radiation emitted, and
(b) In what part of the e-m spectrum (b) the wavelength of the radiation with the greatest intensity.

Answer
is een

(c) Without using a calculator,

estimate P and /,,,, for a similar (a) P = AoT* = 4m x (0.005 m)? x (5.67 x 10°° W m? K~) x (3000 K)4
sphere at 6000 K.
“. Power = 1.70 kW

"Study point
(b) Lee W _ 2.898 x 10° m K_ 0.97 um
7 3000 K
: ia So ca
Z pe gers a aeEa

Not all radiation is black body, e.g.

The importance of these results for astronomers is that many astronomical objects emit
the pulses emitted by pulsars arse
from electrons spiralling around thermal radiation, which approximates to black body radiation. Examples are: stars, with
magnetic field lines (so-called surface temperatures up to tens of thousands of kelvin; the accretion discs around black
synchrotron radiation). holes (up to 10° K); the cosmic microwave background radiation (2.713 K).
 Using radiation to investigate stars

1.6.2 Luminosity, intensity and

r-— Terms & definitions
—
distance The luminosity, L, of a star is the
total energy emitted per unit
time. The unit is W.
(a) The inverse square law
If we look back at the stars in Taurus in Fig. 1.6.1, we notice that they have a range of r— Terms & definitions—
brightness (and colour). Are they really different or are they just at different distances —
The intensity, |, of radiation is
with the fainter-seeming ones just being further away? The diagram in Fig. 1.6.7 shows
the power per unit area incident
how radiation from a small source, such as a star, Spreads out as it moves out. The further on a surface at right angles to the
from the star, the bigger the area the same quantity of radiation has to cover, so the lower radiation. The unit is W m-2.
the intensity of the radiation.

Let LZ be the luminosity of the star.

As it crosses the first sphere, of

radius r,, this radiation is spread
out over the surface of the sphere,
which has an area of r,, so the
Self-test
intensity, 7, of the radiation is A candle gives out light with a
power of 0.1 W. What will be the
given by: intensity of its radiation at a distance
fener £ of: (a) 1 m, (b) 10 m and (c) 1 km?

Anr,?
At r, the intensity is
Tae
Anr,?
The luminosity and brightness of a
star are not the same. A close faint
Fig. 1.6.7 Inverse square law star can appear as bright as a distant
luminous one.
So the intensity of the radiation decreases as the inverse square of the distance:

a star 10 x as far away as an identical one will appear only — as bright.

Qolfeal
(b) Measuring the distance to a star Stars A and B appear to have the
same brightness. Star B is twice
Apart from the Sun, stars are vast distances away. How far? For distances up to ~1000 ly as far away as star A. Compare the
astronomers can use the fact that nearby stars appear to shift position as the Earth moves luminosity of the two stars.
around in its orbit. Fig. 1.6.8 shows this — but is rather exaggerated!
Ww
Earth
es a vw
Een we ee
“Nearby oat a
t
eae
a See a.) : Qolf-test
Poe eS w
tii
The distance to star X is measured
eh ee

ee
as 10 ly [1 ly —-9.5 x 10'5m]. The
intensity of radiation from it is
distance, d
measured as 42.8 nW m-2. Show
i a

stars
ge
that its luminosity is about 5 x 1027 W.

Fig. 1.6.8

Over a period of half a year, the nearby star appears to shift when seen against the
background of much more distant stars because the Earth moves around in its orbit. If
we know 7, the radius of the orbit and we can measure the angle, 8, we can calculate the
distance d to the star.
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

Using trigonometry: tan 6 = _ sod =_"_. As @is very small (typically 10-8 rad) we can
tan 0
use the approximation tan @ = @ (with @ in radians) to calculate the distance using

d= _"_, using the Earth's orbital radius of 1.50 x 10!! km.

6/rad
Using ground-based telescopes astronomers can measure 6 to a precision of about Loe
radians. The European Space Agency Gaia mission, the space telescope launched in
December 2013, will measure stellar parallaxes to ~5 x 10°! rad enabling distances up
to 10s of thousands of light-years to be measured.

To measure larger distances, astronomers use objects of known brightness. If you know
the true luminosity of an object and measure the intensity of radiation received, the
inverse square law can be used to determine its distance. For distances to relatively
Fig. 1.6.9 ESA's Gaia nearby galaxies, astronomers can use Cepheid variable stars; for more distant galaxies
they use Type la supemovae.

7a. 1.6.5) Self-test

1.6.3 Black body radiation and stars

The Gaia satellite measures the
annual stellar parallax of a star to
be 2.0 x 10-!9 radian. Calculate
the distance of the star
We are now in a position to interpret the graphical part of Fig. 1.6.3. The dotted line gives
(a) in m and (b) in ly.
the shape of the spectrum for a perfect black body with a temperature of 5800 K. For
wavelengths from 400-1000 nm, i.e. the visible and near infrared region, the overall
shape of the observed spectrum matches the 5800 K spectrum reasonably closely. This
suggests that the Sun and other stars emit radiation in a manner which is very similar
too, but not exactly like, a black body. It might seem a little strange to regard the Sun as
Astronomers measure stellar parallax — a black body. However, in radiation terms, that is exactly (or nearly) what it is! From the
in arcseconds (as) and distancesin graph, the effective temperature of the Sun's photosphere (its outer layer) appears to be
parsecs (pc). Research these units a little lower than 5800 K. Recent measurements give a best-fit estimate of the Sun’s
and answer Self-test 1.6.5 using
temperature of 5770 K. There is clearly more to be said about this. We'll consider the
Fraunhofer lines in Section 1.6.4.

The assumption that we can treat stars as black bodies allows us to determine the
temperature and diameter of a star from measurements of its spectrum, as long as we
Self-test know its distance. The example does this for the Sun.
Use answers to (a) and (b) in the
example together with the Stefan-
Boltzmann law to estimate the
Example
diameter of the Sun.
Use the spectrum in Fig. 1.6.3 and the following data to estimate the Sun’s
(a) temperature, (b) power and (c) diameter:
e The mean intensity of the solar radiation at the Earth = 1.36 kW m~.
Self-test
e The mean radius of the Earth's orbit = 1.50 x 10!! m
The mean apparent diameter of the
Sun in the sky is 0.535°(9.34 x 103 Answer
rad). Show that this is consistent
with the answer to Self-test 1.6.6.
(a) From Fig. 1.6.3 the peak wavelength 4,,,, = 500 nm

“. Using Wien’s law, the temperature, 7’= ue = 2.898 x 10° m K = 5796 K

hen 500 x 102m
Self-test (b) At the Earth’s orbit, the Sun’s radiation is spread out over the surface of a sphere of
The peak wavelength of star X in radius 1.49 x 10!! m. Area of a sphere = 407’.
Self-test 1.6.4, is 788 nm. Estimate
the star's temperature and radius. .. Power of Sun = 1.36 x 103 W m? x 4m, x (1.50 x 10" m)? = 3.85 x 102° W
 Using radiation to investigate stars

1.6.4 Line spectra: Fraunhofer lines

(a) Emission spectra
Chemists identify ions using the flame test. The flame in Fig. 1.6.10 is ‘brick red’ revealing
the presence of calcium ions. Similarly the glowing pink regions in the spiral arms of the
Whirlpool galaxy, M51, in Fig. 1.6.11 pick out clouds of atomic hydrogen, that astronomers
call HI clouds, which identify regions where active star formation is occurring.

The sources of the light could

hardly be more different but,
in fact, the physics by which
the particles in the flame and
the gas clouds emit light is the Fig. 1.6.10 Flame test showing
same in the two cases. The calcium and the standard colours
source of energy is different: of some other ions
the calcium ions in the flame
derive their energy from
impacts with other particles in
the flame; the hydrogen atoms Colourless Mg, Be
are energised by ultraviolet Red Li
radiation from newly formed
Crimson Sr
giant stars in the centre of the
gas clouds. Brick red Ca
Red-purple Rb
taiSeey © Sa Purple K
M51, the Whirlpool galaxy
Yellow Na

These sources produce light which is very different from black body radiation as the Apple green Ba
spectra of atomic hydrogen and calcium show: the spectra are called line spectra Dark green Cu
for obvious reasons. For comparison, Fig. 1.6.12 includes a black body spectrum
Blue Cs
corresponding approximately to the Sun’s temperature — about 5800 K. The colour of the
HI clouds is due to a combination of the red and blue lines, the ‘brick-red’ of the calcium
flame from all the lines in its spectrum.
Black body
The reason that low density gases, whether in the Bunsen flame or in the galactic HI
clouds, produce only discrete wavelengths rather than a continuous spectrum is explored
in detail in Section 2.7. Importantly for astronomers (and chemists) different elements
emit different combinations of wavelengths, so the lines act as a spectral fingerprint and Hydrogen
we can use them to identify the gases present.

(b) Absorption spectra Calcium

In order to reach us, the Sun’s radiation has to pass through the low pressure gas of its
‘atmosphere’ — the chromosphere and corona. These are normally only visible during
Fig. 1.6.12 Atomic emission spectra
a total solar eclipse because, although they emit light, the photosphere of the Sun is
overwhelmingly brighter. Fig. 1.6.14 was taken during an eclipse in India in 1980 and
Fig. 1.6.15 in France in 1999. Note that the pinkish colour of the prominences in the r— Terms & definitions
chromosphere is just like the HI regions in M51, for the reason that they are produced by
the same process — they are glowing hydrogen gas. The variation in intensity of
radiation with wavelength due to
Just as glowing hydrogen emits light of only a few characteristic wavelengths, the gas also absorption by a material is called
absorbs light at just the same wavelengths. If visible radiation with a continuous spectrum the absorption spectrum.
passes through a gas, the gas absorbs just these wavelengths.
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

Fig. 1.6.13 shows the visible part of the absorption spectrum of hydrogen (it also emits
and absorbs in the UV and IR). The diagram also shows the relationship between the
image spectrum and the graphical representation.

Hd Hy Hp Ha
410nm 434nm 486 nm wavelength /nm 656 nm

Fig. 1.6.13 Hydrogen absorption spectrum

Fig. 1.6.14 Sun’s corona The labels, Ha - H8, are the names that astronomers give to the absorption lines. The
Fig. 1.6.15 Sun’s chromosphere lines clearly form the same pattern as those of the emission spectrum above.

—©
The solar spectrum in Fig. 1.6.3 shows a vast number of Fraunhofer lines because of
the large number of elements present in the solar atmosphere. The next diagram shows
Self-test a simplified solar spectrum with the most prominent Fraunhofer lines. Self-test 1.6.8
Use the following emission spectra gives some wavelengths in the spectra of various elements, which you can use to identify
wavelengths (in nm) to identify the elements present in the Sun.
labelled lines in Fig. 1.6.16:
» Hydrogen (Ha) 656, (HB) 486
# Oxygen (O,) 759, 687
® Sodium (Nal) 589, 590
= Tron (Fel) 440, 441, 462, 489,
492,496, 525, 52'7

ERAOs RN PO
RE ESPP VAY
Calcium (Cal) 610, 612
UN Pe PC I WW OD
Ionised calcium (Call) 397, 393
Ionised barium (Ball) 465 wavelength in nm
Magnesium (Mgl) 470, 518, 552 Fig. 1.6.16 Simplified solar spectrum

(c) ‘Missing lines’ and temperature

From Self-test 1.6.9, you'll notice that some of the lines which exist in the emission
spectrum of an element (or ion) do not apparently occur in the solar spectrum, although
Planck derived the fonnula other lines of the same element do. For example, the 470 nm line for atomic magnesium
oe Palas fara ototerane iS missing but the 518 nm is identifiable. The reason for this is that, in order to absorb
15c*h a particular photon the atom must be in the lower of two energy states which have a
where the energy E; of a photon
difference in energy equal to the energy of the photon. This is dealt with in detail in
is Ee = hf,and the KE, Ey,
Section 2.7. If the temperature is too high, there will be very few atoms in the lower energy
of a molecule is given by E, = :kT. state (violent collisions will put them into a more excited state) so they won't be available
Investigate this dimensionally for absorbing the photon; if the temperature is too low, even the lower energy state might
andnumencally be too high to have any significant population.

Observing which lines are present, and their prominence, gives astronomers information
of the temperature of the gas which is responsible for the absorption spectrum.
 Using radiation to investigate stars

1.6.5 Radio astronomy

This is far too big a topic to do it justice here. In Fig. 1.6.17 we see the famous Jodrell
Bank telescope which was instrumental in establishing radio astronomy as an academic
field. Most observations are made in the microwave window — the atmosphere is
transparent to short wavelength radio waves and microwaves.

(a) Cosmic microwave background radiation Fig. 1.6.17 Jodrell Bank radio
(CMBR) telescope

Previously predicted, this was accidentally discovered by two US radio astronomers,

Penzias and Wilson, in 1964. It represents the extremely red-shifted radiation from the
Big Bang which permeates space. When the universe was younger than 380 000 years, Self-test cD
all its atoms were ionised because of its high temperature. At this time the universe cooled Use Fig. 1.6.18 to show that the
sufficiently (~3000 K) for hydrogen atoms to form and space became transparent to black body temperature of the CMBR
radiation. The CMBR is this radiation, the spectrum of which is shown in Fig. 1.6.18. is ~2.7 K.

The graph corresponds closely to that of a black body with a temperature of 2.73 K.
The error bars for the observations in Fig. 1.6.18 are 400x the normal length —
otherwise they would not be visible. The effective temperature of the CMBR is the
same to 1 part in 10° in different directions, which is shown in Fig. 1.6.19: the small
fluctuations are the seeds from which the structures we observe in the universe
(galaxies, clusters of galaxies) have grown.

400
FIRAS data with 4006 errorbars
2.725 K Blackbody

300

200

100

1 0.5 0.33 0.25

Wavelength / mm Fig. 1.6.19 10-5 K temperature
fluctuations

Fig. 1.6.18 CMBR spectrum

r— Terms & definitions—}

(b) The 21 cm hydrogen line Doppler shift is a change in the

wavelength (or frequency) of
In its ground state, the electron of atomic hydrogen can either have its spin parallel to that radiation caused by the motion of
of the nucleus or antiparallel (i.e. in the opposite direction). As the atom flips between the source.
these states it either absorbs or emits radiation with the specific wavelength of 21.1 cm
r— Terms & definitions —
(3 s.f.). Radiation with this wavelength indicates the presence of atomic hydrogen (HI)
and the sensitivity of radio telescopes enables astronomers to detect very tenuous Dark matter is hypothesised
hydrogen clouds on the edges of galaxies — and their orbital velocity can be measured material, detectable only by its
using the Doppler shift and provides evidence for dark matter. gravitational effects, needed to
account for the rate of rotation of
galaxies.
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

(c) Synchrotron radiation

As with 21 cm HI radiation, this is not thermal radiation so it doesn’t have the Planck
spectrum. It is caused by electrons spiralling around magnetic field lines as in Figure
1.6.20. Wide varieties of astronomical objects generate intense magnetic fields and give
Electron off synchrotron radiation. Planets generate synchrotron radiation at radio wavelengths.
Neutron stars have strong magnetic fields and give off ‘searchlight beams’ of synchrotron
Fig. 1.6.20 Spiralling electrons emit radiation: if these beams flash over the earth we see these objects as pulsars. In the
radiation intense magnetic fields generated by supernovae, the synchrotron radiation can be in the
visible and even UV part of the spectrum.

1.6.6 Multiwavelength astronomy

Ph SEE LIT ae The various regions of the electromagnetic spectrum give us information about different
feee Study point — processes in the universe. We have seen that most of the power of the Sun is emitted
Interstellar dust clouds scatter in the form of near infrared, visible and near ultraviolet radiation. This is because the
temperature of the photosphere is approximately 5800 K. The higher the temperature of
radiation most strongly which has a
wavelength similar to or shorter than
the size of the dust particles. an object, the shorter the wavelengths of the continuous spectrum the object emits.

The lower levels of the Sun's chromosphere have temperatures similar to that of the
photosphere but the temperature rises with distance from the Sun's surface and the solar
= ——————————
corona reaches over 10° K. In a solar flare, the temperature can reach tens of millions of K.
_ ~ Study point — We saw in Section 1.6.5 that some non-thermal processes result in the emission of radiation:
The solar dynamics observatory keeps 21 cm HI and synchrotron radiation. These can give us additional information about
the Sun under continuous observation
from space from the visible (450 nm)
hydrogen clouds and about magnetic fields. So a study of radiation across the e-m spectrum
to the extreme UV (17.1 nm) and soft provides us with much more information than observations in one spectral region alone.
X ray (9.4 nm) to monitor the various
processes in the Sun. Consider the images in Fig. 1.6.21 of the spiral galaxy, M81. The different regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum reveal different processes.

(a) X-ray (b) UV (c) visible (d) Infrared (e) 21cm HI

Fig. 1.6.21 Images of M81 in various wavebands

Image (c) in visible light is the familiar astronomical image of a spiral galaxy. It is also high
definition. The spiral arms are well shown, as is the central bulge. The stars in the centre
are predominantly old, low mass stars and appear yellowish. Lanes of dust are also visible.
The ultraviolet image, on the other hand, picks out hotter regions and the image shows
knots of young giant stars forming well away from the centre. The infrared image shows
regions where stars are heating up dust especially in the spiral arms.

The X-ray image only displays very high temperature regions. The bright knot in the
centre is heated by matter spiralling into the giant black hole at the heart of the galaxy.
The other two bright blobs below are actually not part of the galaxy at all. These are vastly
more distant quasars which happen to be behind M81. They are not visible in any of the
other images. Image (e) shows neutral hydrogen by its 21 cm signature emission. It is
clearly missing from the centre of the galaxy.
 Using radiation to investigate stars

Some indication of the ability of 21 cm radio astronomy to reveal processes which are not
detectable at other wavelengths is in Fig. 1.6.22. This shows M81 again but this time with
some smaller neighbouring galaxies. Encounters between the galaxies have resulted in
long filaments of hydrogen being pulled out into intergalactic space. Only the sensitivity
of 21 cm radio telescopes allows this to be imaged and the dynamics of galactic tidal
interactions to be studied.

RM > a
A white dwarf star has a temperature of 24 000 K and a diameter of 14 000 km.
Calculate

(a) its luminosity and

(b) the peak wavelength of its spectrum. FigeieGrae Waveney itis
M81 group
Without using a calculator, compare the luminosity and peak wavelength of the
white dwarf in Q1 with those of the Sun. Take the temperature and diameter of
the Sun to be 6 000 K and 1.4 million km respectively.

By calculation suggest the regions of the e-m spectrum which are appropriate for studying processes
which take place at:

(2) 101K (5) 4:02.K, (c), 0° K.(d) 107K.

How would the scales of Fig. 1.6.6 need to be changed to include a black body spectrum of 6 000 K
(the approximate temperature of the Sun).

A red giant star has a diameter 1000 times that of a red dwarf star of the same surface temperature.
Compare their distances from the Earth given that the red giant appears 100 times as bright. Show
your working.

The central bulges of spiral galaxies consist mainly of old stars. Very little star formation is taking place.
How does this tie in with the absence of 21 cm emission from the centre of M81?

Interstellar dust particles are typically 0.1—1 sum in size. Stars are formed from cold molecular clouds
which contain dust particles. Explain why stellar formation is most easily observed using infrared
radiation.

The discs of dust and gas around young stars and from which planetary systems are thought to
develop are heated up (to several 100 K) by their parent star. Suggest how this is detected in the
spectrum of the star?

The radiation from young hot stars heats up nearby clouds of atomic hydrogen (HI). Explain the
appearance of the HI regions in M51 (Fig. 1.6.11) in terms of the emission spectrum of hydrogen
(ig 1.6.12)! ?
An X-ray pulsar is a neutron star (the remnant of a supernova) which pulls gas from the surface of
its red giant companion star. This gas Spirals in to the neutron star in an accretion disc, which is in
the plane of equator of the star. The point of impact with the surface of the neutron star is heated
to ~10’ K, the position of which rotates with the star, which has a rotation period of less than | s.
Describe how this would appear to a distant astronomer who observes from an angle well away from
the axis of rotation.
» 1.7 Particles and nuclear structure
r— Terms & definitions— Until the late 19th century, the atom was regarded as an elementary particle. The
The word atom comes from the
periodic table of the elements, first published by the Russian chemist, Dmitr!
Greek word atomos (atomos) Ivanovich Mendeleev in the 1860s, strongly suggested an underlying structure to
which means indivisible. atoms and by the end of the century, the negatively charged electron had been
identified as a universal component of atoms. The positively charged atomic nucleus,
r— Terms & definitions which contained virtually all the mass of the atom, was discovered from the work
of Rutherford, Geiger and Marsden between 1908 and 1913 and both its main
A particle is elementary (or
fundamental) if it is not a
constituents — protons and neutrons — identified by the early 1930s and initially
combination of other particles. thought to be elementary.

The development of understanding of atomic structure since that time is shown

schematically for a deuterium (heavy-hydrogen) atom in Fig. 1.7.1. With the
development of quantum theory in the 1920s it was realised that electrons occupied
a region a fraction of a nanometre across which is typically 100 O00 x the diameter of
the nucleus. This was shown in the 1930s to consist of protons (p) and neutrons (n),
which are collectively known as nucleons. The results of collision experiments known
electron cloud as deep inelastic scattering in the 1960s and 1970s showed that nucleons
~1010 m are composed of 3 particles called quarks bound together by the so-called
strong interaction. These quarks are thought to be elementary particles.

The middle decades of the 20th century produced a veritable

electron smorgasbord of particles, called variously hadrons, fermions, bosons,
~10-18m
mesons, nucleons, baryons, neutrinos.... The standard model of particle
physics goes a long way towards simplifying this picture: this will be
described briefly here.

Fig. 1.7.1 The structure of a deuterium atom

>’

@—/ . 1.7.1 The standard model - three

ie generations of leptons and quarks
Almost all the normal matter in the universe (that is, ignoring the mysterious dark
matter which is dealt with later) is composed of heavy protons and neutrons and the
much lighter electrons. We infer the existence of other almost massless particles called
neutrinos (see Section 1.7.4) and notice that, if we bash protons and neutrons together,
r— Terms & definitions we produce showers of other intermediate mass particles, which we call mesons.
Lepton — low mass, elementary When cosmic ray particles collide with atoms in the upper atmosphere they produce
particles, e.g. electron, neutrino. showers of particles, called muons, which form part of the background radiation which
we can detect using a Geiger-Muller tube. We now know that the electrons, muons
Quark - elementary particle, and neutrinos (and some others) are elementary particles, which we call leptons. The
not found in isolation, which
other particles, the heavy ones, are called hadrons, and are not elementary — they are
combines to form hadrons and
baryons, e.g. up, down.
composed of combinations of quarks.

Hadron — high mass particle Table 1.7.1 contains the elementary particles in the standard model.
consisting of quarks and/or anti-
quarks.

PROMI coi icitian 1.7.2 Units of mass and energy

Baryon — hadron composed of 7

Antibaryon — hadron composed Particle physicists usually express energy in electron volts (eV) or its multiples, keV, MeV,
of 3 antiquarks, e.g. antiproton. GeV and TeV. This makes calculations of kinetic energy gain very straightforward: an
Meson — hadron composed of a electron accelerated through a pd of 100 V gains a kinetic energy of 100 eV; a particle with
quark and an antiquark, e.g. pion. a charge of 2e (e.g. an alpha particle) would gain a kinetic energy of 2 x 100 = 200 eV.
 Particles and nuclear structure

The
e WJECpeti requires -
ist. electron electron neutrino | up down knowledge that there are three os
generations of particles but — eae
Symbol: e& Symbol: ve Symbol: u Symbol: d questions involving interactions wil os
| charge: -e charge: 0 | charge: ze charge: aoe ‘be feed to the first. ee

2nd muon muon neutrino charm | strange

r— Terms & definitions
—
Symbol: =ur Symbol: vu Symbol: c¢ Symbol: s
charge: -e charge: 0 charge: Se charge: Te The elementary charge, e, is the
charge on the proton and has a
value of 1.602 x 10-19 C (4s.f.).
3rd tauon tauon neutrino top bottom
The charge on the electron is —e.
Symbol: > Symbol: vx Symbol: t Symbol: b
charge: -e charge: 0 charge: ae charge: =36 r— Terms & definitions
—4
The electron volt is the energy
Particle masses are also expressed in a combination of energy units and the speed of light transfer when an electron moves
through a potential difference of
c, using the Einstein relationship, E = mc?.
one volt. Using the definition of a
Rearranging this gives m = 5. which allows us to write the mass of a particle in the volt, W = OV,
NES KO Se)
unit eV/c?. In these units, the electronic mass, m, |S 0.511 aS. . The conversion to S|
units proceeds as follows: c° Also 1 keV = 1.602 x 10-16J

OS 11 MS de
= 0.511 x 1.602 x 10-3J =9.11 x 103! kg. and 1 MeV = 1.602 x 10-13 J
(2.998 x 108 m s"!)?

1.7.3 Antiparticles Self-test

To convert from MeV/c? to kg we
Gg

. Antimatter is not only the stuff of science fiction. For each of the particles in Table 1.7.1, multiply by 10°e and divide by c?.
Invert this method to express the
there is corresponding antiparticle with an identical mass; if the particle has a charge, the
proton mass of 1.672 x 10-27 kg in
antiparticle has an equal and opposite charge. The symbol for most antiparticles that you
will meet is formed by putting a bar over the symbol for the particle, e.g. u,v., p for the
anti-up quark, the electron antineutrino [or ‘anti-electron neutrino’) and the antiproton
respectively. The exceptions are the antiparticles of the electron, muon and tauon which
are written e*, u* and t+ respectively. The antielectron has its own name: the positron.

When a particle and its antiparticle interact they annihilate each other; that is they
If an electron and a positron
disappear and their mass-energy manifests itself as two photons of electromagnetic annihilate, they produce
radiation. These photons are given the symbol y because they are at the very high energy two y photons. These are emitted
end of the e-m spectrum. The total energy of the photons is equal to the sum of the mass- in opposite directions — otherwise
momentum would not be conserved.
energy and kinetic energy of the annihilating particles.

Example : = Self-test 1.72)

An electron and a positron collide head on and annihilate. Each particle has a kinetic Calculate the wavelength, frequency
energy of 100 keV. Calculate the energy of each of the photons produced, and momentum of the photons in
the example. [See Section 2.7 for the
momentum of a photon]
Answer
Electron mass =511 keV /c?, so the mass energy is 511 keV.

.. Total energy = total mass energy + total kinetic energy

- =2x511 keV +2 x 100 keV

= 1222 keV
*, Each photon has energy % x 1222 keV = 611 keV
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

The opposite process can also happen: if it possesses enough energy, a high energy
photon can create an electron-positron pair. It also needs to interact with another particle
(usually an atomic nucleus) to enable energy and momentum to be simultaneously
conserved. In Fig. 1.7.2 a high energy photon enters from the top and interacts with
a hydrogen atom at A (it is in a bubble chamber, which consists of a tank of liquid
hydrogen), ejecting a high energy electron, creating a low energy electron-positron pair
and a second photon which continues to B where it creates a second (higher energy)
e-et pair. A magnetic field at right angles to the page makes the charged particles travel in
curves: the opposite charges of electrons and positrons results in the typical ‘ram's horn’
effect at A.

1.7.4 The evidence for neutrinos

Neutrinos are neutral particles of very low mass which only interact via the weak force.
This means that they need to come within ~10-!8 m to interact, so interactions hardly
Fig. 1.7.2 e-e* pair production ever happen: for example, a typical solar neutrino could expect to penetrate 1-2 light-
years thickness of lead!
relative frequency
The first evidence for their existence came from studies in the 1930s of the energy
spectrum of beta particles. Phosphorus-32, e P, decays by B emission. Before neutrinos
were Known the complete reaction was expected to be:
32 32 0
is Pere ose ©

The energy release in the decay is 1.5 MeV. If we apply the principle of conservation
of momentum, we can calculate that the beta particles should take nearly all the energy
(>99.9%), with the much heavier sulohur nucleus taking a tiny fraction. Compare this
with the actual energy spectrum in Fig.1.7.3: 1.5 MeV is indeed the maximum beta
0 0.5 1.0 Iles
particle energy but there is a continuous spectrum of energies with the peak being less
beta particle energy / MeV
that 0.5 MeV. This energy spectrum is only possible if a third particle is also produced,
Fig. 1.7.3 P-32 B-spectrum which can share the energy with the beta particle. This particle is called the neutrino
(strictly, the electron anti-neutrino) and the complete reaction Is:

weP— 69+ 1Ot¥,

The photograph in Fig. 1.7.4 is of the B-decay of a nucleus of He-6. As with Fig.1.7.2
this is in a bubble chamber. The curved track is the B-particle; the short fat track, the
recoil of the resulting Li-7 nucleus. In order to conserve momentum a particle (a neutrino)
must be emitted downwards in the photograph. The neutrino doesn’t interact and so
leaves no track.

Fig. 1.7.4 He-6 decay

1.7.5 Building heavy particles

ina bubble chamber

proton neutron
Electrons, being leptons, are elementary particles; that is they are not composed of other
particles. Hadrons, e.g. protons and neutrons (which are together also called nucleons),
on the other hand, are composed of quarks, bound together with the strong force (see
Section 1.7.6). Evidence for the existence of quarks is indirect. Single quarks are never
detected. They are always seen in combination (see Section 1.7.8).

There are three different types of hadron:

Fig. 1.7.5 Quark structure
of nucleons
e Baryons, such as protons and neutrons, are composed of three quarks. First
generation baryons are composed entirely of a mixture of up (u) and down (d) quarks.
e Antibaryons such as antiprotons are composed of three antiquarks.
e Mesons, are composed of a quark and an antiquark.
 | Particles and nuclear structure

The quark structure of protons and neutrons is shown schematically in Fig. 1.7.5 and can
be summarised by
y Study point —
Because mesons are composed of a
p=uud n=udd quark and an antiquark, there is no
need to define a separate category of
‘antimeson'.
Note that, in particle physics, the proton has the symbol p rather than ;H, which is usual
in nuclear physics; the neutron is n rather than jn. Also the order of writing the quarks
is arbitrary: p = udu and n = ddu, etc., are perfectly good ways of writing the structure. v Study point |ae
Protons are the only stable baryons: there are theories which suggest they could be The antiproton and antineutron have
unstable with a half life of around 102 years! the following structures:
=uud
;n =udd.
Mesons are created in copious numbers when baryons are collided at moderate to high
energies (more than a few hundred MeV). The first generation mesons are called pions
(or pi mesons). Their names and quark structure are given in the definition:
Notice that the charge on the two
A typical meson-generating reaction is sides of the reaction is the same, as
is the number of u-quarks (4); there
Dee eDiets” are 2 d-quarks on the left and3d+1
anti-d on the nght. This is explored
which, at the quark level, can be written: further in Section 1.7.6.

uud + uud — uud + uud + ud

r— Terms & definitions
—4
There are only six first-generation baryons. They are summarised in Table 1.7.2:
Pions have the following names
and structure:

* (pi plus) = ud
Nucleons |p (uud); n (udd) z~ (pi minus) = du (orud!)
A particles |A+* (uuu); A+ (uud); A® (udd); A (ddd) 7° (pi zero) = uu or dd. A beam
of z° mesons is composed of a
The symbol, A, is the Greek letter capital delta, so the A family is called delta double plus, mixture of the two!
delta plus, etc. Note that the quark structures of At and A° are the same as those of p
and n respectively but the mass of the At is 1232 MeV/c? against 938 MeV/c? for the
proton. The At can be regarded as an excited state of the proton: similarly for A° and the
neutron. This is discussed in the Stretch & challenge.
_ The additional mass is related to _7 i
ay5s=
_the excitation energy. This effect
also occurs in atomic energy eee7 4
The first excitation energy of atomic a
1.7.6 Interactions (forces) a hydrogen iis10.2eV.Bywhat
- fraction does the mass of a hydro¢
:
43

between particles atom increase if it is put intoits-l s2

—excited state? — d 4

Macroscopic objects are subject to two types of force: gravitational and electromagnetic.
Subatomic particles are also affected by two other forces: the strong and the weak
interactions. These are not experienced at all on the everyday scale because their range is Self-test
so small. The four forces are summarised in Table 1.7.3 in order of increasing strength. Heavier nuclei need a greater
fraction of neutrons to overcome
the increased e-m repulsion of the
protons. Illustrate this from the
fraction of neutrons in the stable
» 1D le 197
gravitational |all matter |infinite |negligible for subatomic particles nuclei, 6 C, 56 Fe and, 79 Au.

ance only significant when e-m and strong

Weak al| particles ve interactions not involved

electromagnetic all charged snfinite also affects neutral hadrons because The word interaction is ae
(e-m) particles quarks have charges preferred to force because it has a
wider implication than just attraction
t fl Gaarks cee also affects interactions between or repulsion. It includes the control
of the creation of particles or their
ae aS hadrons (e.g. nuclear binding) decay.
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

The stability of atoms arises from the three non-gravitational forces:

5 aecondidaing which force|is electrons are bound to the nucleus by the electromagnetic force.
responsible for areaction we e Protons and neutrons are held together in the nucleus by the strong force which
alsohavetohaveaneyeonthe _
opposes the e-m repulsion of the protons.
ons fonlawseee so:2).
e The weak force is responsible for the decay of neutrons in neutron-rich nuclei, giving
rise to B- decay.
Generally the interaction responsible for any particular interaction is the strongest one
areaction,aeee the which is felt by all the particles on both sides of the equation. For example:

eaction,the stronger e All the particles in the reaction in Section 1.7.5 are composed of quarks. It is
ely the reaction controlled by the strong interaction meaning that it is likely to happen.
e Neutrinos only feel the weak force, so any interaction with neutrons in it (e.g. B-decay)
must be weak. This results in the high ability of neutrinos to penetrate matter.

The different strengths of the interactions are illustrated by the different decay times of
—@ Qelf-test particles and the force responsible. The following are examples:

In terms of energy conservation, Strong A> (ddd) -~ n+ 27 lifetime ~ 10-74 's

why can a neutron (mass
939.6 MeV/c?) decay into a Electromagnetic x° (uu) -~y+y lifetime ~ 10° s
proton (938.3 MeV/c?) an electron
(511 keV/c?) and a neutrino, but an Weak n (udd) ~ p+e+v¥, lifetime ~ 15 min
isolated proton cannot decay into a
neutron, a positron and a neutrino?

1.7.7 Conservation laws in

particle physics
The familiar conservation laws of energy and momentum apply in particle physics,
though they have to take into account the relativistic speeds of the particles. The
conservation of charge is a universal law and there are additional rules — one of which
is sometimes broken!

(a) Conservation of lepton number

For the first generation of leptons, i.e. the electron family, we
Self-test assign each of them a number, which we call the e/ectron
Show that neutron decay (Section lepton number, (L,), as shown in the table. The value of L, oe | al
1.7.5) is allowed by the conservation
for all other particles is zero. We find experimentally that this et | at
of electron lepton number. Hint:
quarks have zero lepton number. lepton number is always conserved, i.e. if we add the lepton | 1
number for the reactants and for the products, the numbers Ve
are always the same. Ve | —]

—@ Self-test
Conversely, if a proposed reaction would violate the conservation of L, we can be just as
sure that it is impossible as if it violated the conservation of energy.
Positive muons (u*) decay into
positrons and neutrinos. Write the
The other generations of leptons, the muon and tauon families, have their own lepton
decay equation and show how L, numbers, Ly, and L;, which are defined in the same pattern as L,. These are separately
and L, are each conserved. conserved, as shown by the muon decay reaction:

Le? Caray tn
L, = 0 on both sides of the equation and Lu = 1 on both sides; thus both numbers are
conserved.
 syvantolletoee-vitemaitlellcrvarcinalteatha-

(b) Conservation of baryon and quark numbers

Similarly to lepton number we define a baryon number, B. Each baryon, e.g. proton, has The number of mesons is not
conserved. The most common zt
B = 1; antibaryons, have B = -1; leptons and mesons have B = 0. Again, baryon number decay mode (>99%) is:
is always conserved. The following reaction could not happen:
=
pta Vis
p+mz—-n+n The reason for non-conservation of
mesons is that they each consist of a
even if the p and z— had enough kinetic energy and even though it conserves charge and qq pair so Q = 0.
lepton number. Why not? Because the total baryon number on the left is 1 and on the
right it is 2!

The conservation of baryon number is really a special case of the conservation of quark
Self-test 1.7.7) ee
number, Q. Looking again at our ‘impossible reaction’ and assigning a quark number of For the decay: x* > u* + Vip

-1 to antiquarks, we can tally the quarks as follows: (a) Explain what interaction is
responsible.
Left-hand side: Q=3 +(1-1)=3 Right-hand side: Q=3+3=6 (b) Show what conservation laws are
demonstrated.
On the other hand the Q totals for the p + p — p + n + z+ are the same on both sides.
Looking more closely we see that the individual quark numbers, U (up) and D (down)
are also conserved, with the usual convention that an antiquark has a value -1: on each
side U = 4 and D = 2. Individual quark numbers are conserved in strong and e-m inter-
r— Terms & definitions—
actions, but can be changed by +1 in weak interactions. Looking again at neutron decay: The different types of quark, up,
down, etc., are said to possess
n (udd) — p+e-+v, different flavours. This strange
(!) use of the word is possibly
Writing this in terms of quarks: udd — uud+e-+v,, related to the German sour milk
product which is often flavoured
Urs] Z2e@Oad FO with fruit.
D2 iO aeO
We see that U changes from 1 to 2 and D from 2 to 1. The total quark number Q is 3 on
both sides but one of the quarks has changed its flavour from down to up. Indications ofaweakforce are.
1. Leptons are involved:theydon't
feel the strong force. _

eee
2. Neutrinos are involved: they.
Sc Crp eae don't feel the e-m force.
Seudt quarks are involved, a chan
in quark flavour OCCUIS.
A proton, an electron and a helium nucleus are each accelerated through
a potential difference of 500 V. State the increase in kinetic energy of each
4. Ifitis a decay, thelifetime is SS
oe ae Wee so

(a) ineV and

(b) in J.
The masses of atomic particles are often expressed in terms of the atomic mass unit, u which has a
value of 1.660 x 10-27 kg. The neutron has a mass of 1.008 665 u. Calculate the mass of a neutron

(a) in kg,
(b) in MeV/c? [c= 2.998 x 108 m s“!].
The radioactive isotope :oN decays by the emission of a positron, when one of the protons in its
nucleus transforms into a neutron. The equation is:

po nret+xX

where X is an unidentified particle. The half life of the decay is 10.1 minutes.

(a) Identify X and justify your choice in terms of relevant conservation laws.
(b) State which of the interactions controls this decay. Justify your choice.
(c) An isolated proton cannot decay into a neutron in this way. Explain which conservation law would
be violated.
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

The delta particles generally usually decay into either a proton or a neutron plus a charged pion (z* or 2)
in about 10-24 s. See the end of Section 1.7.6 for the decay of A~. This decay can be written in two ways:

A->n+z- and ddd -—udd+ud

Write equations for the decays of the other A particles in the same way. What indications are there that
these decays take place by the strong interaction?

A second generation baryon has the quark structure uus. It decays into first generation particles (a baryon
and a meson) with a decay time of ~ 2.6 x 10°!°s.

(a) What indications are there that this decay proceeds via the weak interaction?
(b) There are two modes of decay: into two charged particles or into two uncharged particles. Write these
equations at both the composite particle and the quark level.
(c) Following one decay, the meson subsequently decays into two photons. Identify, giving a reason, which
of the two modes in (b) was followed.

One method of detecting neutrinos is to use dry-cleaning fluid! This fluid is chlorine rich: 25% of chlorine
atoms are the Cl-37 isotope. Occasionally an electron neutrino (e.g. from the Sun) interacts with a particle
in a Cl-37 nucleus, converting the nucleus into Ar-37. The proton numbers for chlorine and argon are 17
and 18 respectively.

(a) Identify the particle in the chlorine nucleus which is changed and the particle it is changed into. Explain
your answer.
(b) Write the equation for the interaction just including the relevant particles (i.e. ignore the rest of the
nuclei).
(c) Huge numbers of solar neutrino pass through the Earth every second. Why is this only an ‘occasional’
interaction?

Only one-third of solar neutrinos, arriving at the Earth, consist of electron neutrinos. The other two-thirds
consist of muon and tauon neutrinos in roughly equal numbers. Suggest why the muon and tauon
neutrinos cannot be detected as in Q6. [Masses in MeV/c?: m, ~ 0.5; my ~ 105; m, ~ 1800.]

The K+ particle is a second generation meson with quark composition us. It decays into a z+ meson and X
which is another first generation particle.

(a) Identify X by considering the relevant conservation laws.

(b) Write the decay reaction, K* — z* ... at the quark level.
 Exam practice questions
ie (a) (i) Define mean speed. [1]
(ii). A motorcyclist enters an 80 km/h restricted zone on a motorway. There is an
average speed check on this 10 km section. After 6 km the cyclist realises that
he has been doing 90 km/h all the time. What must his top speed be for the
remainder of the restricted section so that the mean speed is less than 80 km/h? [3]

(b) The combined mass of the motorcycle and rider is 350 kg. The graph shows the
variation of velocity, v, with time, ¢, over a 10 s period.

y/ms"

(i) Describe, without calculation, how the resultant force acting on the motorcycle
varies over this 10 second interval. [3]
(il) Determine the resultant force acting on the motorcycle at 2.0 s.
[mass of motorcycle and rider = 350 kg]. [3]

(c) (i) A force F acts on a body moving with a velocity v. F and v are in the same
direction. Starting from the definition of power, show that the power, P, is given
by P= Ry. oe [3]
(ii) When the motorcycle in part (b) is travelling at the steady velocity shown in the
last part of the graph, the useful power output by the engine is 2.45 kW.
Calculate the driving force required to maintain this velocity. [1]
(iii) Assuming that the resistive force is proportional to the velocity, calculate the
power output of the engine at 2.0 s. [3]

(d) At a later time the motorcycle in part (b) brakes to a halt in a distance of 25 m.
Calculate the mean braking force. [3]
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

2. Agroup of students proposes to determine a value for the Young modulus of mild steel
using the following setup:

long thin mild-steel wire white paint mark

wooden blocks

metre rule (mm scale)

clamp

(a) Starting from the definitions of stress, strain and the Young modulus, £, show that
the extension, A, of a wire of initial length /) and diameter d,, subject to a tensile load
provided by the weight of a mass, m7 is given by:
4l,m
ee [3]
(b) The students read that the value of £ is of the order of 200 GPa and the yield stress
is about 300 MPa. The students propose to use a wire of length (from the blocks to
the mark) of ~4 m and diameter ~0.3 mm. A range of masses up to 10 kg is available.

(i) Label the length, 7, of wire which is to be used in the calculations of E. [1]
(ii) Estimate the required mass of the load to achieve a stress in the wire of 250 MPa,
i.e. close to but significantly less than the yield stress. [2]
(iii) Consider whether these proposals are appropriate by estimating the likely values
of the extension, AZ. [3]
(iv) The students planned how to decrease the uncertainty in the final value of E.
|. State why increasing the length of the wire decreases the uncertainty in EZ. [1]
\|. Discuss whether using a wire with a smaller diameter would result in a lower
uncertainty in E. [2]

(c) Using a different arrangement, another group of students obtained the following values:
d= 0.272 + 0.012 mm;
i,= 1535 42 mm
gradient graph of A/ against m = 1.27 + 0.06 mm kg!

Calculate their value of E together with its uncertainty. [4]

 Exam practice questions N

3. Delta Cephei (8 Cep) is a variable star whose surface temperature varies between fixed
maximum and minimum values. Its continuous spectrum is given below for the maximum
temperature and minimum temperature.

:
2

=
:
:

wavelength / nm

(a) (i) Show that 6 Cep’s maximum temperature, 7,,,,., is approximately 7 000 K. [2]
(ii) Calculate the minimum temperature. [1]
(iii) Apart from changes in brightness, how would expect the appearance of 6 Cep
to vary between its maximum and minimum temperatures. [2]
(b) The luminosity of § Cep at 7)... iS 1.46 x 10°° W. Calculate its diameter at this
temperature. [4]

(c) According to an accepted theory, the reason for the changes in the temperature and
brightness is that 8 Cep is a pulsating star, \.e. its periodically swells and shrinks. The
graphs show the variation in luminosity, ZL, and radius, 7, over a little more than one cycle.

luminosity /L

radius / r |
ee
te well
mat
{
'

‘ fe time

(i) The times f) and f, are marked. Describe what is happening to the radius
and luminosity around these times and use the descriptions to infer how the
temperature is changing. [3]
(ii) Mark on the graph estimates of the times of maximum and minimum
temperature, f,,.. and ¢,,:,. Justify your estimates. [2]
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 1

4. (a) The electron, the proton, the electron neutrino and the a meson are all
first-generation particles. Some of them are fundamental particles, the others
being composite particles.

Identify the fundamental particles and give the makeup of the others. [3]

(b) This is one of the reactions occurring in the proton-proton chain in the Sun:
Bete —3Li+y,

(i) Only one of the particles in the beryllium nucleus is involved in the reaction.
identify this particle and write the reaction in terms of the quarks involved. [2]
(ii) Which of the nuclear interactions, strong, weak or electromagnetic, is involved
in this reaction? Give two reasons for your answer. [2]
(iii) ~Which conservation laws are illustrated by this reaction? Justify your answers. [2]

(c) Most neutrinos produced in the core of the Sun, escape from the Sun. Some of them
can be detected on Earth using radiochemical methods in which a neutrino hits a
neutron in the nucleus of a suitable atom, e.g. Cl-17, and converts it into a proton:

Varn pte

The reaction is detected when the new radioactive nucleus subsequently decays.

The new atom, Ar-17, is more massive than the first atom, so the reaction can only
proceed if the neutrino has enough kinetic energy to produce the extra mass,
according to Einstein’s equation E = mc?.

The neutrinos produced in the reaction in part (b) have an energy of 1.38 x 10°13 J.
Use the following data to decide whether these neutrinos can be detected by Cl-17. [2]
Mass of a CI-17 atom = 36.965 90 u; Mass of an Ar-17 atom = 36.966 77 u;

1a 1.66 x 102 kerc = 3.00 «108 m s7.

 Exam practice questions

5. (a) Two of the equations of motion for constant acceleration are

: veutatandx="5~1

Use these equations to show that, for an object accelerating from rest,

y= 20x

and x= at? [4]

(b) The combination of two velocities depends not only upon their magnitudes but also
their directions.

(i) The diagram shows a 120 N force and another force drawn to the same scale.

120N

Complete the diagram to show the resultant force and state its magnitude and
direction. [2]
(ii) Give the general name of quantities which add in this way. [1]

(c) Astone is thrown horizontally from a cliff of height 40 m. It hits the ground below
at an angle of 60° to the horizontal. Ignoring the effect of air resistance, calculate
the speed of projection. [3]
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

ib ght
Overview: |
Unit 2 Electricity and

Diffraction — the dependence on wavelength and obstacle size.

e The electronic charge, e, and the coulomb. Two-source interference and the principle of superposition;
e Electric current is the rate of flow of charge and is expressed coherence; coherent sources.
in amperes (A), where A=Cs-l. Young’s experiment, historical importance, path difference
e¢ The mechanism of conduction in metals and the derivation rules; Young’s slits formula.
and use of J = nAve. Diffraction gratings; the derivation and use of the diffraction
grating formula.
Stationary and progressive waves; stationary waves regarded
as a superposition of two progressive waves; nodes and
intermodal distance.
Potential difference and the unit of pd; power calculations. PRACTICAL WORK
The LVcharacteristics for a filament lamp and a metal wire at e Determination of 2 using Young's double slits.
constant temperature. ¢ Determination of 4 using a diffraction grating.
Ohm's law; definition and unit of resistance. e Determination of the speed of sound using stationary waves.
Resistance and energy transfer in terms of free-electron
collisions; temperature variation of resistance for metals.
Resistivity.
Superconductivity, and superconducting transition temperature;
uses of superconductors; high temperature superconductors.
PRACTICAL WORK Snell’s law and refractive index; Snell’s law related to the wave
¢ Investigation of the -V characteristics of a lamp and a metal model of light propagation.
wire at constant temperature. Total internal reflection; derivation of the equation for critical
Determination of resistivity of a metal. angle.
Investigation of the variation of resistance with temperature for Multimode optical fibres and total internal reflection; multimode
a metal wire. dispersion; monomode optical fibres and data transmission rates.
PRACTICAL WORK
e Measurement of the refractive index of a material.

Conservation of energy and charge in a circuit; current and pd

in series and parallel circuits.
Series and parallel resistance combinations. Saree NaNO re os SER

Potential divider circuits, including non-linear components. The demonstration of and analysis of the photoelectric
Emf and internal resistance of a power source; calculating effect; photon explanation leading to Einstein's
current and pd in circuits with one power supply or series photoelectric equation.
combination of supplies. The orders of magnitude of the wavelengths and photon
PRACTICAL WORK energies of the electromagnetic spectrum.
e Determination of the internal resistance of a cell. Production of atomic line emission and line absorption
spectra using a diffraction grating.
Atomic energy level diagrams; ionisation energy.
Electron diffraction, particle wave properties; the de
Broglie relationship, radiation pressure.
PRACTICAL WORK
Transverse and longitudinal waves, energy transfer e Determination of h using LEDs.
and polarisation.
The terms displacement, amplitude, wavelength,
frequency, period and velocity of a wave; phase
differences; the wave equation c = fA.
Displacement-time and displacement—position
graphs for transverse waves.
e Stimulated emission gives coherent light.
Wavefronts at right angles to the direction of
e The need for population inversion; its achievement
propagation, having all points in phase.
by pumping in 3- and 4-level systems.
PRACTICAL WORK e Laser structure; the advantages and uses of
e Investigating polarisation. semiconductor lasers.
 Electricity and Light

There are three distinct, albeit interacting, areas of focus of this unit:
e Electricity
- Content
The nature of an electric current is explored, together with the way in which 2.1 Conduction of electricity
different materials and devices respond to currents. The properties of 2.2 Resistance
circuits and power supplies are examined, allowing students to predict their
2.3 DC Circuits
x
behaviours.
e Waves
2.4 The nature of waves
Like electricity, wave motion forms a cornerstone of modern physics. Waves 2.5 Wave properties
are classified and their properties examined in mathematical detail. The wave 2.6 Refraction
of light
model of light is used to explain the phenomena of refraction, diffraction and 2.7 Photons
interference.
2.8 Lasers
e Photons
We now understand that, as well as having wave properties, electromagnetic
radiation behaves like a stream of particles, called photons. Evidence for this
is presented and this model is used, together with knowledge of atoms, to
account for the atomic absorption spectra, which were introduced in Unit 1.
The basics of laser operation are explored. _

Practical work
Unit 2 provides a wealth of
opportunities, especially in the
electricity and wave sections, for
students to continue developing
their practical skills.
> 2.1 Conduction of electricity
This short section gives the elementary facts about electric charge (forces between
charges, why we say that electrons have a negative charge, conservation of charge
and so on). We’re then able to discuss moving charges and to relate quantitatively the
velocity of charges moving in a wire to the current in the wire.

2.1.1 Electric charge

r— Terms & definitions
—4
This section is mainly about electric charge (simply charge from now on) flowing in
The law of conservation of charge electrical conductors. An electrical conductor, as opposed to an electrical insulator such as
The net charge in a system remains
air, is indeed defined as a material, or a piece of material, through which a charge can flow.
constant (provided charges can’t
enter or leave). Charge was first investigated with static — residing on the surfaces of materials that had
been rubbed with other materials. [If the rubbed materials are conductors, they have to be
held with insulators, so that their charges aren’t conducted away, by hands, for example. ]

Two sorts of charge were proposed. These were enough to account for the attractive and
repulsive forces observed between any rubbed materials.
ae 2.1.1) Self-test
Calculate the number of electrons e Glass, after rubbing with silk, was said to have a positive charge.
with a total charge of 1.0 coulomb. e Amber, after rubbing with fur, was said to have a negative charge.

The attractive and repulsive forces then fitted the rule (see Fig. 2.1.1):

Like charges (e.g. two positives) repel, unlike charges attract.

—@GD Celf-test
A polythene rod acquires a negative
charge of 3.2 nC when rubbed with
fur. Explain what happens in terms
of electrons, calculating how many
are involved.

_~ Study point —
hee

The coulomb is named after Suitably rubbed glass Suitably rubbed amber Suitably rubbed glass
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, who (or perspex...) rods repel (or polythene...) rods repel (or perspex) and amber
discovered (in the 1780s) how the (or polythene...) rods attract
strength of the forces between small
charged bodies depended on their Fig. 2.1.1
separation.
Positive and negative are apt names. For one thing, the different charges can cancel, or
neutralise, as when oppositely charged metals touch.

Over a century after these discoveries had been made, the particles inside the atom
were discovered. Protons have a positive charge (according to the glass-rubbed-with-silk
definition) and electrons a negative charge. So we now picture the charging of the glass
as some electrons being rubbed off some of the surface atoms of the glass on to the silk.

Charge is a scalar quantity, usually denoted by Q or q. The SI unit of charge is the

coulomb (C).

A proton’s charge is denoted by e. An electron’s charge is —e. Experiments show that, to

four significant figures, e = 1.602 x 10°C.

The law of conservation of charge (see Terms and definitions) has no exceptions, as far
Fig. 2.1.2
as we know. It applies even when particles are created or destroyed, for example when
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb a neutron (no charge) ‘decays’ into a proton and an electron (with equal and opposite
 : | (Gfo)sVohbloimleyalejetc) (ce neleninys

charges) and an antineutrino (no charge). A more mundane case of charge conservation
would be the touching together of two metal spheres, one with a positive charge, the other
with a negative. Net charge (total positive charge — total negative charge) remains the same;
the ‘neutralisation’ - complete or partial — is simply due to redistribution of free electrons.

2.1.2 Electric current gap aaeneee

Charge flows through wires in an electric circuit. The flow is invisible, so how do we know The electric current, /, through
that it takes place at all? One indicative experiment uses the apparatus shown in Fig. 2.1.3. a conductor is rate of flow of
charge: the charge passing per
rubbed glass unit time through a cross-section
sphere of the conductor.
UNIT: ampere (A) = C s-!

" |Wy
—
(defined in terms of magnetic forces
between wires carrying currents).
The coulomb is a derived unit: the
500 V power Galvanometer Metal plates charge that passes in 1 second when
supply the currentis 1 A.SoC=As.

Fig. 2.1.3 centres of ions (vibrating)

free electrons at (
When the power supply is turned on, the galvanometer (a sensitive detector of electric be hp ae Ua eerie cael
current) deflects briefly. If a small glass ball (hollow like a Christmas tree bauble for a ace DF oe cs
low mass) is now rubbed with silk and dangled on a long insulating thread in the gap, [email protected]¢--0--¢ -@--e.
it accelerates away from one plate (which must therefore be charged positively) and Spaee Rte enue
towards the other (charged negatively). [Gravitational effects need to be discounted. ] =O; © 0 0 ft -@;
| |

The galvanometer deflection coincides with the plates acquiring charges — which must be =F cia a J,
via the connecting wires. The power supply urges electrons in one direction through the Fig! 2:1 ae stieed reeiaistruatate
wires and its own internal conducting pathway so that some electrons are taken from one
plate, and extra electrons are deposited on the other.
- a
Before the discovery of protons and electrons, it wasn’t known whether it was positive or ~~ study point—
negative charge that flowed in conductors. Scientists made a convention (an agreement) The ampere is named after André-
to assume it was positive. /n circuit diagrams, arrows denoting currents still show the Marie Ampere, who discovered (in
, Fgh ae ; 6 the 1820s) several magnetic effects
direction in which positive charge would flow. Pe RIE rs
We now know that in metals (by far the most commonly used conductors) it is electrons
that flow — in the opposite direction to the conventional current! The positive nucleus of
ene
each atom is surrounded by most of the atom’s electrons, making a positive ion. The ions La, ee stud: yp int
vibrate randomly but about fixed positions in a regular crystal /attice. In most metals only We allfallinto the trap sometimes,
a small proportion of the electrons are free to flow. For example, in copper, each atom but try to avoid writing ‘Current
flows...’ If it meant anything it
contributes one electron to the ‘pool’ of free electrons.
would mean ‘rate of flow of charge
flows’.
From now on we shall be dealing with circuits having
complete conductive paths. The simplest is shown
in Fig. 2.1.5. Charge flows continuously. Note that Eee: resistor
CEN RAE single cell
symbols used in circuit diagrams will be labelled
the first time they are used. You need to learn any Medes
Bie ls
that you don’t know.

Current as a measurable quantity is defined in Terms and definitions. In symbols,

_ Ag
fe At
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

~~ & Self-test
Example: using the definition of current
By using a variable power supply, the current through an electric lamp is made to vary
A car battery is rated at 45 Ah. (45
ampere hour). On one ‘charge’, it can as shown in Fig. 2.1.6. Calculate the charge that passes through the lamp during the
sustain a current of 5 A for 9 hours time shown.
(or 3 A for 15 hours, etc.). State what
physical quantity is given as 45 Ah, In any small time interval A¢ the charge AQ flowing is ZA¢. But [Aris the’area’ of the
and express it in SI. strip under the graph, for that interval. At least it is when Az is so small that we can
forget the sloping top. So the total charge is the sum of the very narrow Strip ‘areas’,
that is the ‘area’ under the graph.

In this case, Q=%4 x 2.0A x 208 +2.0A x 408+ %x2.0A x 408 = 140C.

0 20 40 60 80 100 2.1.3 How current depends on drift

velocity of free electrons in a metal
time/s
Fig. 2.1.6

_y Study point = (a) Drift velocity

The algebra of the derivation gives Free electrons share in the random thermal energy of the metal. A typical thermal
us / =-nAve, but we've dropped
speed for an electron at room temperature is 105 m s~'.Because the directions of motion
the minus sign. In /=nAve, J and
v are the magnitudes of current are random, changing when the free electrons hit the (vibrating) ions, the thermal
and drift velocity. We remember motion doesn't produce a flow of charge along the wire. We're concerned only with any
that the conventional current is in superimposed drift velocity of free electrons in one direction a/ong the wire, such as
the opposite direction to the free
occurs when a battery is connected across the ends of the wire.
electron drift velocity.

(b) The derivation

Suppose the mean drift velocity of free electrons in a wire is v. Then all the free electrons
in a length v At of conductor will pass through the shaded cross-section of the wire in Fig.
2.1.7 ina time At.

Fig. 2.1.7 To help show J= nAve How many free electrons is that? The volume of a length v Af of wire of cross-sectional
area, A, is Av At, so the number of free electrons in it is zAv AZ, in which 7 is the free
electron concentration, the number of free electrons per unit volume of the metal. As
each electron has charge —e ...

Charge passing through a cross-section in time At is AQ = —nAy Ate.

But current, J = ae SO we have (see Study point): J=nAve

Self-test Example: using J = nAve

Suppose the copper wire in the An insulated copper wire in a car’s headlamp circuit carries a current of 8.0 A. The
example of using J = nAve had only diameter of the copper conductor is 2.5 mm. Calculate the drift velocity of the free
half the diameter. Calculate v for
the same current. Try to do this by
electrons in the wire, and comment on your answer. The free electron concentration in
noting the single factor that needs copper is 8.47 x 1078 m=.
inserting, rather than by doing the
same calculation all over again with T=nAvesov= ke
ee idpe
nn(
1.25 x 103m instead of 2.5 x 10m!

in which dis the diameter of the wire. So, substituting the numbers,

yee
~ 8.47 x 1028 m*n(-25210°m 1.60 x 10°C
 @fohave
hbo mloyemeyarc) (cleinarerinrs

[Check that the units work out!] The drift velocity is small, despite 8.0 A being a fair-sized
current. [It would take a free electron over 2 hours to travel 1 metre through the wire!]
However, the free electrons start drifting through the wire within nanoseconds of closing a digital ‘multimeter’ set to a current
the switch to turn on the headlights. The so-called ‘electric field’ that sets them drifting range. Always start with a range
travels along the wire at almost the speed of light. with a high maximum (e.g. 10 A).
Then change, if it’s safe to do so, to
a lower current range (e.g. 200 mA
Ammeters maximum) to gain more significant
An ammeter (@) is an instrument for measuring current. The current to be measured Bovis:
must be routed through it. Analogue (pointer-and-scale) and digital types work on quite
different principles, but both have low resistance conductive pathways for the current, as
we don’t want their inclusion in a circuit to reduce the current significantly.

Current is the same all around a series circuit

This means, for example, that in Fig. 2.1.8, 7; = J, = 73. This follows from the law of
conservation of charge. Take J, = /,; it means that the rate of flow of charge into the
resistor is the same as the rate of flow of charge out of it; charge can’t disappear or be
created. But couldn't free electrons pile up in the resistor? No: excess free electrons, all
having the same sign of charge (negative) would repel one another.

Experimentally, you would expect to find that all three ammeters read the same. If they
didn’t, what do you do before claiming that you've disproved J, = J) = 3? You could
swap round the positions of the ammeters and see whether the readings followed
the meters. If so, what would you deduce? Or you could just put a single ammeter in
different places in turn!
Fig. 2.1.8

Exercise @210 8
Calculate the charge on a ae nucleus.

69.1% of natural copper atoms are ECU, each of which has a mass of

1,046 x 10-5 kg, and 30.9% 59Cu, with a mass of 1.079 x 105 kg.
The density of copper is 8930 kg m-. Calculate the total charge carried by all the electrons
in a 1 cm cube of copper.

The artificial radioactive material i Tc is radioactive. A sample of 1.0 mg of i:Te

has an activity of 640 MB,g, i.e. it gives out 640 million B particles every second.

Calculate the electric current between the KeTe sample and its support for the sample

to remain electrically neutral. State the direction of the current.

The current supplied by a Ni-Cd rechargeable battery is monitored over its discharge and
this graph is produced.
current / A

0.02

0 1 p, 3 4 5 6 time
/ 103s

(a) Calculate the total charge supplied.

(b) The battery is labelled as having a capacity of 100 mAh. Comment on this.
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

A capacitor is a device for storing separated charge. A student connects a resistor across a charged
capacitor, which discharges, i.e. the charge on one of its plates decreases. The student monitored the
remaining charge, Q, over time and plotted the graph below.

Q/mC

t/s

Use the graph to calculate:

(a) The mean current between f= 0 and 15 s.

(b) The initial current, i.e. the current at t=0 s.

The student in Q5 notices that the graph looked similar to a radioactive decay graph. This means that
the time taken for QO to halve should always be the same. By taking readings from the graph, show that
this appears to be true and find the value of this half-life.

Aluminium has an ionic radius of 63 pm. Metallic aluminium has 3 free electrons per aluminium ion.

(a) By considering the volume of an aluminium ion, estimate the number of free electrons per m? of
metallic aluminium.
(b) Calculate the drift velocity of free electrons in a 1 cm diameter aluminium conductor carrying a
current of 1 kA.

Germanium is a semiconductor. It has many fewer mobile charge carriers than do metallic conductors.
In germanium at room temperature there are approximately 18 mobile charge carriers for every million
atoms of germanium. A 1 mm diameter germanium wire carries a current of 10 mA.

Estimate the drift velocity of the charge carriers from the following data:

Mass of a germanium atom = 1.20 x 10° kg;

Density of germanium = 5.3 x 10° kg m>.
 Conduction of electricity

A 1 mm diameter copper wire carries an alternating current which varies as shown in the graph.
The free electron concentration is 8.5 x 1028 m->°.

(a) Sketch a graph of TA

how the electron drift
velocity varies with
time.
(b) Use your graph to
estimate the distance
drifted by a free
electron in half a cycle.

Comment on your answer.

OH hemos e sar el +120 t/ms

>: hAstlange
mae SY CIIdHEHUC

This question involves some concepts from Section 2.2.

Ce
A capacitor, C, (see question 5) is initially uncharged. It is connected into the following circuit:

When the switch is closed, the pd across the resistor varies with time as follows:

(a) By drawing a suitable graph, estimate the total charge transferred around the circuit as the capacitor charges up.
(b) Determine the half-life of the /-# relationship

(c) What fraction of the total charge is transferred in the half-life you determined in part (b)?
» 2.2 Resistance
r— Terms & definitions— Having studied current as rate of flow of charge, we now turn our attention to the
The potential difference, V,
accompanying energy transfers. The key idea is potential difference (pd), and we
between two points, X and Y, get to grips with this first of all. It enables us to define the very useful concept of
is the work done, that is the loss resistance, and we discuss in some detail what gives a metal wire its resistance.
of electrical potential energy, per Finally, we look briefly at the extraordinary phenomenon of superconductivity.
unit charge passing between
Xand Y,
UNIT: volt (V) = J Col.
2.2.1 Potential difference
A voltmeter (@) reads the potential difference (pd) between two points,
X and Y, in a circuit — as long as one of its leads (wires) is connected to X and the
filament
lamp other to Y! So, in Fig. 2.2.1, the voltmeter will tell us the pd across the resistor, not
across the filament lamp. If we want the pd across a particular component, the
voltmeter must be connected across that component.

X is said to be at a higher potential than Y if the voltmeter gives a positive reading

aya
when the meter lead that is red or labelled ‘+’ is connected to X.

Fig. 2.2.1 The voltmeter: knowing its Suppose the voltmeter reads 6.0 V. This tells us that for every coulomb passing
place between X and Y, 6.0 J of work is done, resulting in 6.0 J of energy changing category:
from electrical potential energy to another form.

Voltage is a term often used to mean potential difference. A formal definition of

The symbol for pd is V (or AV) potential difference is given in Terms and definitions.
and, like all symbols for physical
quantities, it is in italics. The symbol lf there is a resistor between X and Y, as in Fig. 2.2.1, charge does work as it travels
for its unit is V, an upright or through the resistor (more about this later), thereby losing electrical potential energy
‘Roman’ letter, like all symbols for
units.
(the ability of a charge to do work because of its position), and the resistor acquires
random thermal energy, which escapes to the surroundings as heat — so-called energy
dissipation.

£: De fap ila
Py et Examples
To help avoid mistakes, connect the
voltmeter last when winng a circuit. 1. If the pd across a resistor is 6.0 V, and the current through it is 1.5 A, how much
heat would it give out every minute once it reaches a constant temperature?

Heat emitted = Electrical PE lost per unit charge x charge passing

=6.0 Vx (1.5 A x 60s) = 540 J

2. Referring to Fig. 2.1.3, the glass ball loses electrical potential energy as it goes
across the gap from the positive plate to the negative. It gains kinetic energy. [This
is the principle of the particle accelerator. |

Self-test Suppose the ball has a mass of 10 g and a charge of 6.0 nC, and that it starts
from rest and reaches a speed of 0.060 m s~!. What would be the pd between
A typical flash of lightning has been
estimated to carry a mean current the plates?
of 30 kA for a time of 0.5 ms and to
dissipate 450 MJ. Calculate the pd. 7 Electrical PE lost _ KEgained %x0.010x0.060?J _ 3000 V
- charge passing — charge passing — 60% 10° © <
 Resistance

r— Terms & definitions——

2.2.2 Electrical power Power means rate of doing work
or rate of transfer of energy (for
Generalising the reasoning in the first example in 2.2.1, when
example between categories).
there is a current J for a time Af through a conductor across ; a
Work done
which the pd is V (seé Fig. 2.2.2) then... y SO. POWEh =r ae
time taken
Work done = Elec.PE lost per unit charge x charge passing | Energy transferred
or Power = ;
time taken
So Work = Vx IAt ia Fig, 2.2.2 UNIT: watt (W) =J s7!

The term power, P, can be used in connection with any system (mechanical, electrical,
thermal...) See Terms and definitions. In this electrical case,

Electrical work 2 VERS

Power = ———— SOP = 1,
time taken to do work At Self-test
When the pd across a resistor is
6.0 V, the current is 120 mA.
Example Calculate: (a) the power dissipation
(b) the charge that flows in
In a simple particle accelerator, a beam of protons passes from a metal plate X to a metal 30 minutes. (c) the energy
dissipation in 30 minutes.
plate Y. The pd between these plates is 150 kV, with plate X at the higher potential.
The number of protons leaving X (and arriving at Y) per second is 7.0 x 10!°s71.
Calculate the electrical power.

Current = charge flowing per unit time = 7.0 x 10!®s1 xe

= 70x LOM ss 160 10? Cie dl 2 mA Self-test

~. Power, P = Vi= 150 kV x 11.2 mA = 1.7 kW. In time ¢, a charge O passes through
a resistor across which the pdis V/.
The power dissipation is P.
Express ¢ in terms of QO, V and P.

2.2.3 | against V (/-V) graphs for

conductors
The current through a conductor and the pd across it are related. When one is zero,
so is the other. When one increases, so (almost always) does the other. We're using
‘conductor’ to mean anything that conducts, for example a piece of wire, a resistor,
a filament lamp, a diode connected in the ‘forward’ direction, such as the light-
emitting diode shown in Fig. 2.1.8.
r— Terms & definitions—
Water flow analogy Ohm’s Law
The electric current through a conductor is
The current / through a
rather like the rate of flow of water from one conductor is proportional to the
tank to another through a pipe (Fig. 2.2.3). pd, V, across it.
The height difference between water levels in
The law applies to metals (and
the tanks is analogous to potential difference
many other single-substance
in an electric circuit. When the height
conductors) at constant
difference is zero the flow rate is zero. The temperature.
greater the height difference the greater the
flow rate. A pump to take water from the
bottom tank back the top to keep the water
levels constant could be included to act like
a battery in an electric circuit.
Fig. 2.2.3 Water flow analogy
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

2.2.4 Resistance
—
r— Terms & definitions The resistance of a conductor is defined in Terms & definitions.

The resistance, R, of a conductor A conductor obeying Ohm’s law has a constant resistance whatever pd we put across It —
SE CMRE ORY as long as it continues to obey Ohm's law! | |
R=—Pdacross conductor _
~ current through conductor To convince yourself that this claim is true, calculate the resistance at (say) three different
Papen sag eae voltages for the metal wire whose L-V graph is given in Fig. 2.2.4. If this is too easy, go to
eT the Stretch and Challenge.
UNIT: ohm (Q) = V A“
A conductor that doesn’t obey Ohm’s law has a resistance that does depend on the
The conductance, G, of a
conductor is defined by applied pd. By considering the ratio aa you should be able to deduce, from looking at
_ current through conductor Ree
~ pd across conductor the graphs (Fig. 2.2.4), that the LED’s resistance falls (dramatically) with increasing pd,
fi but that filament lamp’s resistance rises. In fact, up to about 0.2 V, the filament lamp
nsyinbols =~ illustrated does obey Ohm's law, because the resistance of the filament (a thin metal wire)
UNIT: siemens (S) = A V-! hardly changes temperature.

WA
0.3

filament lamp metal wire at constant temp. red LED

Fig. 2.2.4 I-V graphs

The middle graph, a straight line through the origin, demonstrates Ohm’s law. If the pd is
doubled, the current doubles, and so on.

As you can see, the law is not obeyed by all (indeed by most) conductors: a filament lamp
and an LED (a light-emitting diode) are two examples of non-ohmic conductors. But,
provided that their temperatures are constant, some very important types of conductor
are ohmic, including metal wires and most single-substance devices (Such as carbon
resistors).

Conductance
This is defined in Terms & definitions. Clearly for any conductor,

=
Oa and me
R=

We shan't use the idea of conductance very often.

 Resistance

(a) How resistance arises in a metal: a simplified

picture
We start by recalling (see Section 2.1.2) that if charge flows in a metal, it is by the drift of
free electrons. For a drift to occur through a metal wire, each free electron needs a force
on it, urging it along the wire. Putting it another way, there must be a pd across the wire.
[A pd implies work done on the charges, which implies forces acting in on them in the
direction of their motion.]

There seems to be a flaw in the argument just presented: a constant force on a free Self-test 22.4) —
electron will give it not a constant velocity but a constant acceleration. Yes — until the
Calculate the resistance of the
electron collides with one of the vibrating ions. [The high thermal speeds of the free filament lamp from the graph in
electrons will make such collisions very frequent.] The collision wipes out the electron’s Fig. 2.2.4, when the applied pd is
acquired drift velocity: on average it has to accelerate again from rest. And so on. The (a) 0.20 V, (b) 3.0 V.
result (See Fig. 2.2.5 for crude representation) is a particular mean drift velocity, v, and,
since J = nAve, a particular current, for a given pd placed across the wire. In other words
the wire will have a finite resistance — due, essentially to collisions between free electrons velocity
and vibrating ions.

(b) Power dissipation in a conductor

Suppose we know that the current through a 5.0 Q resistor is 0.30 A. How much power
is dissipated in it? We could do this is two stages:
Fig. 2.2.5 Mean drift velocity, v
pd across resistor is V=JR=0.30Ax5.0Q=1.5 V, (stylised)

So = Viz=15 V xX0.30A=0.45 W. 225)

We don't really need, though, to work out the pd, because, sticking a little longer with Self-test * a
symbols, Calculate the current needed for a
2.0 Q heating coil to produce 50 W
Revie Riis? =I2R of power.

Similarly, if we know the resistance R of a conductor and the pd, V, across it we can
calculate the power directly because, as you should be able to show:
wee
‘Pie cj
R: Summarising, P=ye
1V= 1 R=ene
R:

Example
~ A resistor of resistance 47 Q has a maximum power rating of 5.0 W. Calculate the
maximum pd that can safely be applied across it.

“80, P= $0, V=VPR=V5.0WX4TS = 15 V

(c) Power dissipation in a metal: free electron

picture
The power dissipation we've just been dealing with is the rate at which energy changes
category from electrical potential energy to random vibration energy. In a metal the
change occurs because the free electrons, with extra energy due to the applied pd,
keep colliding with the ions, as discussed earlier. The amplitude of vibration of the ions Fig. 2.2.6 James Prescott Joule
increases because of the harder hits; in other words the wire gets hotter! This electrical
heating is sometimes called Joule heating (See Fig. 2.2.6) after James Prescott Joule,
who did much to establish the idea of conservation of energy. It is the principle of the
electric heater and the filament lamp.
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

2.2.5 Resistivity
What are the factors that determine the resistance of a piece of wire?

° Suppose there is a current Jin a wire of length / when a pd Vis placed across it.
Energy is changing category (from electrical potential energy to thermal energy)
uniformly along its length. The pd across half of it (Fig. 2.2.7) must therefore be V/2.
l
So the resistance of length ighmust be:
ViGee Ney re .
Fo 5p as resistance of length J.
Fig. 2.2.7 Halves of a wire
Generalising, a wire’s resistance, R, is proportional to its length, /.

° But we can also regard the piece of wire as made up of two ‘length-ways halves’ each
with half the cross-sectional area of the original (Fig. 2.2.8). Each will carry current
(half that of the whole), so

Resistance of wire area 4 must be i = 4 = 2 x resistance of area A.

Fig. 2.2.8 Wire split lengthways Generalising, a wire's resistance is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area, A.
[The shape of cross-section doesn’t matter, as the distribution of current is determined by
free electron concentration, which is the same throughout the metal whatever its shape. ]

We can incorporate the dependencies on / and A in the single equation given in

r— Terms & definitions
Terms & definitions, which also includes a factorp (resistivity) taking care of the effect
The resistance, R, of a wire of of the wire’s material (and temperature) on its resistance. In fact the equation serves
length / and cross-sectional area to define resistivity — as long as the meanings of the other letters are stated! Check that
A is given by
the unit given forp must be correct.
rael
A The lower the resistivity, the better the material conducts electricity. The best
in which p is a constant for the conventional conductor is silver, which has a resistivity of 1.59 x 10-°§ Q m, at 20°C,
material of the wire at a given followed by copper (1.68 x 10-8 Q m), gold (2.44 x 10-8 Q m) and aluminium
temperature, called its resistivity. (2.82 x 10-8 Q m). Iron (9.72 x 10-8 Q m) is unimpressive. Contrast metals with
insulators: the resistivity of sulphur is about 1 x 10!° Q m.
UNIT of p:Q m
Measuring
the resistivity of a metal in the form of a wire is in Section 2.2.8.

Example
Self-test
Constantan is a nickel-copper alloy with a low dependence of resistivity on temperature
A metal wire is stretched so that
its length increases by 1.0%.
and — for a metal — a high resistivity: 4.9 x 10-7 Q m. It is ideal for making ‘wire-wound’
If its volume and resistivity are resistors. Calculate the length of constantan wire of diameter 0.19 mm needed to make
unchanged, by what percentage a 15 Q resistor. S
does its resistance increase?
Re-arranging the resistivity equation and putting in data:

bo 8
—@ Self-test
Inside the pvc sheath of a flexible
connecting wire there are 19 strands Conductivity
of copper wire, each of diameter
0.30 mm and length 0.50 m.
The conductivity, o, of a material (at a particular temperature) is the reciprocal of its
Calculate the resistance of the resistivity.
connecting wire. What would be its
ideal resistance? Thus o = and p SED
p 0
The conductance, G (see Section 2.2.4), of a wire is

Ge + = = which is perhaps more naturally expressed as G = a

 Resistance

2.2.6 How the resistance of a

metal depends on temperature
A metal wire’s resistance increases with temperature. This can be investigated Qelf-test ‘ €@D a.
using simple apparatus over the temperature range 0°C to 100°C as described in
A mains tungsten filament lamp
Section 2.2.8. The effect is almost entirely due to the metal’s change in resistivity, 9, since (aghtly condemned as an energy
thermal expansion of the wire makes only very small fractional changes to / and A. waster!) is rated at ‘240 V, 60 W’.
At 0 °C its resistance is measured to
The sketch-graph shows a typical relationship, as found by experiment over a wider range be 67.0 2. Calculate:
of temperatures than obtainable in a non-specialist laboratory. (a) How many times its resistance
increases between 0 °C and its
e Note that we have used Celsius temperature, 0. working temperature.
e On the vertical axis is the resistivity, p, divided by a constant, Jo, the resistivity at 0°C. (b) Its working temperature,
[It's not essential to divide p by fo; the benefit of so doing is that the graph will fit most assuming that for every degree
Celsius rise in temperature its
pure metals at least roughly.]
resistance increases by 0.0045 of its
resistance at 0 °C.

—300 —200 —100 0 100 200 300) a8 /°e

Fig. 2.2.9 Resistivity of a pure metal wire against temperature

The graph is nearly straight over quite a range of temperatures (at least from
—100 °C to +200 °C). Here the gradient is different for different metals, but is
somewhere around 0.004 °C-! for most pure metals. For alloys it is lower.

The resistivity of metals at very low temperatures is considered later.

Resistance and temperature for a metal:

free electron explanation
For a given pd applied across a wire, the mean drift velocity of the free electrons is limited
by their collisions with the vibrating ions. (See earlier section: How resistance arises ina
metal.) The higher the temperature, the greater the vibration amplitude and the shorter
the mean time between collisions. This reduces the mean drift velocity, v, and, because
I =nAve, the current (for a given pd). So, because R = = the resistance increases!
Note that in a metal, the free electron concentration, m, doesn’t depend on temperature.

Example: the shape of the -Vgraph for a filament lamp.

Applying a large enough pd causes Joule heating (by harder collisions between free
electrons and ions). The temperature rise increases the filament’s resistance (because
of the increased vibration amplitude of the ions)! So when we double the pd, the current
goes up — but less than double. Note that the resistance of a filament at its operating
temperature of perhaps 2500 °C may be more than 10 times its resistance at room
temperature; see Self-test 2.2.8.
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

2.2.7 Superconductivity
r— Terms & definitions— In 1911 the Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes cooled a wire made of (frozen)
A superconductor is a material
mercury to lower and lower temperatures, and made the astonishing discovery that,
that, below a certain temperature, at -269.0 °C, its resistance suddenly dropped to zero, or at least became too low to
the superconducting transition measure. It had become what we now call a superconductor. \ts superconducting critical
(or superconducting critical) temperature or superconducting transition temperature, 6., is -269.0 °C. Bear in mind
temperature, loses all its electrical that absolute zero, the lowest temperature possible, is —273.15 °C.
resistance.
Physicists have now observed superconductivity in many metals. The transition
temperatures are all within a few degrees of absolute zero. Note the sketch-graph of
resistance against temperature in Fig. 2.2.10. Among metals which haven't been made
to superconduct, despite cooling to within a minute fraction of a degree above absolute
zero, are copper, silver and gold — the best conductors at ordinary temperatures! See
3 FienZ 2.08

=
In 1986 it was discovered that certain special ceramic materials could be made to
superconduct, with transition temperatures much higher than those of metals, and mostly
somewhat above —196 °C. [-196 °C is the boiling point of liquid nitrogen, which can
therefore be used as a (relatively cheap) coolant to keep these so-called high temperature
273.2 —265 OWE superconductors superconducting. ]
Ge
Fig. 2.2.10 Superconducting transition Is the resistance of a Superconductor really zero? A current once started in a ring of
superconducting metal has been found not to diminish noticeably over periods of years,
R even with no applied potential difference!

hag Uses of superconductors

Superconducting wires will carry currents without dissipating any energy at all. As well as
ake ccna7 the energy saving, there is no unwanted heat to get rid of.

There is a limit to the current that a superconducting wire can carry. This is not because
Fig. 2.2.11 Non-superconducting metal it gets hot (there’s no Joule heating!) but because it gives rise to a magnetic field, and
too great a magnetic field makes a Superconductor ‘go normal’ even at temperatures
below @,.
Several prototype electrical power transmission cables have been set up using ‘high
temperature’ (ceramic) superconductors. Keeping the whole length of the cable very cold
is seriously expensive, but the energy savings could make such systems economic.

Electromagnets producing large magnetic fields over quite large volumes of space
are needed in MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) machines for medical diagnosis,
for most types of particle accelerator,
and for magnetically levitating vehicles.
than zero resistance. For example, Superconducting wires are routinely used for
when cooled through the
transition temperature, one class of
the coils of these electromagnets. Whereas
superconductor expels all magnetic the coils of conventional electromagnets need
field lines from its intenor. iron cores, Superconducting coils don’t. In
We don't attempt to explain an MRI machine, this leaves room for the
superconductivity here. There is an patient — quite an advantage. [To prevent the
accepted (but fiendishly difficult)
superconductor going normal because of the
explanation of the effect in metals,
but none generally agreed for high magnetic field, it has to be cooled well! below
temperature superconductors. its transition temperature. ]

Fig. 2.2.12 MRI magnet coil

 Resistance

2.2.0 Experimental investigations

(a) Investigation of the /-V relationship for a
conductor
We place the conductor under test in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.2.13. Note the ammeter
in series with it and the voltmeter across it. variable conductor
voltage under test
e Precautions for using a multimeter as an ammeter are explained in a previous study point. supply
e The variable voltage supply could be a purpose-made mains-powered unit or the
‘notential divider’ circuit shown in Fig. 2.2.14. How this works will be explained in
Fig. 2.2.13 Circuit for obtaining
Section 2.3.3. Vand I readings
e Starting from zero, we increase the pd in steps from zero up to the maximum allowed
for the conductor under test (e.g. a filament lamp might be labelled ‘3 V, 0.45 A’),
taking readings of Jand Veach time.
e t's usual to present the results on an /-V graph: J(vertical) against V. We take extra sliding contact
readings where the local shape of the graph is not clear, for example where it bends.
For a curved graph we'd expect to take about ten pairs of readings, for a straight
rheostat connected
graph, perhaps fewer. as potential divider

(b) Determining the resistivity of the metal of Fig. 2.2.14 A variable voltage supply

a wire
it's easiest to investigate an uninsulated (bare) wire made of an alloy (e.g. constantan)
with a relatively high resistivity. Essentially, we need to measure the wire’s resistance, R,
wire
length, / and diameter, d, since
under test

pl __pil
x2) that is R=— ay oO
4pl _ md?R
aaa

Fig. 2.2.15 Alternative circuit for

measuring resistance

multimeter
on 'ohms'
range
; ¢—crocodile clips—p i

Fig. 2.2.16 Measuring resistance and length of thin wire

R Wecan use a digital meter on its ohms range. Its zero error (what it reads when the
crocodile clips at the ends of its leads are held together) must be subtracted from
any resistance reading. Alternatively we could-use a battery, ammeter and voltmeter,
connected as suggested in Fig. 2.2.15.

1 The length of wire between the crocodile clips is measured with a metre rule. We
need to minimise uncertainties due to parallax, to wire not being straight and to the
unknown point of contact between wire and crocodile clips.

d_ The wire is likely to have a diameter of less than 0.3 mm,

so an absolute uncertainty of 0.01 mm would constitute an
uncertainty of more than 3% in d and of more than 6% in d?,
since it is d2 that we see in the equation forp. We certainly
need an instrument with a resolution no coarser than 0.01 mm:
Figmerc ale
either electronic calipers or micrometer screw gauge will serve.
We take the mean of five or six measurements spaced along
the length of the wire, and across different diameters.
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

_~ Study point We could determine p by putting one set of mean measurements into the equation.
However, it’s instructive to measure the resistance of progressively longer lengths of the
The mean value of d, the diameter
same wire, and to plot a graph of R against / as below.
of the wire for which the top R—/
h inFig. 2.2.18 lotted Apl 2 Ane an
6s ere ni ee Petact Since R = —., we expect the graph to be a straight line through the origin,
md?’ 4 i
f th hi
ht eat with a gradient apes SOp = HES gradient. See Study point.
(9.60-0.00)2 _ 137Q m1 md? 4
(0.700 — 0.000) m
This gives a resistivity of R/Q
p =-RE x gradient 10

= a m? .13.7Qm!

=O l0s! Olm

Qolf-test
The bottom graph in Fig. 2.2.18
is plotted from R and /
measurements taken from a
thicker piece of constantan wire.
Determine the gradient of the graph,
and hence the diameter of the wire,
taking the resistivity of constantan
I/m
as 5.0 x 10-7 Q m.

Fig. 2.2.18 Resistance against length for constantan wires

(c) How the resistance of a metal wire depends

A Safety alerts
1. Hot water: scalding hazard.
on temperature
Do not overfill kettle. Stir water We could use the apparatus shown in Fig. 2.2.19, though this is only one possibility. A
only with long stirrer. beaker of water heated by a Bunsen burner could be used instead of the kettle. Instead
2. Mains electricity. Keep clear of of using the multimeter on its ohms range, we could insert the coil of wire in the circuit
apparatus when kettle tumed
shown in Fig. 2.2.19 and calculate the resistance from V = JR.
on. Mop up spilt water — with
the kettle tured off at the
ae e Westart with the kettle switched off at the mains, and a mixture of crushed ice and
water surrounding the coil of wire.

e After stirring, we read the temperature and the resistance; we calculate the resistance
by subtracting the zero error of the meter (its reading when its probes are touched
together).

e We switch on the kettle for long enough for the ice to melt.

e With the kettle off, we stir the water gently with a long stick until the temperature
stabilises and take another pair of readings.

e We keep repeating the process aiming for temperature rises of between 10° and 15°
each time, until ~100°C.

e A graph is plotted of resistance against temperature. The graph is expected to be

a straight line of positive gradient. It is worth calculating the temperature at which
the resistance would be zero, if the straight line relationship continued down to low
temperatures.
 Resistance

clamp

digital thermometer
with long stem

coil of thin, 'Travel' kettle

insulated, es of power < 1 kW
multimeter waterproofed
on 'ohms' copper wire
range
BUA

Fig. 2.2.19 Dependence of resistance

on temperature: one method

ee > ee ee ee eee
An electric kettle is labelled 230 V, 2.5 kW. Calculate:

(a) The current taken by the kettle.

(b) The resistance of the heating element.

The nominal mains pd in the EU is 230 V, with an allowed tolerance of +10%/-6% in the UK and
+6%/-10% in much of mainland Europe, e.g. Germany. However for historical reasons, the transmitted
voltage is ~240 V in the UK and ~220 V in Germany. Calculate the actual powers used by the kettle in
Q1 when used in (a) the UK and (b) Germany. Comment on the time taken for the kettle to boil.

An old incandescent light bulb is labelled 240 V, 60 W. A torch bulb is labelled 6 V, 0.25 A. Show
that these two devices should be able to operate at rating if connected in series in a suitable circuit.

The diagram shows an electron gun. It consists of a heated coil, the cathode K,
V *
which gives off electrons and a thimble-shaped anode, A. The electrons are
accelerated by the pd between the anode and cathode. Most of the accelerated
electrons hit the anode but a small fraction emerges in a narrow beam from the
hole. (m, = 9.11 x 10-3! kg)

The electron gun is set up with a pd of 1 kV. The cathode gives off 5.0 x 10!
electrons per second, 95% of which hit the anode. Calculate:

(a) The power supplied by the voltage source,

(b) The energy transfer when an electron travels from K to A.

(c) The speed reached by the electrons.

(d) The current in the wire between A and the + terminal.

(a) Calculate the momentum attained by the electrons in Q4.

(b) The anode is observed to glow bright red. Explain why this should be and state the power which it
radiates away.

(c) Estimate the force which the electrons exert on the anode, explaining your answer in terms of N2
and N3.
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

A beam of protons (m, = 1.66 x 10-7 kg) is produced in a similar piece of apparatus to the electron
gun in Q4, operating at the same 10 kV.
Calculate the speed of the protons in the beam.

Newton's and Einstein’s relativistic formulae for momentum are compared in the box.

Newtonian momentum: py = mv |
ae mv
Le a
Relativistic momentum: pp = 5 |
pe |
c2 |
|

They are effectively the same for very low speeds, v << c.

(a) Show that for speeds less than 14% of the speed of light, the two values of momentum differ by
less than 1%.
(b) Use your answer to (a) to suggest a maximum voltage through which we can accelerate (i)
electrons and (ii) protons without needing to use Einstein's relativity theory.

A student measured the resistance, R, of a length of iron wire at temperatures, @, between 0 °C and
LOOEC.

prc 9 20 34 49 69 85 99
Ro 120 127 13.6 14.6 16.5 172 18.4

The results are shown in the table. The room temperature (20 °C) and ‘boiling’ temperatures are
thought to be correct to within +0.5 °C. The other temperatures have uncertainties of +2 °C. The
uncertainty in the resistance values is +0.1 °C.

(a) Plot the R, @ readings together with their error bars and draw extreme (max/min) graphs.

(b) Use the answer to (a) to determine the gradient, m, and intercept, Ro, on the R-axis, together with
their estimated uncertainties.

(c) The quantity + ay is known as the temperature coefficient of resistance,

0
with the symbol @.
(i) Use the definition to find the unit of a.
(ii) The value of a for iron is given in a web page as 6.41 x 10° units. Show whether this is in
agreement with your answer to (b).

(d) Pure iron does not become superconducting, i.e. it has a non-zero electrical resistance at all
temperatures. Use the results to show that the above linear relationship between resistance and
temperature does not hold at very low temperatures.

Two students investigate the current-voltage (-V) relationship for a filament car headlamp bulb
which is labelled 12 V, 24 W. They set up a suitable circuit to explore both the low and high voltage
variation. They expected the filament to obey Ohm's law for low voltages but not for high voltages.

0.25 0.117 4.00 1.078

0.50 0.234 6.00 1.342
0.75 0.352 8.00 1.568
1.00 0.469 10.00 1.768
1.50 0.634 12.00 1951
 : Resistance

(a) Explain briefly why they expected two different behaviours.

(b) Their power supply only gave outputs in 2.0 V steps. Draw a circuit they could
use to investigate the current for lower voltages and explain how it works.

(c) Their results are given in the table. Plot a graph of J against V and estimate the
value of V at which the behaviour changes.

(d) Calculate the resistance of the filament at low voltages and at the operating
voltage.

(e) The students read that, in the high voltage region, the relationship between
Tand Vis l=kV" and that the value of ” is approximately 0.6. Plot a graph of
T against V°° to investigate this and discuss the extent to which the line agrees
with J = kV°° for voltages above the transition. Refine your answer to the
transition voltage between the Ohmic and non-ohmic behaviours.

—=~~ [For A level candidates] Plot a suitable log graph to determine a more accurate
value for v. Use the results to obtain a value for k.

Ce pale AS
Gor LHIdHCHde;
This question involves some concepts from Section 2.3.
The specific heat capacity, c, of a substance is the heat energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of the substance
by 1°C.
To measure the value of c for aluminium, some students use an electrical immersion heater to heat a 1.00 kg block of
aluminium for 20 minutes. They monitor the temperature and note down the highest temperature reached. Their results
WeETe:
pd = 12.0 V; = 2.50 A; initial (room) temperature = 22.0°C, highest temperature = 53.6 °C
(a) Use the data to estimate the specific heat capacity of aluminium.
(b) In an attempt to allow for the effects of heat loss, the students monitor the temperature after the electrical heater is
switched off and notice that the temperature drops to 50.1°C after 5 minutes.
Making the assumption that the rate of heat loss is proportional to the difference between the temperature of the
block and that of the room, estimate:
(i) The highest temperature that would have been reached in the absence of heat loss and
(i) an improved value for the specific heat capacity.
~ 2.3 Direct current circuits
Many circuits can be resolved into series and/or parallel combinations of conducting
elements (for example, resistors, lamps) and a power supply. We show how to calculate
currents and pds in these circuits, and finish by considering two important cases, the
potential divider and the power supply with internal resistance.

2.3.1 Currents and pds in series

Fig. 2.3.1 Currents and parallel circuits
wa. = we
oF
ac
aC Ly
Wigteaes
00)
nAlet
ep ke
q
E eS
Sige
TH

Kirchhoff's first law

(a) Currents
The sum of currents coming into a We've already seen (in 2.1.2) how the law of conservation of charge shows that current
point in a circuit equals the sum of must be the same all round a simple series circuit (that is all components in a ring with
currents going out from it.
no branches). But suppose there are branches, so we have components in parallelas
in the lower resistor and the filament lamp in Fig. 2.3.1. Because charge is conserved,
the currents (rates of flow of charge) through these two components must add up to the
current in the circuit ‘before’ and ‘after’ it branched. In other words:

ie eee) ends

This illustrates the simple rule known as Kirchhoff's first law (See Study point).

(b) Potential differences

We start by looking at the parallel combination in Fig. 2.3.2. Whether the voltmeter is in
the left-hand position or the right-hand position it must read the same, because T, and
T3 are joined by a wire (of negligible resistance), and so are effectively the same point.
Similarly with B; and B3.

In other words, when components are in parallel, the pd is the same across both of them:
there is only one pd!

[More fundamentally: pds arise from forces on free electrons due to distributions of
charge brought about by the battery. The forces do work on free electrons going from one
point to another (e.g. from B» to T2. The amount of work is independent of the route taken
between the points, just like the work done on us by the pull of the Earth when we change
Fig. 2.3.3 Pds in series levels by using a staircase instead of a sloping ramp.]

Finally, consider pds across components in series, as shown in Fig. 2.3.3. For an electron
going from Y to X, the work done on it as it goes through either the lower resistor or the
Self-test filament lamp is eV, and as it goes through the top resistor is eV;. So the total amount of
The filament lamp whose -V graph work as it goes from Y to X is (eV; + eV>), but it is also eV3. So eV, + eV, = eV3. Dividing
is given in Fig. 2.2.5 is designed for a through by e:
pd of 2.5 V across it.
(a) Calculate the value of the series V, ar Vy = V3.
resistor needed to run the lamp
correctly from a 12 V battery. Thus pds in series add together.
(b) Calculate the power dissipated
(i) in the lamp and (ii) in the resistor,
The rules for pds in circuits with series and parallel components are, then, a consequence
and comment on these values. of the conservation of energy.
 . Direct current circuits

Example
The red LED whose -V graph is given in Fig. 2.2.5 has the desired brightness with a
current of 20 mA. Calculate the resistance of the resistor that must be placed in series
with the LED to run it at this current from a 6.0 V supply.

We first put the information on a circuit diagram tartan

(Fig. 237) Oui Fig. 22 5shows that foracarent. = fe T
of 20 mA, a pd of 2.0 V (to 2 sf.) is needed across R
the LED. Since pds inseriesadd, we needto‘drop) +7, |... ee
(6.0 V —2.0 V) across the resistor, so its value, R, 4 oe
must be... ds
40V
, 0.020A — ae. Fig. 2.3.4 Data to find R

(c) A note on the resistance of ammeters and

voltmeters
Look at the circuit in Fig. 2.3.5. The quantities alongside the meters in Fig. 2.3.5 are their
readings. It wouldn't be silly to ask: are these the pd and currents before the meters were
connected? The answer is: yes, but only if:

e The voltmeter’s resistance is so high that the current through it is negligible.

e Each ammeter’s resistance is so low (compared with those of the resistors) that
inserting it in series doesn’t lower the current.

With modern meters, these are usually safe assumptions. For example, a typical auto- Fig. 2.3.5 Unknown resistors
ranging digital multimeter on its ‘dc volts’ range has a resistance of 10 MQ or more. On
its 10 A range its resistance is usually a small fraction of an ohm. See Exam tip.

Multi-step example
Determine the resistances R, and Rj in Fig. 2.3.5.

This example, unlike the last, is rather contrived, but it does demonstrate the use of just
about all the basic circuit rules.

We know the currents through R, and Ry», but we don’t know the pds across either of
them — yet. We start by calculating the only thing we can immediately calculate. This Self-test
gives us another, and so on. Calculate R in Fig. 2.3.6.

e For the 20 Q resistor, current = 0.75A —0.30 A =0.45 A.

2.5A
e So the pd across the 20 @ resistor is V= IR=0.45 A x 20 0 = 9.0-V. an

e This is also the pd across Ry. ,

° So R=ONE.
539 4 = 30 2 20.02

e But R;, is in series with the parallel combination, across which the pd is 9.0 V. ohh
So pd across R; is V=15.0V-9.0V=6.0V.

e SoR== 075A 7 OOO:

6.0 V or Fig. 2.3.6 Practice circuit

This is straightforward as long as one is very careful to associate each pd with the circuit
component(s) to which it belongs, i.e. make your working clear.
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

1 — sriest
2.3.2 Formulae for resistances in
series and in parallel
— =o

VSS Se
Fig. 2.3.7 Resistances in series
(a) Resistances in series ;
If meters were placed to measure the pd V and the current J shown in Fig. 2.3.7 then a

would give us the combined or equivalent resistance, R, of everything in the grey box, that
is of the resistors in series.

But we have shown that pds in series add up, that Is

V=aV,+ Vy +

The current, J is the same all through, so the equation can be rewritten:
Fig. 2.3.8 Resistances in parallel
ITR=I1R,+1R,+....

Dividing through by /:R= R, +R, +....

ee £2.33) Qelf-test
This result may seem too obvious to need a derivation, but note that resistances don't
Three 12 Q resistors can
be connected together into always add...
combinations with two terminals:
all in series, all in parallel and in two
other ways. Calculate the resistances
of these four combinations.
(b) Resistances in parallel

Ow ic
The resistors in Fig. 2.3.8 are in parallel. This time it is the currents through the individual
resistors which add to give the current, 7, entering and leaving the combination.

Calculate currents x and y. So hd Ce ee

There is only one pd, V, so beads ea es

Tig

vidi ofa,
Dividing through by Vgives Lone
pRacer te RB + Teele
Here, R is the equivalent or combined resistance of the resistors, as would be found by
measuring V and J and dividing V by 7. [We could write the final equation in terms of
conductance simply as G= G, + Gy +....]

Example oe 2 7 . ee ee
Determine the resistancearesistors of
3.0Q a 4,
0 Q ini aralle :

Leavingoutunits,Te
+ 3a 7-

. common denominator -S x 4
Pe
Doing
So, =35 Fea Se
= CU EO — C™S

tusk=2ai710.
nes
oo
Notice that the combined resistance is less than either of the individual resistances. That
is as it should be because, with two resistors connected between the same two points, the
current will be greater (for the same pd) than if there were only one.
 Direct current circuits

Product divided by sum for two resistances in parallel

It’s useful to re-do the above example in algebra for two resistances,.

1 1 & ] ne. R,+R, soR- RR, as product of R, and R, ;

Ri eRy Re ALR Re R,+R, sumof R, andR,
This is easy to remember (the units tell you that the product must be on the top), and
easy to use and without a final reciprocal to forget to take! The sole caveat is that it works
only for two resistances at a time.

n equal resistances in parallel

You should show for yourself that the equivalent resistance is given by
] atte
R= a x one individual resistance

Resistor networks can't always be resolved into combinations of resistors in series and
parallel. An example is the network shown in Fig 2.3.9. Its resistance can be calculated,
all the same. See Stretch and challenge, for a technique a little beyond A-level.

2.3.0 Lhe potential divider

This name is given to resistances connected in series in order to ‘divide up’ the pd, Viotai,
placed across the combination. In Fig. 2.3.10 we have...

Visine Thy) Bal, RS... that es Vg Roa.

RTS V, V; R V- R
By division,
—- = —+ and’soon, —- =—_, —+ = —~ and soon.
! Ve wks Vitam salarctan vi
The ratio of pds is simply equal to the ratio of the resistances across which the pds would
be measured!

(a) Using a potential divider to give a desired

output pd
If we place an input pd, Vi,, across two resistors, as in Fig. 2.3.11, we can obtain an
output pd across either of the resistors (we’ve picked R,). By choosing the resistors
correctly we can have any Vi, we like, (as long as Vou < Vin) since
V. R ay Eee,
V; R\+ R,’ meu vig R\+R> Vin

As an example, we'll select R, and R, in order that Voy = 3.0 V when V,, = 9.0 V.

R, _ pdacross
Rk; _6.0V_4 6
Remodiacnosssks. G.0FV =
So it looks as though we could have R, = 2.0 Q, R; = 1.0 Q, or R, = 30 Q, R, = 15 Q, or t
—------34

R, = 2000 Q, R, = 1000 Q and so on.

In practice we'd avoid very /ow resistances, so as not to tax the power supply and overheat e-=-----4
R, and R;. Consider the combination R; = 2.0 Q, R, = 1.0 Q. In this case the
2 Fig. 2.3.12 Loaded potential divider
total power dissipation in the resistors would be a = Sate = 27 W: equal to the
aie R
power of a small soldering iron!
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

R, and R; and could also be too high... The 3.0 V is no doubt needed because some
device, shown as R, in Fig. 2.3.12, requires 3.0 V across it. We say that R, Is a load
= (2.3.5) Self-test
connected across the potential divider output. Suppose Vi, = 9.0 V, R; = 2000 2,
If R, = 30, R, = 15 Q, and
V,, = 9.0 V in the potential divider of
R, = 1000 Q, R, = 1000 Q. This will give Us a Vou of less than 3.0 V, because the load
Fig. 2.3.12, calculate the percentage has made the ‘lower’ resistance in the potential divider 500 Q (two 1000 Q resistances in
by which V,,,,, falls when R,, a load of parallel) so
1000 Q, is connected across R.
V, 2 500 Q COV
18 Vv
"2000 Q+ 500 Q
Loading a potential divider reduces its output pd. The reduction is, however, very small if
R, and R, are much lower than the load resistance, R,. See Self-test 2.3.5.

(b) A variable potential divider

The idea is simple: we make the ratio of to R; to R, variable. This can be done using
an ordinary laboratory rheostat (Fig. 2.3.13). Note that it has three terminals. The lower
two — call them ‘A’ and ‘B’ — connect to the ends of a single-layer coil of bare wire of high
resistivity. So there’s a fixed resistance (often about 15 Q) between A and B. The top
terminal, ‘S’, connects to a sliding contact which can press against the coil anywhere
Fig. 2.3.13 A rheostat along its length, so ‘dividing’ it into two portions, AS and SB, our friends and R, and R,,
but whose ratio we can vary.
ees
I
\
Fig. 2.3.14 shows the circuit symbol for a variable potential divider. Note carefully how the
\ connections to it correspond to the terminals on the rheostat, and how Vj, is connected
I
od
across AB. Vo Will be approximately %V;, if the sliding contact is 7% of the way between A
1 and B, and so on.
i}
I
I
I Variable potential dividers have many uses in electronics. The usual form consists of a
we ee
carbon ‘track’ forming a major arc of a circle, and a sliding contact which can be moved
by turning a spindle.
Fig. 2.3.14 Variable potential divider

resistance/kQ.
(c) Potential dividers incorporating resistive
sensors
Sensors are devices that ‘respond’ to changes in their surroundings. We shall
consider two that respond by changing their resistance. Thermistors do so when the
temperature changes, and /ight-dependent resistors (LDRs) do so when the light
level changes. By making a thermistor or an LDR one of the resistances in a potential
divider, the change will result in a change in output pd — useful for ‘triggering’ digital
systems, alarms and so on.

Thermistor circuit
0 20 40 60 80 100 We shall consider only ‘ntc’ (negative temperature coefficient) thermistors, whose
temperature/°C resistance goes down as the temperature goes up, typically as shown in Fig. 2.3.15.
These thermistors are made of a semiconductor material, usually a metal oxide with
Fig. 2.3.15 Resistance against
temperature for ntc thermistor deliberately added ‘impurity’ atoms. When the temperature Is increased the number of
mobile charge carriers (mainly free electrons or mainly ‘positive holes’) increases, making
the resistivity less.

Fig. 2.3.16 shows a thermistor used as one of the resistances in a potential divider
circuit — note the (not very intuitive) thermistor symbol. When the temperature rises, its
resistance, Rj, will decrease, but R will stay (almost) the same, so V,,; will increase.
 Direct current circuits

thermistor

jan alarm thatwi

Fig. 2.3.16 Thermistor as part of

potential divider

“Self-test as fs
na

Following on from the example, if R,

were changed to 2.4 kQ, determine
Note: We have assumed that the a/arm has a very high input resistance, so it doesn’t the temperature at which the alarm
load the potential divider significantly. would go off.

LDR circuit
Certain semiconductors, such as cadmium sulphide, have very high resistivities
in the dark, but conduct better and better as the light level increases. This Is
because photons can supply enough energy to knock a small proportion of
the electrons out of the bonds between atoms, creating free electrons (and
positive holes). An LDR (or photoresistor) is made by depositing a layer of such
a semiconductor as a zig-zag ‘track’ on an insulating ‘substrate’ enclosed in a
transparent case.

Fig. 2.3.17 shows an LDR used as one of the resistors in a potential divider circuit. Fig. 2.3.17 LDR as part of
potential divider
The LDR simply replaces the thermistor in Fig. 2.3.16, so the brighter the light falling
on the LDR, the higher V,,,. The circle is often omitted from the LDR symbol, but
Officially it should be there!
Self-test <a
State how the V’,,, would behave if
the LDR and the fixed resistor were
swapped round in Fig. 2.3.17.

Fig. 2.3.18
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

positive
2.3.4 Power supplies
terminal Here we consider the role of a battery, or other power supply, in a circuit. Strictly, a
battery is a series combination of cells, but a single cell is often, loosely, called a battery.
en
positive
A cell consists of two electrodes made of different conducting materials separated by a
: aed ‘ : F :
Stecirade conducting liquid or paste electrolyte in what we hope Is a leak-proof case. Fig. 2.3.19 is
a simplified diagram of the popular alkaline cell. The symbol for a cell is 4+, though this
electrolyte can now also be used for a battery or power supply. A battery of two cells is sometimes
shown as 4HF, and so on.
negative
electrode

rece (a) The emf of a cell

negative Chemical reactions in a cell involve the transfer of charge (by means of ions) from
terminal one electrode through the electrolyte to the other. So one electrode acquires a positive
charge (a small electron deficit) and the other a negative charge (a small electron
Fig. 2.3.19 A cell (simplified)
Surplus).

A specific amount, E, of work per unit charge is done on the charge as it is transferred.
r— Terms & definitions—
E is called the emf of the cell. See Terms and definitions. #’depends on the chemical
The emf of a cell or battery is the make-up ofthe cell, and is often about 1.5 J C1, that is 1.5 V.
energy that changes category
from chemical to electrical When the cell is open circuit, meaning that nothing is connected to it, the charges that
potential per unit charge passing have been transferred to the electrodes prevent (through repulsive forces) the further
through the cell. UNIT: JC1 = V. transfer of charge — and the associated chemical reaction. The condition for no further
transfer of charge is that the pd, V, across the cell terminals is equal to E. [It may help
to think of V (open circuit) as like the height of a heap built by throwing material on to it,
s and E as the maximum height the thrower can throw.]
ote ‘ : D tates Bem!
So, on open circuit, V = E.
Emf stands for electromotive force,
a silly name for a quantity with the
We measure a cell’s emf by connecting a voltmeter, but nothing else, across the cell’s
unit V, so it is better abbreviated
than used in full. Electromotance is a terminals. Recall that a voltmeter’s resistance is very high indeed, so the cell is effectively
sensible proposed alternative. open circuit.

conventional
current (b) Internal resistance
electrical |. eee If we connect a load (such as a resistor, led, buzzer, electric motor) between the cell
ee | energy terminals we provide an external conductive path, so charge can flow continuously in
: q} a complete closed loop, and energy transfers occur as in Fig. 2.3.20. [The symbols are
hemcat | ee unofficial. ]
ele a of energy
In fact Fig. 2.3.20 is rather simplified. We find that the pd, V, across the cell terminals
Fig. 2.3.20 Energy transfers inside and drops when we connect a load across the terminals so that there is a current. The lower
outside a cell (simplified) the load’s resistance the more the current, /, and the more the reduction in V. Usually,
to a fair approximation,
I
V=K-—ip
+
"1
!
!
! in which r is a constant with the unit of Q, called the internal resistance of the cell.
!
|
|
ef
It often helps to include x in circuit diagrams, as in Fig. 2.3.21. Although r arises mainly
from collisions of ions drifting through the electrolyte, it can’t be measured directly (even
Fig. 2.3.21 Showing a cell with internal
if we could delve inside a cell with the probes of a multimeter on its ohms range) since it
resistance included is inseparable from the charge-pumping role of the cell, as demonstrated by its emf.
 Direct current circuits

The interpretation of the terms on the equation is...

VaL—Ir
Qelf-test ED <a
Calculate (a) the current and (b) the
Energy transferred Energy transferred Energy per unit total power generated by the cell,
per unit charge to per unit charge from charge dissipated when a 5.0 Q resistor is connected
the external circuit chemical to electrical inside the cell across a cell of emf 1.50 V and
potential inside the cell intemal resistance 0.50 Q.

Multiplying through the previous ‘voltage’ equation by 7, we have an equation for power:
VI=EI-Lr

Energy transferred Energy transferred per Energy per unit

per unit time to the unit time from chemical time dissipated
external circuit to electrical potential inside the cell
inside the cell

Example 1
A cell has an emf of 1.62 V. When a 1.50 Q resistor is connected across its terminals,
the pd falls to 1.39 V. Calculate: (a) the cell’s internal resistance, (b) the fraction of the
total power dissipated in the internal resistance.
QelPteet” e—
(a) We first put the data on a diagram, as shown. I When two 2.5 Q resistors are
Considering the 1.50 Q load: a Go connected in parallel across a cell
1.39 V = 0.927 A.
[= —=—
ek
ae
the current through the cell is

1.509 a oe 0.88 A. When the two resistors are

connected in series across the cell,
So (see diagram) 1.62V | the current is 0.28 A. Write down

162 V=139V— eae two equations, each involving E and

r,and solve them simultaneously to
707A determine the values of E and r.

| powerinr. ri? Fl 162 VN 71 39 Y.

. power generated El E 1.62 V = 0.14.

Example 2
Sketch a graph of V against J
for a cell of emf 1.50 V and internal resistance 0.50 Q.

We have V= 1.50 V-0.50Qx I. Mise!

V
falls linearly with J. When I= 0, V = 1.50 V; ne a) Sketch a graph of / against the ee
resistance, Roftheextemalload,
when J= 0.50 A,V = 1.00 V and so on,
hence the graph sketched. "(b) Show that 7against R should
E 0 T/A be a straight line of gradient Zand
Note that Jinax =p» Corresponding to 0 3.0
D

zero external resistance; we say that the cell is short-circuited. Cells get hot and
run out of energy quickly when short-circuited. They don't like it.

f, Paki Panesar poy Boyan Be

(c) Batteries _~ Study point
Suppose a battery is built from 4
Cells are often connected in series to produce a larger emf. In practice there is little point cells each with E = 1.60 V,r=0.25 Q.
in using anything but identical cells.
Then for battery {HHH
Emf of battery = sum of emfs of cells in series E=64V,r=1.0Q.

But for misconnected battery 4HHH

The positive of one cell must be connected to the negative of the next, and so on. The
emf of any cell connected the wrong way round counts as a negative emf. See example in B= 32 Ver akOro
the Study point.
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

Note also that:

xD Self-test Internal resistance of battery = sum of internal resistances of cells
A battery consists of 3 cells, each
Withee =a ROORV 71025). 0)) Here there are no minus signs even when a cell is the wrong way round.
Calculate the current it drives
through a load of 2.0 Q and the pd
if n identical cells are connected in parallel (positive to positive and negative to negative)
across the load. we'd have a battery with the same emf as one cell, but an internal resistance of
Repeat for the case when one cell is 1 x internal resistance of one cell.
the wrong way round. n
In practice, though, cells are never quite identical,

and, even without any load, there would be insidious currents in the cells and the wires
| ED _ Qelf-test joining them. The usual rule is: never connect cells in parallel.
Sketch a graph of / against R for a
power supply of emf / and internal
resistance r. What are the values of /
when R=0,R=r,R=0? (d) Current, pd and power outputs of a power
supply
We can use the power supply relationship V = E — Ir, together with the the usual
equations for power, pd, current and resistance, to investigate how the various quantities
vary with external load resistance.

e V= Ir: substituting for Vin V= E-Jr gives JR = E - Ir, which can be rearranged to give:
E
i R+r
Thus the current in the circuit is the emf (which we can loosely think of as the ‘total
voltage’) divided by the total resistance.

R Aig ue this is slightly trickier, but subsituting for Jin V = E — Jr gives

The equation V = can be R
interpreted as the pd across the
output resistor, R, for a potential
FeeRR”
Bak
divider with input voltage E.
Multiplying by R and rearranging, which is left as an exercise, gives V(R+r)= ER,
which leads to
Ve ER
a aay
EPR
¢ Similarly we can show that the power output, P = (Rose

2.3.5 Determination of the internal

resistance of a power supply
Section 2.3.4 provides the material for determining the internal resistance of a battery or
other power supply.

(a) By measuring V and /

We set up the circuit in Fig. 2.3.22. The variable resistance could be a laboratory rheostat.
[We are not, this time, using it as a potential divider.] It could also be several resistors. For
this technique the actual values of the variable resistor are not important. They need to be
of the same order as the internal resistance.
Fig. 2.3.22 Determining r by
measuring Vand I
 Direct current circuits

The idea is to take several pairs of readings of V and J(at least 7 is good), and to plot a Practical tip
graph of V against J. Because the relationship between V and J is The switch should be open
when not taking readings or
V=E-Ir adjusting the vanable resistor;
a linear graph is expected with a negative gradient, which is equal to —”, and an intercept real cells suffer from a downward
drift of emf under load - a
of E on the V-axis. nuisance we try to minimise.

The first readings should be with the switch open, so that /= 0. If an approximate value
of the internal resistance is not known, trial readings need to be taken to establish a value
Practical tip
of current which significantly reduces V and then a set of readings taken with roughly
In this experiment, there is little
equally spaced currents up to several times this value.
value in taking repeat readings.
It is better to take a large
The graph in Fig. 2.3.23 shows a typical set of results for a power supply with a high number of pairs of values.
internal resistance.
VIV

Self-test ia
Fig. 2.3.23
For the power supply with the V—/
Typical V—/
graph in Fig. 2.3.23 determine: (a)
graph results the emf and internal resistance and
for a power (b) the current and terminal for an
supply external resistance of 200 Q.
I/mA

(b) By measuring / and the external resistance

Self-test Se
lf we measure (or know) the value of the external resistance, R, in the circuit of
State how the emf and intemal
Fig. 2.3.22, we do not need to measure both the current and the terminal pd. If you have resistance of a power supply can
done the Stretch & Challenge in Section 2.3.4 (b) you will have shown that eliminating V be found from the gradient and
from V = E-Jrand V = JR leads to the relationship: intercept of a graph of 7against R.
pect era Mela
ebay
so a graph of against R has a gradient 4 and intercept cle
E
if

(c) By measuring V and the external resistance

As we saw in Section 2.3.4(d) , the terminal pd, V, depends upon the value of the Self-test Pies
at

external resistance, R, by: State how the emf and internal

resistance of a power supply can
peed eilis be found from the gradient and
— Rey intercept of a graph of 5 against R

Flipping this equation gives ¢ = wae We can separate the right-hand side into two
terms to give
Deck
aes res
OE Ree
] ee : r ; be
SO a graph of; against R is straight line of gradient E and intercept EB
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

Exercise
(2.3]
In this question, subscripts refer to resistors, So Vio, 19 and Pi are respectively the pd across, current in
and power dissipated by a 10 Q resistor.
60Q
(a) Find J,9,Z69 and 739 in terms of J. ieae |
V, I 10Q
(b) Find the ratio Tae |
10

(c) Find the ratio tae

P30
(d) If7=0.15 A,
(i) calculate the pd between the ends of the network and
(ii) the total power dissipated.
R 10mA
In the circuit shown, the power supply has negligible internal
resistance. Determine the unknown resistance, R to 2 s.f.
6V 470 Q 330Q
Calculate the length of nichrome wire of diameter 0.2 mm which
has a resistance equal to R in Q2. [Resistivity = 4.7 x 10-7 Q m]

A 24 W, 12 V fish-tank heater element is made from a length, L, of resistance wire. Calculate the length of:

(a) Wire of the same material and diameter which would be needed to make a 12 W, 24 V heater.
(b) Wire of the same material and double the diameter necessary to make a 12 W, 12 V heater.
(c) Wire of the double the diameter and half the resistivity needed to make a 12 W, 6 V heater.

Questions 5, 6 and 7 relate to the potential divider circuit.

aa Ven LOO
Roe 20 2:

(a) Calculate Vo) itt a= 0.

(b) Calculate V,, when a second 20 Q resistor is connected in
parallel to the first.
cCaicuiate. Veet toa O0.L5 A.

With the same components as in Q5, by calculating suitable

values draw a graph of V.,, against Zou.

Show algebraically that the potential divider circuit behaves as a power supply
VinR2
of emf ears and 'internal resistance
; RR,
Res [Hint: use the same working

as in Q6 to find an expression for V4 in terms of Joy, and write it in the form Vay = @+ blou.

The voltage across a light-emitting diode (LED) is roughly constant

over a wide range of currents when it is in the conducting state and
emitting light. This voltage is approximately 2 V for many LEDs. R

An electronics application requires an on-indicator.

(a) The engineer decides to use a red LED, with a current of 7

20 mA, powered by a 5.0V supply, as in the diagram. Calculate
the value, R, of resistor required.
(b) A batch of red, yellow, green and blue LEDs have turn-on
voltages of 1.9 V, 2.1 V, 2.5 V and 2.8 V respectively. Select
resistors to drive them from a 5.0 V supply if the current is to be
20 +5 mA. The resistors available are 100 Q, 120 02,150 Q,
180 Q, 220 Q.
 Direct current circuits

In an experiment to determine the resistivity of nichrome, a student used an analogue micrometer

to measure the diameter of the wire at various points and obtained the following results: 0.311 mm,
0.316 mm, 0.314 mm and 0.317 mm. The student used crocodile clips to attach an ohm-meter
(multimeter on resistance scale) to the wire which was stretched along a metre rule. The resistance
readings, R, for various lengths, 7, were:

me a a ho
2s 315 400 508 599° 710 795 885 9.87
The uncertainty in the 7 measurements was estimated as +1.0 cm.

Use the results to determine a value for the resistivity of nichrome. Comment on the intercept on the R axis.

Questions 10-13 relate to circuits containing a 6.0 V, 60 mA indicator bulb, with the characteristic shown,
and a 100 Q resistor. I/mA

Use the graph to determine the resistance of the bulb

when (a) it is operating at its rated voltage and (b) when
the pd across it is 2.0 V.

Calculate (a) the total pd across the bulb and resistor in

series with a current of 45 mA, and (b) the total current
in a parallel combination of the two with a pd of 4.0 V
across them.

The bulb and resistor are connected in parallel and a

total current of 80 mA is in the pair. Determine the
current in each and the pd across the pair. [Hint: first
draw a current-voltage graph for the resistor on the same
axes as for the bulb.]

A pd of 10 V is applied across the bulb and resistor in 0

series. Determine the pd across each and the current. C :

A student uses a set of three resistors, each of marked resistance 10.0 + 0.2 Q, and a voltmeter to
measure the internal resistance of a power supply. She assumed the resistors to be identical. She measured
the pd across the terminals of the supply with one resistor and all possible series and parallel combinations
of two and three resistors connected. She forgot to measure the pd with no resistor and she also failed to
write down the combinations she used. Her pd readings (in V) were as follows: 7.92, 8.58, 8.82, 6.88,
6.07, 8.34, 7.36

By identifying the possible combinations of resistors and calculating their resistances, decide which external
resistance leads to each pd reading. Plot a suitable graph and determine the emf and internal resistance of
the supply.
> 2.4 The nature of waves
How can energy be transferred from one place to another? Here are some examples.

1 A bullet fired from a gun carries kinetic energy.

2 Oil or gas flowing in a pipeline carries some kinetic energy, but, more importantly,
chemical energy.
3 Seismic waves travelling through the Earth’s crust, and tsunamis travelling through
the sea, transport terrifying amounts of energy spread over short time intervals.
4 Sound waves travelling through air carry energy which can activate neurons in our
inner ears, or generate electric ‘signals’ in microphones.

In 1 and 2, matter (stuff) travels from one place to another taking the energy with it;
Fig. 2.4.1 A tsunami 3 and 4 are quite different: a ‘disturbance’, carrying energy, travels (or propagates)
through a so-called medium (solid, liquid or gas). The particles of the medium are
merely displaced temporarily from their usual positions as the disturbance, or wave
Self-test | passes through.
Give two more examples of energy
transfer: one enabling life on Earth, Even in a rock concert, except close to the loudspeakers, the maximum displacement
and one developed by human of air molecules due to the sound waves is less than 0.1 mm. When a major tsunami
beings. reaches the shore the water particles may be displaced by many metres, but the wave
itself may have travelled for tens or hundreds of kilometres.

r— Terms & definitions —

2.4.1 How waves propagate
A (progressive) wave is a
disturbance, or sequence of We'll look at a wave travelling in a taut rope. This is, arguably, the simplest example of
disturbances, travelling through a wave.
a medium, taking energy with it,
but not taking the particles of the Suppose someone sharply displaces one end of the rope by a small amount in a direction
medium with it. at right angles to the rope itself. Fig. 2.4.2 (a) shows the rope shortly afterwards and
(b) is a free body diagram for the small portion P of the rope. The resultant force on
P is (almost) at right angles to, or transverse to the line of the rope, and so P will be

|
Self-test accelerating (from rest) in that direction, and will itself shortly be displaced. In this way
the transverse displacement is passed along the rope: (c).
The speed of transverse waves on a
stretched rope is given by (a) a ee
ae
y= |—
P
L
in which yw is the mass per unit
length of rope, and 7 is the tension
(b)
_-

init. By considering units, find the = resultant force on P

value of n.

Fig. 2.4.2 Propagation of transverse waves on a rope

Self-test
The speed of sound in air is given by All mechanical waves (seismic waves, sound waves, water waves...) propagate in the
same general way. A displaced part of the medium exerts an (unbalanced) force on a
neighbouring part and so on. Usually the speed at which the wave travels depends on the
in which p is the air pressure. p is properties of the medium. See Self-test 2.4.1 and 2.4.2 for examples.
another property of the air. Suggest
which, and confirm your suggestion
by checking units.
2.4.2 Transverse waves
The waves in a rope (see 2.4.1) are transverse: each particle’s displacement is at right
angles to the direction of wave travel.
 The nature of waves

Another case of a transverse wave is the secondary (S) wave or shear wave (Fig. 2.4.3) r— Terms & definitions—
that can travel through the Earth's crust from an underground event (such as the sudden In a transverse wave the particles
slipping of one rock mass against another). of the medium are displaced at
right angles to the direction of
Light and other electromagnetic waves are also transverse. They are special as they can
wave travel.
travel through a vacuum, where their speed, c, is 3.00 x 108 m s-!. [Their speed in air is
the same to 3 significant figures.] Even though they don’t need a medium, in many ways In a linearly polarised transverse
e-m waves behave just like other transverse waves. We'll present evidence for this later. wave the displacements are in just
one of the directions at right angles
Now read Stretch and Challenge — if you dare...
to the direction of wave travel.
Fig. 2.4.4 (a) is a Snapshot of a rope that is being wiggled at one end in a vibrating In a longitudinal wave the
or oscillating motion. The transverse waves are polarised (strictly speaking, linearly particles of the medium are
polarised), meaning that the particle displacements are confined to just one of the displaced parallel to the direction
possible directions at right angles to the direction of wave travel. Fig. 2.4.4 (b) also shows of wave travel.
a polarised wave, but with a different direction of polarisation.
displacement
wave travel
(a)

direction of displacement
at right angles to
direction of wave travel

(b)

Fig. 2.4.4 Polarised transverse waves on a rope

lf we wiggled one end of the rope in a random succession of different directions, each at
right angles to the line of the rope, then the waves travelling in the rope would be called
unpolarised.

2.4.3 Longitudinal waves

Shear waves can’t travel through a gas or a liquid (because the successive layers (Fig.
2.4.3) of a gas or liquid can’t exert tangential forces on each other without slippage and
energy dissipation, that is transferred to random thermal energy).

Longitudinal waves (see Terms and definitions) can travel through a gas or liquid, as well
oscillating paper cone
as through a solid. The primary (P) waves travelling through the crust, mantle and core of
the Earth from an underground event are longitudinal. So, too, are sound waves: in Fig. propagation direction at P
2.4.5 the paper cone of the loudspeaker is oscillating backwards and forwards sending oscillation direction at P
waves of rarefactions (R) and compressions (C) through the air. Longitudinal waves can
also be sent through a Slinky spring (Fig. 2.4.6).

dim Compression i Rarefaction

aeNees pas
oe Direction of particle oscillation Fig. 2.4.5 Sound waves from a
Parallel loudspeaker
Direction of wave travel

Fig. 2.4.6 Longitudinal wave on slinky

 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

r— Terms & definitions4

A cycle is the smallest portion
2.4.4 Waves from oscillating sources
of an oscillation, starting at any We shall now assume that 4// our wave sources are oscillating (vibrating) sinusoidally, as
point, which repeats exactly. shown in the graph of displacement against time (Fig. 2.4.7). Sinusoidal describes the
The amplitude, 4, of an graph shape. Note that it is periodic — repeating the same cycle over and over again. The
oscillation is the maximum value displacements of the particles in the medium will also vary sinusoidally.
of the displacement. UNIT: m
displacement
The period (or periodic time),
T, is the time for one cycle of
oscillation. UNIT: s
The frequency,7,of an oscillation
is the number of cycles per unit
time. UNIT: hertz (Hz). [The unit
‘hertz’ means ‘per second’ (s')
Fig. 2.4.7 Displacement-time graph for oscillating particle
but we use it only for oscillations.]

Referring to the graph, we define the basic terms in the Terms and definitions box.

—€& Self-test Example

A point on a taut string performs What is the period of oscillations of frequency 10 Hz?
56 cycles of oscillation in 35 s.
Calculate:
10 cycles will fit into 1 second, so the period is +5s=0.10s.
(a) The shortest time for it to go from
maximum to zero displacement. Generalising, 7’= a which can be re-arranged as f= a
y ih
(b) The frequency.

Note these points:

r— Terms & definitions

—— e All particles of the medium oscillate with the frequency of the wave source; cycles of
oscillation can’t be lost or gained as a wave travels!
Oscillations of the same
e Why does the graph start at that particular point in its cycle? Where in the cycle tt is
frequency are in phase if they are
at the time we choose to call t = 0 depends on how far away the particle is from the
the same point in their cycles at
the same time. wave source.

The wavelength, 4, is the distance

between consecutive particles
that are oscillating in phase.
UNIT: m
2.4.5 Snapshot of a wave
displacement
P ree:
&D> Self-test I R S
0
A student calls Fig. 2.4.7 a ‘graph of : I1 !' ! distance
a wave’, he calls the distance from I 1 | from source
one peak to the next in Fig. 2.4.7 ‘the 4 t >! i}
A ' I
wave-length’ and 4 ‘the maximum ae A
amplitude’. Explain to him briefly
A
and with only minimal scom why Fig. 2.4.8 Displacement — distance from source at some particular time
he must be wrong in each case, and
what he should have said. The graph above (Fig. 2.4.8) looks like Fig. 2.4.7 but note that, now, distance from the
source at one particular time is along the horizontal axis! We'll call this sort of graph a
snapshot. For a wave in a stretched rope it could be a single flash photograph of the rope,
with axes added.

[For waves that spread out as they travel further from the source, the more distant
particles will oscillate with smaller amplitudes, as the energy is more thinly spread. Our
graphs won't usually show this.]

Particle Q is oscillating in phase with particle P. Another example of in-phase particles is

the pair R and S. Make sure you know the definitions of in phase and wavelength from
the Terms and definitions box.
 . The nature of waves

2.4.6 Speed of a wave Self-test 2.46 )a

The whole pattern of displacements in the medium is moving to the right, away from the Water waves from a source of
source. That's what we mean by the wave travelling! In Fig. 2.4.9 the full line is a snapshot frequency 3.0 Hz travel across
of the wave at time, r= 0, and the dashed line is a snapshot of the wave at time oh a pond at a speed of 3.6 m s"!.
4 Calculate the shortest distance
between water particles oscillating
displacement at time —
YE
at time
t= 0 4 in antiphase (exactly half a cycle out
of phase with each other).

distance
from source

Fig. 2.4.9 Snapshots of wave at time O and time 7/4 _ Water waves are neither transverse
~ nor longitudinal. The particles move
Suppose we let a whole period, 7, elapse between one snapshot and the next. Each _ in vertical circles with one diameter
particle will oscillate through one extra cycle, bringing it back to where it started. So the parallel to the propagation direction.
The circles get smaller with §
Snapshot will be unchanged. Yet the pattern will have moved — away from the source. It
must, then, have moved on by a whole wavelength, A.
distance gone_ A ery
SO: wave speed, v = Tene or ar

We have, then, the well-known equation v = fA. Self-test

Mobile phones transmit and receive
e-m waves of frequency in the order
Example of 900 MHz, using a built-in aenal
—a metal rod. Ideally this ought to
- Sketch displacement-time graphs starting at ¢ = 0 for particles X and Y in Fig. 2.4.9, be at least a quarter of a wavelength
~ and comment on the phase difference. long. Investigate whether such an
aenal could fit in a mobile phone.
- Extrapolating from the positions of X and Y at time ¢ and time zswe have

~ Note that each peak (or any other feature) of Y’s graph occurs time later than the r—— Terms & definitions
corresponding feature on X’s graph. We say Y has a phase lag of a quarter of a cycle
behind X. This phase lag is just what we'd expect: the wave reaches Y after it reaches x! A wavefront is a surface at all
points on which the oscillations
are in phase.
displacement particle Y
particle X
wavefronts
time /
7

Fig. 2.4.10 Displacement — time for particles X and Y in Fig 2.4.9

2.4.7 Wavefront diagrams

Fig. 2.4.11 Wavefronts from a point
The moving peaks and troughs we see when water waves are travelling are examples of
source
wavefronts. Water waves, like waves on a drum-skin, travel in 2 dimensions, and their
wavefronts are essentially lines, usually curved lines. In Terms and definitions, we've
referred to wavefronts as ‘surfaces’, because we’re thinking especially of waves like sound
and light which travel out from a source in all directions, that is in 3 dimensions.
y Study point
(This Study Point relates to Section
We usually draw wavefronts at intervals of one wavelength, like the peaks (crests) of a
2.4.8 on page 128.)
e
water wave. The interaction of an e-m wave with
matter is mainly by the electric field,
e The direction of travel of a wavefront at any point is at right angles to the wavefront so this is normally taken to define
through that point. (See Fig. 2.4.11). the plane of polarisation.
e \avefronts from a small source are spherical. A long way from the source they are
therefore almost plane (flat) over any small region. For example, the wavefronts of light
reaching the Earth from a star will be, to all intents and purposes, plane.
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

2.4.8 Investigation of the intensity

~ Fy "WW
Fa ™ j N g ee
% wu y ewessv

The effectiveness of the polarising

filter normally varies across the
visible spectrum. If the filters are variations for polarisation
most effective in the middle of
the range (yellow), the filters will A qualitative investigation of the effect of a polarising filter on a polarised beam of light
transmit low intensity magenta (red requires nothing more than two filters and a light source, which could be one of the
+ blue) even when they are crossed. laboratory room lights or from the window.

reference mark The light emerging from the first filter is plane polarised, i.e. the oscillations of the electric
field are all in the same plane, which is at right angles to the direction of propagation.

light, It is useful to put a reference mark on one of the filters, so that you can keep track of the
C. ————> angle through which it is rotated.
from
window
As the second filter is rotated, the intensity of the transmitted light varies smoothly; two
maxima and two minima are observed per rotation. These are equally spaced, i.e. there is
polarising filters
90° between each maximum and adjacent minima.
Fig. 2.4.12 Investigating polarisation
The effect can also be investigated quantitatively using the setup shown in Figs 2.4.13
and 2.4.14.

polarising filter

light beam, e.g.

from a ray-box

—— ah
light intensity meter

A cos @ Fig. 2.4.13 Investigating polarisation

The light transmitted through a 100% polarising filter will all be polarised with all its
oscillations in the same plane, called the plane of polarisation (see Study point). If a second
such filter is placed in the path of the light, any emergent light will be 100% polarised in
Incident light and Transmitted the direction defined by this filter. The plane of polarisation of the light is not rotated by
filter direction light
the second filter: only the component of the oscillating vector parallel to the transmission
Fig. 2.4.15 Effect of 2nd polarising filter plane of the second filter is transmitted; the component at right angles is absorbed. In
Fig. 2.4.15, light of amplitude A (red arrow) is scillating at @ to the transmission plane of a
polarising filter (vertical lines). The transmitted light (blue arrow) has a smaller amplitude
and is polarised in the direction defined by the transmission plane.

Using simple trig, if the angle between the polarisation directions of the two filters is 8,
the amplitude of the light which is transmitted through the second filter is_.4 cos 0, where
A is the amplitude of the light between the filters. As with all wave motions, the energy
carried by the light is proportional to the square of the amplitude, so the intensity, J, of the
0 90 180 270 360 450 54
transmitted light varies as: J « cos? 8 assuming a 100% effective filter. This relationship
Fig. 2.4.16 Variation of intensity with is shown in Fig. 2.4.16.
angle

i 2? BP eee ee
I, The diagram shows two snapshots of the same transverse wave, travelling in the positive x-direction, the
red snapshot being 0.25 ms later than the black.

(a) Give the wavelength and amplitude of the wave.

(b) Explain why it is not possible to calculate the speed of the wave just from the information given.
 The nature of waves

y/mm
(c) Calculate the lowest possible wave speed which is
consistent with this information.
(d) Calculate the period and frequency of the wave
corresponding to the speed in (c).

Consider the wave in Q1 at the instant of the black

diagram.

(a) State the values of x for which the vertical velocity of

the particles in the medium is (i) zero, (ii) maximum
positive and (iii) maximum negative.
(b) [Tricky] Use the speed calculated in 1(c) and the
graph to estimate the maximum vertical velocity of
the particles. ry, mi

For the wave in Q1, give the x co-ordinates of all points

in between x = 0 and x = 2.0 m which are oscillating
(i) in phase with and (ii) in antiphase with the particle at x= 0.15 m.

TL
Diagram (a) is an actual size drawing of a
longitudinal wave moving from left to right
at5.0ms.

cal lines represent planes of

the material which are equally spaced
in the absence of a wave.

Diagram (b) shows an enlarged

wavelength of the same wave. (b)

Use a ruler to take suitable measurements of the diagrams and hence determine:
(a) the wavelength, (b) the frequency, (c) the period and [tricky] (d) the amplitude of the wave.
Jf
The diagram shows a snapshot of a wave at time ek,
t= 0. The wave is moving to the right with a speed of 10
5.00 mst

(a) Calculate the frequency,f,and period, T, of the wave.

(b) Find the gradient of the wave at x= 2.0 m and use
this to find the maximum vertical speed of the particles
of the wave.
(c) Sketch a graph to show the vertical movement of
the point with x = 2.0 m between ¢ = 0 and
P= i00%s.
-10
A beam consists of a mixture of 70% polarised and 30% unpolarised light. A perfect polarising filter
(i.e. it transmits 100% of the light vibrating in one plane of polarisation and 0% of the light vibrating at
right angles) is put into the beam and rotated about its axis. Sketch a graph to show how the intensity
of the transmitted radiation varies with the angle of the filter.

The diagram shows a wavefront in a ripple tank approaching (from the left) and crossing a submerged
barrier, which has the effect of slowing the wave and deforming its wavefront.

Copy the diagram. Add arrows to the second wavefront to show the direction(s) of propagation and ~ aa

show the position(s) of the wavefront at two successive instants — the time intervals between the four
wavefronts should be approximately equal.

[For A level students]. The equation y = 10 cos 6.28x (with y in cm and x in m) represents a wave at
= ~

time f= 0. The wave propagates with a speed of 800 ms". A student suggests that the equation of
motion of a particle at x= 2.5 m is given by y= Acos (wf + @). Find the values of A, w and ¢ that VY
VVVVEFTEVV
make this statement correct.
> 2.5 Wave properties
2.5.1 Diffraction

| Diffraction is the spreading of waves round obstacles in their way. For example, when
there is a rock in the path of waves at sea, after passing the rock to either side, the
wavefronts spread back into the ‘shadow’ of the rock, as sketched in Fig. 2.5.1.

We shall concentrate on diffraction around the edges of a slit. Fig. 2.5.2 shows straight
wavefronts in a ‘ripple tank’ approaching a slit, and having gone through, spreading out
beyond its edges.

When the slit’s width is equal to, or less than, the wavelength, the diffracted wavefronts at
some distance from the slit are more or less semi-circular as in Fig. 2.5.3 (a), though the
Fig 2.5.1 Water waves diffracting round
amplitude is greater in the middle than at the edges.
a rock

When the slit width is several times greater than the wavelength as in Fig. 2.5.3 (b), there
is a main or central beam of diffracted waves that spreads through only a small angle
either side of the ‘straight-through’ direction. There are also ‘side’ beams of much smaller
amplitude than the main beam. These side beams can also be seen in the ripple tank
image. We'll see later how, in principle, this rather complicated behaviour arises.

3 ‘distant! wavefronts any

of the central beam
Fig. 2.5.2 Single slit diffraction 3 ‘distant’
wavefronts

S
side beams of Rahs
smaller amplitude Xe

ae £2.5.1 Self-test
Using information from Fig. 2.5.2,
va
calculate a rough value for the
angle of spread of the main beam Fig. 2.5.3 (a) Diffraction: Fig. 2.5.3 (6) Diffraction:
either side of the straight-through slit width < wavelength slit width >> wavelength
direction.

We don’t usually observe /ight diffracting around obstacles such as the sides of holes or
Slits. Indeed a pinhole camera relies on light not spreading much, and so not changing
its direction noticeably, as it passes through the pinhole. Close examination of the picture
might reveal some blurring due to diffraction, but the set-up in Fig. 2.5.4 demonstrates
diffraction of light unmistakeably.
Self-test
sereen
You can hear the news blaring out slit of width
from a neighbour's radio when the ace ap=0.1 mm
windows are open, but you can't 4

always make out the words. Bas

i ¢
Explain this.
[____P
Hint: consonants contain higher
frequencies of sound (> 3000 Hz).
Speed of sound = 330 ms-!.
Fig. 2.5.4 Demonstrating diffraction of light at a slit

The very small angular spread of the main beam through this narrow slit, compared to
that in Fig. 2.5.2, suggests that the wavelength of light is very small indeed. We shall soon
describe how to confirm this.
 AN liseue) coyelcanlcrsy

2.5.2 Interference r— Terms & definitions —

The principle of superposition:
Interference is probably the most distinctive wave effect: if you can demonstrate it taking The resultant displacement at
place with some unknown ‘radiation’, you know that waves are involved! each point is the vector sum of
the displacements that each wave
Interference is what happens when waves from more than one source, or waves travelling passing through the point would
by different paths from the same source, superpose or ‘overlap’ in the same region. The produce by itself.
behaviour is governed by the principle of superposition as stated in Terms & definitions.
Self-test 25.3) —
As an example of this, Suppose two identical but inverted pulses are travelling at Tn the example, all traces of the
1.0 ms" in opposite directions along a taut string, as shown at time f= 0. This is shown pulses seem to have vanished at
Mmbies2.5:5(a). t= 1.0 s. How can they re-appear?
Where has the energy gone?
What does the string look like at times ¢= 1.0 s and t= 2.0 s? Hint: it's the displacement that's
zero atf=1.0s.
Applying the principle of superposition, we get the situations shown in Fig. 2.5.5(b)

(a) 1.0 ne in Self-test (25.4)

\ \ Suppose two beams of light cross
\ \
ames oles Presence over: how, if at all, will they have
been affected by each other beyond
the region of overlap?
10ms1
\

(b) time
t= 1.0s
ag a a a ad ee ee lg ey ay
I ' !
' | i
| | '
time f= 2.0s \

\ \
\ l t

Fig. 2.5.5 Superposition in progress

(a) The two-source interference pattern

Fig. 2.5.6 is a snapshot of a ripple tank when two small rods, S1 and S2, vibrating
in phase, move up and down in contact with the water surface. These are the wave
sources. Note the ‘beams’ of waves (dark blobs: troughs; light blobs: peaks) separated by
‘channels’ of very low amplitude.

The crosses marked P and R are examples of points where the wave amplitude is
(locally) highest, because waves from S; and Sp arrive in phase there, and interfere
constructively. This is shown graphically in Fig. 2:5.7. [Note that the displacement isn’t Fig. 2.5.6 Two-source interference
necessarily a maximum at P and R at the instant of the snapshot. ]

displacement displacement
due to S, qa due to S, time

displacement displacement
due to S, time due to S, time

resultant resultant
displacement aie displacement time

Fig. 2.5.8 Destructive interference

Fig. 2.5.7 Constructive interference
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

Where the amplitude is lowest in the two source pattern, at Q, for example, the waves
from S, and So» are arriving in antiphase (half a cycle out of phase) and are interfering
Waves from different sources
pass through one another without
destructively: Fig. 2.5.8.
themselves being changed.
This allows them to combine by Note that cancellation can never take place if the component waves are vibrating at right
superposition at any point. angles to each other. To produce an interference pattern, transverse waves cannot be
polarised at right angles to each other.

Self-test
In Fig. 2.5.6 determine A by measunng
(b) Path difference
the distance along a beam between
Even without seeing the pattern, we can predict where, in relation to the sources, S,
centres of dark blobs separated by a
number of wavelengths, and dividing and So, there will be constructive or destructive interference. For example, we know that
by that number. Now measure S,R there must be constructive interference at points such as P in Fig. 2.5.6, which are equal
and $,R and comment on whether distances from S, and Sp. This is because S; and S> are oscillating in phase, so the waves
your results agree with the path
from the two sources, having travelled by paths, S;P and S»P, will arrive in phase at P. The
difference rules.
same applies for all points on the central axis (the central line through the point midway
between S; and S» and perpendicular to S;S>).
For point R, the paths are S,R and SoR. The path difference, SoR — S,R 's 1 wavelength,
so waves from So» arrive at R a whole cycle later than waves from S,. This means that they
—er SY GColf-test arrive at R in phase with the waves from Sj, so there will be constructive interference at R.
In Fig. 2.5.6 determine the path For point Q, the path difference S,Q — S.Q is half a wavelength, so waves arrive at Q in
differences for points U andV in
terms of wavelength.
antiphase and will destructively interfere.

The general rules for waves from in-phase sources are:

| For constructive interference at a point X,

| path difference , |S;X — S.X|=0, A, 24, 32...

That is: path difference , |S;X —S.X| =n, wheren=0, 1, 2,3...
For destructive interference at a point X,

| path difference , |S;X — SoX| = ADey3a 5hee

That is: path difference , |S]X—S.X]=(n + =) A, wheren=0,1,2,3...
Fig. 2.5.9 Calculating path difference

<

Self-test Example
Two transmitters, 120 m apart, Referring to point W in Fig. 2.5.6, determine the path difference, |S,W— S,W| in terms
are sending out radio waves of of A. ,
wavelength 24 m, in phase and
polarised vertically. One is sited W is on the mid-line of a beam of waves, so there is constructive inter-ference here.
60 m North of a point M, and the
other is 60 m South of it. Determine
So |S;W - S,W| = 0, 4, 22 or 3A .... The point P is on the perpendicular bisector of S,S> so
what type of interference there will W is equidistant from the two points, i.e. the path difference at P is zero. So counting the
be at a distant point, P, at 60° Hast of centre beam as ‘beam zero’, we find W on the third beam ‘out’, so |S;W — S,W| = 34.
North from M.

There's a simple equation for calculating the path difference, in terms of where X is
Situated (if it’s far enough away) in relation to S; and Ss.

SoX — S)X = asin 7

in which a and @ are shown in Fig. 2.5.9. M is the point midway between S; and S>. The
axis is the line through M perpendicular to the line S;So.
 Wave properties

The equation is an approximation, but the error is less than 1% if MX is greater than 4a.
The equation becomes exact when X is so far away that SoX and S,X can be taken as
parallel. For this ‘ideal’ case we shall derive the equation — in one line — when we deal with
the diffraction grating.

2.5.3.Young’s fringes experiment

In the early 1800s, Thomas Young investigated light passing through two parallel slits (or,
sometimes two pinholes) close together. He observed a pattern of light and dark fringes
(stripes) on a screen placed some distance from the slits. He recognised this pattern as a
section through an interference pattern, and deduced that light was wave-like. He ran various
checks, such as moving the screen nearer the slits and finding that the fringes became
closer together. [Compare horizontal sections through Fig. 2.5.6, at different distances from
the sources.] Young was also able to determine the wavelengths of different colours of light.

Here is a modern version of Young’s experiment.

two slits: centres screen

distance @ apart

Celf-test “Saitama
laser ae central axis Why does fringe intensity fall off
With distance from the central axis?
D
Hint: at still greater distances from
the axis, fringes re-appear, but
faintly.
Fig. 2.5.10 Modern Young's fringes experiment

With a= 0.5 mm and D = 1.5 m, and using red light, the fringe separation, y (between
the centres of adjacent bright fringes or adjacent dark fringes) is found to be about 2 mm.

How does it work? The slits act as sources. Light passing through them spreads out
slightly by diffraction so, if the slits are about 0.1 mm wide, there will be a few millimetres
on the screen ‘above’ and ‘below’ the axis, where light from both slits overlaps and
interferes. [This would still happen without the screen!]
Determine the fringe spacing from
The wavelength of light can be found from the equation the enlarged picture of the fringes
with millimetre scale, and hence
eee
determine the wavelength of the
‘ D
light, if a= 0.40 mm and D = 0.80 m.
This is an approximation based on the path difference rules. As long as a << D and
y << D, as in the set-up described, the equation is almost exact. To see where it comes
from, go to Stretch & Challenge.

r— Terms & definitions—j

Coherence A beam of coherent light

If we illuminate each slit with light from a different source, we find we can never produce » is nearly monochromatic,
fringes. Even using a single source such as an LED we can obtain fringes only by taking that is a continuous stream of
oscillations of a single frequency,
special precautions (such as putting a single narrow slit between the LED and the double
- has wavefronts extending across
slits). Using a laser, though, the simple arrangement shown above gives beautiful fringes.
its width, as if it came froma
This is because a laser produces coherent light: see Terms & definitions. point source.
lf we could illuminate both slits with a laser beam accurately normal to the plane of the Two or more sources are called
slits, these would act as in-phase sources because each wavefront in the beam would hit coherent if there is a constant
both at the same time. This is not usually achieved, but the slits will still act as coherent phase relationship between their
sources, meaning that there will be a constant phase relationship between them. A fringe oscillations.
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

pattern will still be seen with the same finge separation, but there probably won't be a
bright fringe on the axis.

The light from an ‘ordinary’ source such as an LED is far from coherent. Even that from a
‘coloured’ LED contains a range of frequencies. This in itself wouldn't prevent us seeing
a fringe pattern (actually many super-imposed patterns), but there is no fixed phase
relationship between light emitted from points all over an emitting area in the order of
1 mm2, so the LED doesn’t meet the point source condition for producing coherent light
(at least not without the single narrow slit mentioned above).

2.5.4 Accurate measurements of

e 2 ™ ah ly p] oi tra mea

In areal diffraction grating, often

made by a photographic process,
there isn’t always a sharp transition
between opaque and clear. wavelength
These are needed in many areas of science. For example, astronomers measure the
normal
wavelengths of light emitted and absorbed by a distant star, and from these wavelengths
0 can identify elements present in the star’s outer layers, determine the star's line-of-sight
bo toP velocity, and perhaps infer the existence of orbiting planets.

For this application, and for most others, the two slit set-up won't do. It is impossible to
measure the fringe separation accurately enough, because:

e The fringes aren’t sharp: bright fringes fade gradually into dark (Fig. 2.5.10).
e The brightest parts of the pattern are not as bright as if the light were concentrated on
them. This matters if the light source is faint.
e The fringe separation is small.

The diffraction grating deals successfully with all three of these issues.

(a) The diffraction grating

At its simplest, a diffraction grating is a flat plate, which is opaque except for thousands
of straight, parallel, equally-spaced slits.

For a grating to be used with visible light, the distance, d, between the
centres of adjacent slits is typically 2 or 3 um. The makers supply the value
of d.

We shall assume that light is shone normally (at right angles) on to the
grating, so that the slits act as in-phase sources. Each slit is very narrow
monochromatic
light (in the order of a wavelength wide), so the diffracted wavefronts are almost
semi-circular, spreading right round. See Fig. 2.5.11(a).

Now consider the light arriving at a distant point, P, from each slit. The light paths from
second order
the slits to P will be almost parallel, so the path difference between light from adjacent
order @m=1)
Slits will be dsin @, as we see from the small right-angled triangle constructed in
i= 2)
Fig. 2.5.11(b). The condition for constructive interference at P is therefore
Fig. 2.5.12 Diffraction grating orders
ONO] = MANO n=O) 21a2. ax

We can see beams emerging from the grating at these angles @, if we sprinkle dust in
the air around the grating, or let the beams brush against a piece of paper. Note how the
beams are called zeroth order, first order, second order and so on, according to the value
of n.
 : : Wave j0)40)
Ole)aleve)

Example
Self-test sD
A laser beam is shone normally on to a grating with 5.00 x 10° slits per metre.
A diffraction grating has lost its
The angle to the normal of the second order beams is 35.1°. label. The slit separation, a, is
determined by shining a beam
(a) Calculate the wavelength of the light. of light of wavelength 650 nm
normally at it and noting that the
(6) Calculate the number of beams emerging from the grating. second order beam emerges at 48°.
Calculate the wavelength which
(a) Since there are slits per metre the distance, d, between centres of slits must be gives a third order beam at 54° with
this grating.
1.00 m
4= SHH x 108 7 2:00 x 10% m

: vo ec
son = 4 A, _ 2.00 x 10 pane! 5a 0 ine 522 a

(b) When @= 90°, sin @= 1, so the path difference between light going to a distant
point from adjacent slits is simply d, its greatest possible value — as should be clear
without trigonometry! The number of wavelengths contained in distance d is simply
di 200% 10m
; or. : e wee
At certain lower values of @, d sin @ must equal 34, 24, 2 and 0. re
Nip
Yortae screen

So 7 beams emerge: the zeroth order and 3 orders either side. Ea ie FS eee
laser Niel Sige ee
Ne te

lf the beams from the grating fall on a screen, as shown in Fig. 2.5.13, they produce grating 7
bright spots on the screen. This is easily demonstrated using a laser shone normally at the
grating. See Stretch and Challenge. Fig. 2.5.13 Bright spot production

These dots correspond to the bright fringes in Young’s experiment, but they are much
further apart, because the slits are much closer together in the grating than in Young's
double slit experiment (d << a).

There is another major difference between the performance of the grating and the double
slit. In the grating, if dsin 0 =n, light from each slit will reach the distant point in phase
with light from its neighbour. Therefore light from a// slits will arrive there in phase. So the
same constructive interference condition applies however many slits there are. Now take
an angle, @, which is slightly larger than 6,, e.g. such that dsin @ = 1.12. In the double _ Inmore advanced work, the light
slits case, the waves from the two slits arrive almost in phase, so the bright fringe would source for a diffraction grating is an
still be almost as bright at this angular displacement. But for the grating there would be a _ illuminated slit, and a lens is used
path difference of 5.5 between light from the Ist slit and the 6th slit, the 2nd slit and the _ to form a parallel beam incident —
~ normally on the grating. The beams —
7th slit ... the 5th and the 10th, the 11th and the 16th and so on Thus light from a// the _ from the grating are focused by
slits except, maybe, a few left over, will destructively interfere at this angle. So the bright another lens to form images of
fringe will not extend this far. This illustrates the essential point that the fringes or lines are the slit — bright lines if the slit is
_ illuminated with monochromatic
sharper for the grating than the double slit because more slits give more possibilities for light. This is why single wavelengths
destructive interference (but no more possibilities
for constructive). are often called spectral lines.
be aki Sadat
i Doe Wile

2.5.5 Making sense of diffraction 5

centres of
We introduced diffraction in 2.4.8 as a phenomenon: something that happens! Having ce
now discussed interference, we can begin to understand why diffraction happens in the
way it does.

We start with a suggestion, made by Christiaan Huygens in the 1670s, as to how wavefronts
Stee
advance. Each point on a wavefront behaves like a point source, sending out low amplitude
‘wavelets’ in all ‘forward’ directions, so that, in section, their wavefronts are semicircles. This
is shown in Fig. 2.5.14 for waves diffracting through a slit (less than 2 wide). A later position Fig. 2.5.14 Wavelets and envelope
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

of the observed wavefront is found by drawing the envelope of the wavelets. The result, seen
in section, is a sort of flat-fronted semicircle. The flat bit ceases to show as the wavefront
7 &D Self-test
advances and expands. This is just what we observe in a ripple tank.
Summarnise in two words what limits
the spread of the main diffracted Huygens’s construction needs modifying to account for what happens when the slit width
beam for a slit wider than A.
is not small compared with 4 |. We need to think of each point in the slit as an oscillating
source of wavelets of wavelength 4. We find the displacement at any point, P, ‘ahead’ of
the slit by applying the principle of superposition to the wavelets arriving there.

For a slit of width much less than J there is no point P at which the path difference, S2P —
S,P amounts to ze for any two points, S, and Ss, in the gap (Fig. 2.5.15), which is why the
wave spreads right round. It turns out that even for a slit as wide as 4, there is destructive
interference for wavelets from al/ the points in the gap added together only for P at 90° to
‘straight ahead’. So the waves just manage to spread right round.

For slit widths between 4 and 242, larger path differences are possible, and overall
destructive interference occurs at an angle of less than 90° to the straight ahead direction
(Fig. 2.5.12). At larger angles there is net constructive interference, but the resultant
amplitude is small. For greater and greater slit widths (compared with 4) destructive
interference occurs for the ‘first’ time at smaller and smaller angles, so there is less and
Fig. 2.5.15 Path difference less spreading of the main beam. There are also more and more weak ‘side beams’:
constructive interference separated by ‘channels’ of destructive interference.

2.5.6 Stationary waves

(a) The nature of stationary waves
The waves we have been considering so far are progressive waves: they progress through
space (or a medium) transferring energy as they do so. Within a confined space, a second
kind of oscillation can exist, which is known as a stationary (or standing) wave. Three
Fig. 2.5.16 Stationary waves on a string
possible modes of transverse vibrations for a stretched string or wire, such as a violin or
or wire
harp string, are shown in Fig. 2.5.16. In each case the string vibrates up and down: the
full line shows one extreme position of the string and the pecked line shows the position
r— Terms & definitions
half a cycle later. Fig. 2.5.17 illustrates the motion in more detail.
In a stationary wave, a node
is a point of minimum and an
antinode a point of maximum
amplitude.

Fig. 2.5.17 Half a cycle of a stationary wire

(25.12) Self-test
It shows ¥% a cycle of oscillation, starting with the string in one extreme position (1), and
Draw the next stationary wave in
the sequence shown in Fig. 2.5.16, then moving through roughly equal steps of 1/10 cycle (2, 3, 4 and 5). Following this
i.e. one with five nodes. half cycle, the string tracks back: 443-721 and so on. The points which are always
stationary, marked with dots, are called nodes and the points with maximum motion,
midway between the nodes are antinodes. Notice the following differences between
stationary and progressive waves:
r— Terms & definitions— 1. In astationary wave, all points between a pair of neighbouring nodes oscillate in
The internodal distance is the phase; points either side of a node oscillate in antiphase. In a progressive wave there
distance between the nodes of a is a gradual change of phase along the wave.
stationary wave. It is 2. 2. In a progressive wave, all points oscillate with the same amplitude (apart from
a smooth decrease in amplitude with increasing distance from the source). In a
Stationary wave, the amplitude of vibration varies smoothly from zero, at the nodes, to
a maximum, at the antinodes.
 Wave properties

(b) The relationship between progressive and

stationary waves Selfcr We
The diagram shows a snapshot of
Why are stationary waves so named? Although a snapshot image looks the same as two progressive waves of the same
a wave, a Stationary wave looks more like an oscillation than a wave. The wave (or wavelength and speed (and thus of
oscillation) arises when two waves of the same frequency travel in opposite directions. the same frequency) travelling in
opposite directions.
Superposition of the two waves produces the stationary wave pattern. The clue is in
Fig. 2.5.5, especially the 1.0 s snapshot.
fe ek et) OO |e eel
As you'll discover from Self-test 2.5.13, the internodal distance is 121, where Z is the VAIN OS oer
wavelength of the progressive waves that combine to produce the stationary wave.
MSPEE as
a ee ee ae
So how do stationary waves form on instrument strings?
Draw a series of diagrams to
show the sum of the waves (by
Energy is put into the string by plucking (guitar), bowing (violin) or striking (piano).
superposition) as the waves move in
Progressive waves are produced which travel in opposite directions along the string. 1/8 wavelength steps. Identify the
The waves reflect at each end. positions of the nodes and antinodes.
eeht
sap
ae Most waves die out quickly leaving those with a node at each end , i.e. those for which
the length of the string is an integer multiple of “4.

(c) Harmonics
The different modes of vibration shown in Fig. 2.5.16 are known as harmonics. The top
graph shows the first harmonic (also known as the fundamental); the second and third
harmonics are also shown. In the case of stationary waves on a string, the frequencies of
the harmonics have a simple mathematical relationship to one another as is shown in the
example.

(d) InvestigatingLee waves Point A, in the apparatus in

Fig. 2.5.18, cannot be a node,
A common way of investigating transverse stationary waves on strings and their harmonics because the peg at A is vibrating up
is shown below. and down. However, the amplitude
of the oscillation at A is very much
smaller than the amplitude at the
antinodes, so it may be taken as a
node to a good approximation.

vibration
generator generator

Fig. 2.5.18 Investigating stationary waves on a string

 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

The signal generator produces alternating current of a variable frequency. The vibration
generator converts these into low amplitude (typically ~1 mm) of the small peg at A.
The load provides the required tension in the string. For a particular load and length, the
Theory suggests that the speed, v,
frequency,f,is increased from a low value and the values of fis noted at which stable
of transverse waves on a string is
given by harmonics are produced. This setup may be used to verify that the frequencies of the
harmonics have the mathematical relationship shown above.

where 7'is the tension and w the

mass per unit length. How could
you verify this using the apparatus
(e) Stationary waves in air columns
in Fig. 2.5.18? Stationary waves can be longitudinal, too. If you blow
across the open top of a tube or pipe, such as a pen
top, longitudinal stationary waves are set up in the air
column. Unlike waves on a string, which is fastened
at both ends, the stationary wave has an antinode
at the open end. It is difficult to draw a longitudinal
a gD Self-test wave, so diagrams are usually drawn as if the wave
‘Singing tubes’ are open at both were transverse.
ends. The diagram shows the first
harmonic. The first three harmonics for a pipe, which is open at
one end, are illustrated in Fig. 2.5.19. Notice that the
a antinodes do not exactly occur at the open end but
slightly beyond it. This ‘end correction’ can usually be
n=1 2 3

ignored but needs to be considered in accurate work Fig. 2.5.19 Harmonics in a pipe with
(a) Draw the 2nd and 3rd harmonics.
(see Section 2.5.8). one open end
(b) Write the frequency of the nth
harmonic, f,, in terms of f,. Blowing across the mouthpiece (in a flute) or into the mouthpiece (in a trumpet) produces
a wide range of frequencies, but only the ones which produce these stationary waves are
selected and amplified by the instrument. This is an example of resonance, which you will
meet in your year 13 course.

Self-test Example
An organ pipe of length 50 cm is
closed at one end. The speed of sound in air is proportional to the square root of the kelvin temperature.
(a) Calculate the frequencies, /; and
A flute produces a note of frequency 440.0 Hz at 20°C. What frequency would it
Jp, Of first two harmonics. Ignore produce if taken outside into a temperature of 0°C?
the end correction.
Speed of sound at 0°C, vo = Vr 2 = 0.965 v9
(b) What would be the effect of
closing the open end of the pipe?
Assuming that the change in the length of the flute is not significant, the wavelength of
[Speed of sound = 340 m s"!] the sound waves is unchanged.

But f= oe ~. fo = 0.965f29= 0.965 x 440 = 425 Hz.

This frequency is more than halfway down from A to G# (415 Hz), so the flute is
seriously out of tune!

2.5.7 Determination of
wavelength of light
(a) Using Young’s slits
A microscope slide is prepared by coating it with a colloidal suspension of graphite, which
Fig. 2.5.20 Young's slits using a coated is allowed to dry. Two parallel slits are scratched into the graphite using a scriber. Typically
microscope slide these slits are 0.2—0.3 mm wide and 0.4-0.5 mm apart.
 Wave properties

To measure the wavelength of a laser, which is a monochromatic light source, the slits
are set up in a darkened room, with the laser beam incident on the slits at right angles
to the plane of the slits. The resulting pattern is viewed on a screen ~2 m away. The
distance is not critical, but the further the screen is from the slits, the more spread out
the fringes will be.

screen

Fig 2.5.21 Typical fringe appearance

Fig 2.5.22 Young fringes experimental arrangement

In the expression forA; any _ the
very small quantities, a aa Ay are
on the top and the large quantity, a
dD which requires a, D and Ay to be
The wavelength, A, of the light is given by A = IND is on the bottom. The values of a ae
measured. Ayareboth<ImmandD>I1Im, —
giving 7< 1 ym, as expected. _ :
e Dis measured using a tape measure or metre rules with a percentage uncertainty of
~ 0.5 % (1 cm in 2 m) or less.
¢ ais measured using a travelling microscope (see Fig. 2.6.16), with an uncertainty of
~0.01 mm, i.e. ~2%.
e Ay, the fringe separation, is measured using a mm scale. The spread of (say) Self-test xD a
10 fringes is measured and divided by the number of fringes. Typically the spread Is With the given uncertainties in D,
~1.5 em with an uncertainty of ~1 mm. aand Ay estimate:
(a) The percentage uncertainty in /.
Notice that, even with a rather crude measurement of D it still makes the smallest (b) The absolute uncertainty if
contribution to the overall uncertainty in A. A ~590 nm.

(b) Using a diffraction grating

|
screen
r— Terms & definitions
—y
The diffraction grating constant
is the number of lines (or slits)
per metre. The reciprocal of this is
the separation, d, of the slits.

laser

Self-test (2.5.17)a
A diffraction grating is marked
‘2 000 lines cm-!’. Calculate the
separation, d, of the slits.

Fig 2.5.23 Measuring wavelength using a diffraction grating

The experiment is set up in the same way as for the Young slits experiment except that a
diffraction grating is used instead. With a laser, there is no need for blackout conditions
as much more light is transmitted by the grating than the slits and the spectral lines are
much more sharply defined.
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

fen
4 4 A eres PAaR Rene
YD
The diffraction grating formula is
p<

The slit separation, d, of a diffraction dsin 0, =n

grating can be determined by
measuring the angle, 0, of a spectral where @, is the angle of the m'” order spectrum and d the diffraction grating slit separation.
line of known wavelength and
applying the diffraction grating
To calculate the wavelength, d and @, need to be determined. The value of d is usually
formula. calculated from the by the diffraction grating constant, which is provided by the
manufacturer (but see the Study point). If projecting the spectra on to a screen it Is
convenient determine the 6, values by measuring D (as with the Young slits experiment)
and x" using a metre rule, and then using
Self-test
Using a diffraction grating, 0 Betain a
for the first order sodium D line,
(wavelength, 589 nm) was found Typically, D~ 2 m and the displacements, x, are of the order of 50 cm. To reduce the
to be 12.36°. Calculate: (a) the slit uncertainty in the values of x it is sensible to measure the distance between the two
separation and (b) the diffraction
first-order spectra and dividing by 2.
grating constant.

(c) Using a spectrometer Me

More accurate values for 2, using Young slits or
a diffraction grating, can be obtained using a
spectrometer instead of projecting the spectra onto angle C
a distant screen. The angular resolution of a typical scale
school spectrometer is 0.5' of arc, i.e. 1/120°, giving
a percentage uncertainty in 0 of ~ 0.06%, for an
angle of 15°.

A detailed description is not given here but, very

briefly, a light source, L, illuminates a slit, S, at the table
focus in a collimator, C, producing a parallel light
beam which is incident on the grating, G (or slits). ah
The spectra (fringes) emerging are examined in the NS
telescope and the angle of deviation measured using E
the angle scale. Advantages of the spectrometer are: Eleioth BSA SoAanorteran

e High angular resolution.

e Non-coherent light can be used, e.g. gas discharge tubes.
e The spectral lines are very narrow (they are images of the narrow collimator slit).

2.5.8 Determination of the speed of

sound in air using stationary waves
A vibrating tuning fork, F, is used to set up stationary waves aL
in the column of air above the water surface in a open-ended TN SEIS
glass tube (a resonance tube). The water level in the tube
is adjusted by raising and lowering the water reservoir (R)
until sound of a maximum intensity is heard. The reservoir
and resonance tube are connected by a flexible rubber tube,
which allows water to flow between the two. The clip, C, is
used to restrict or stop the flow of the water between the
reservoir and resonance tube.

The smallest distance, /, for a stationary wave, is such

that there is a node, N, at the surface of the water and an
Fig. 2.5.25 Resonance tube antinode, A, close to (but just above) the open end of the Fig. 2.5.26 1st harmonic
 : NANFewidows 0)de)els) an (ots

tube, as shown in Fig. 2.5.26. The distance J is the measured distance of the water
surface below the open end of the tube and the unknown distance c is called the
end correction. The distance between a node and the adjacent antinode is 2/4, so
we can write
A
4 = Me ase
The simplest method to determine the speed of sound is as follows:

e Starting from a water level close to the open end of the tube, lower the water level
(by lowering the reservoir) until the first resonance is detected with a vibrating
tuning fork of known frequency, e.g. 256 Hz (middle C).
e By repeated raising and lowering the water level, locate the resonance position Fig. 2.5.27 Graph of / against
accurately. f
e Measure the resonance length, J.
e Repeat with a series of tuning forks up to, e.g. 512 Hz (top C).

The analysis
For each frequency,f,4 = 7 where v is the speed of sound.

Substituting for 2 and rearranging: / = F —c. So graph of / against =is a straight line

of gradient a and intercept —c on the / axis.

Variations
1. Asmall loudspeaker, connected to a calibrated signal generator can be used instead
of the set of tuning forks.

2. The second (and third) harmonics can be located for a single frequency. This Is
illustrated in Fig. 2.5.28. If the length of air for the n't harmonic is /,, then
l,-l,= 4 and/,-1,= oe lf the frequency is known, the wave speed can
be calculated.
Fig. 2.5.28 2nd and 3rd harmonics
3. A larger bore glass tube with a wooden piston can be used as the resonance tube
together with the signal generator and loudspeaker. The resonance length is measured
by withdrawing the piston.

Exercise eo

The diagram shows a set of plane microwaves approach a pair Yo

of slits, whose centres are 8.0 cm apart, made using three ']
aluminium plates. A probe, P, is moved along the dotted line eae Stevensis
which is 50 cm from the plane of the slits.

(a) When one of the slits is covered up, a signal is received at O.

Name the effect which is responsible for this.
(b) When both slits are uncovered the signal received is much stronger. Explain this.
(c) As the probe is moved from O in the direction shown by the arrow, the signal initially
decreases to (nearly) zero and then rises to a maximum. Explain this observation and name
the effect observed.
(d) The distance between the first maxima on either side of the centre line is found to be
36.8 cm.
(i) Use the Young slits formula to calculate a value for the wavelength of the microwaves.
(ii) Calculate a value ofA using Pythagoras’ theorem. Comment on your answers.
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

A physics student was given the task of identifying a mystery line in the spectrum of a sodium
discharge tube. She used a spectrometer and a diffraction grating as follows:

|. She measured the angles, @, between the two second order spectra for the lines in the hydrogen
spectrum.
ll. She measured the angles between the two second order spectra of the mystery line in the sodium
spectrum

Her results are in the table.

a/nm 410.2 434.0 486.1 6563 589.3. mystery

“p7°? AP92 30.90: 57.54. 80:71 71.39 65.46

Is the value of @ consistent with the green line of mercury which has a wavelength of 546.1 nm?

A student illuminates a single slit with a laser light of wavelength 650 nm and observes this pattern on
a screen which is placed 3.0 m from the slit.

(a) Sketch a graph of intensity against position for this light.

(b) He replaces the laser with another of wavelength 450 nm. Sketch a graph of intensity against
position for this graph.
(c) The angular position, in radians, of the dark fringes from the centre is me where d is the width of
the and n takes values 1, 2, 3... By taking readings from the cm/mm scale find the width of the slit.

In an experiment to measure the speed of sound a student uses a tuning fork of a

frequency 440.0 Hz. She held the vibrating tuning fork over the top of a resonance a
tube and allowed the water level to drop until a loud resonance was heard. This was
due to stationary sound waves being formed with a node at the water surface and an if
antinode at the open end of the tube, so the length / represented % of a wavelength.

Repeating the procedure several times, she obtained the following values of/using a
mm scale: 185 mm, 189 mm, 190 mm, 187 mm, 189 mm.

Use the readings to determine a value for, v, the speed of sound together with its
uncertainty, Av.

The student in Q4 reads Section 2.5.8 and finds out that the antinode is not exactly
at the end of the tube but a short distance (called the end correction), €, above it.

SO 4 —€. She repeated the experiment and found a second resonance with

ja3t_e The readings were: 579 mm, 576 mm, 577 mm, 573 mm, 575 mm.

Use the results of both experiments to find values for v and € together with their uncertainties.

The speed, v, of transverse waves on a wire is given by v= ie where Tis the tension and y is the
mass per unit length. A vertical wire of mass M and length / is put under tension by hanging a series of
masses, m, on it. The wire is plucked so that it vibrates. Ignoring any increase in length in the wire owing
to the varying tension, derive a formula relating the frequency of vibration, f, to the suspended mass, m.
 i ANEW(cme)galel-van
ters

A narrow slit is illuminated by a red laser (A = 640 nm) and the emergent light observed on a wall
2.00 m away. The central maximum of the diffraction pattern is measured as 2.0 cm wide. The
slit is replaced by a pair of parallel slits of the same width as the first. The interference fringes are
2.0 mm apart.

(a) Calculate the slit separation.

(b) Estimate the number of interference fringes you would expect to see. Explain your answer.
(c) Describe and explain what you would expect to see if:
(i) The red laser were replaced by a green laser (A = 500 nm).
(ii) The slits are now illuminated by both lasers but one slit is covered with a filter which lets only
red light through and the other with a green filter.
(iil) The slits are covered with polaroid filters with the directions of the two polaroids parallel.
(iv) The slits are covered with polaroid filters with the directions of the two polaroids at right angles.

are

Wag & Challenge

1. Aremovals van is reversing from the right and the foghor sends sound of frequency 150 Hz from the left as shown in
the diagram.

The student notices that the combination of sound from the foghom and the reflection from the back of the van gets
louder and quieter with a period of 2.0 s.
Estimate the speed of the van. [Take the speed of sound to be ~300 m s"! |]

2. Both the Sun and the Moon have tidal effects. The effects are most easily observed on the oceans.

Sun

The diagram shows, highly exaggerated, the Sun's tidal effect on the oceans of the Earth. The effects of the land
masses are ignored. As the Earth rotates, two solar tides are experienced per day. The period of the solar tides is thus
12.00 hours.
Even though the moon is much less massive than the Sun, it exerts tides which are about 2.2 times as large as the
Sun, because it is so much nearer. Because of the Moon's orbit (29.3 days relative to the Sun) the period of the lunar
tides is slightly longer at 12.42 hours.
The tide experienced on any day is the superposition of the two tidal waves, so the amplitude varies. Sometimes the
tides are in phase, giving so-called spring tides and sometimes they are exactly out of phase and we get neaps.
On Thursday 4 June 2015, the solar and lunar tides are in phase (spring tide) and the amplitude of the tide at
Aberystwyth is a maximum at 4.8 m.
When will the lowest amplitude tides (neaps) be and what will be their amplitude?
> 2.6 Refraction of light
r— Terms & definitions All waves, such as sound, light, sea waves and seismic waves, exhibit a change
Refraction is the change of
of direction if they move from one material into another in which the speed of
direction of travel of light (or propagation is different (unless the direction of propagation is at right angles to the
other wave) when its speed of boundary). This effect is called refraction. The causes of the speed change depend
travel changes, e.g. when it passes upon the kind of waves. Some examples:
from one material into another.
e Seismic wave speed depends upon stiffness and density of rocks.

e The speed of radio waves through the ionosphere (upper atmosphere) Is affected by
free-electron concentration.

e Surface water wave speed is affected by the frequency and by the depth of water —
the ripple tank waves in Fig. 2.6.1 are travelling from left to right in deep water at
B; they slow down at the boundary with shallower water at A, which causes them to
bunch up and change direction.

e The speed of sound waves through the atmosphere depends upon the temperature.

In the case of light, we use this effect to control light in useful ways, such as making
lenses for correcting defects of vision or for constructing telescopes and microscopes,
or in optical fibres to transmit information. Geophysicists use the refraction of natural
Fig. 2.6.1. Refraction of water waves in
seismic waves to probe the structure of the Earth or artificially generated ones to
a ripple tank locate oil and gas reservoirs.

high speed low speed

2.6.1 Refraction and wave
properties
The waves (the black lines show the crests) in Fig. 2.6.2 are crossing a boundary (pecked
line) obliquely from left to right into a region in which they travel more slowly. The red and
green arrows show the directions of travel of the waves. These are at right angles to the
line of the wave crests and, in the case of light, the red and green lines would be light
rays.

As each wave crosses the boundary it slows down: the lower end of the wave slows down
first so the line of the wave becomes more vertical (more nearly parallel to the boundary).
Hence the direction of travel of the waves becomes more nearly horizontal, i.e. closer to
right angles to the boundary.

As these lines represent the wave crests, the separation of the crests along the (coloured)
direction lines, is the wavelength, which clearly decreases as it crosses the boundary.
What about the frequency? Every wave that passes X also passes Y. Therefore the
frequency of the waves must be unchanged even though the speed changes.

Hav
7 oiInt : Fig. 2.6.3(a) illustrates the case of a light ray being refracted at a boundary. Some
terms associated with refraction are introduced in the diagram and part (b) shows
We usually use the concept of rays
the relationship between the light rays and the wave model of light. Fig. 2.6.3(b) is a
to illustrate the refraction of light.
Light is a wave phenomenon but magnified extract from the central part of Fig. 2.6.2. We can use these diagrams to derive
when the wavefronts are many the relationship between the angles, @, and @, and the wave speeds v, and vy.
orders of magnitude larger than the
wavelength we can consider it to
move in narrow straight line beams
at right angles to the wavefronts:
these are light rays.
 ,. : Refraction of light

Vy Ve)
refracted ray

incident ray
(a)

Fig. 2.6.3 Refraction in terms of

(a) rays and (b) waves

PR represents a wavefront arriving at the boundary with an angle of incidence @;. QS

represents the position of the same wavefront, a time Af later, at the instant in which point
Qolf-test
P on the incident wavefront arrives at the boundary. A set of water waves of frequency
4.0 Hz is travelling in water with
ArORsOR =
sin 0;
in ASRGiGRe 2s
sin 0;
a speed of 10 cm s~!. It hits a
boundary with shallow water, where
its speed is 6.0 cm s-!, at an angle of
40°. Calculate:
yrPOu= SRS
; the expressions for QR: me Shia
..; Equating Ge (a) The wavelengths of the waves
in the deep and in the shallow
water.
= = F y,At = v,At
But PQ = v,Atand RS = voAt, .. Sino,
6, = orn
0; (b) The angle the refracted waves
make to the boundary.

Rearranging: sin6,_ sin& [1]

V} V>

Alternatively: the ratio a a = es which is a constant. This is a form of Snell’s law,

3 2

which is dealt with in Section 2.6.2 If the speed of the waves varies
gradually with position, the direction
of travel of the waves gradually
changes and we can use the
equation between @ and v in the
2.6.2 Refractive index form
sin 0
= constant.
Example: the direction of seismic
Equation 1 in Section 2.6.1 is a general relationship for all wave motions. In this section waves through the Earth’s mantle.
we deal only with light. The discussion also applies, in principle, to other forms of
electromagnetic radiation. r— Terms & definitions
For historical reasons, optical physicists discuss-the ability of a material to refract light The refractive index, 7, of a
material is defined by n = oa
waves (rays) in terms of its refractive index, 1, which is defined by n = - (see Terms where v and c are the speeds
& definitions). Because light waves travel more slowly through materials than through a of light in the material and a
vacuum, the values of 7 have a minimum value of 1 exactly for a vacuum (by definition), vacuum respectively.
i.e.n>1. Table 2.6.1 gives the refractive indices of a range of common materials.

The refractive index of a material

depends upon the frequency of
the radiation. This is the cause of
rainbows.
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

(a) Snell’s law

We shall now write equation 1 in terms of refractive index. The refractive indices of the
imate C (e
two materials in Fig. 2.6.3 aren, = a and n= Ree
vacuum |l (exactly) l 2
air (at 0°C) —_|1.000292 So equation 1 becomes:
msin 0; _ nysin 0,
Cc “nm sin 0, =n sin 8,
’ [2]
water |1.333" This is Snell’s law. Equation 2 can also be written 2 sin @ = constant, which also can
sea water |1.343* be applied to refraction through a material with a continuously varying refractive index,
ice |1.31 e.g. the atmosphere, a solution with a varying composition.

glass |1.90 — 1.79

diamond |2.417
glycerine |1473"
(b) Optical density
olive oil |1.48* Many people use the qualitative term optical density to describe the refractive property
of a material. Diamond is described as having a ‘high optical density’ and air has a
* at 293 K ‘low optical density’. This term should not be confused with physical density. There is
a rough correlation of physical density with refractive index, e.g. crown glass (n ~1.5,
p=2.6 g cm) and flint glass (n~1.7, p = 4.2 g cm™). However,
Self-test e the density of diamond (3.5 g cm™) is lower than that of flint glass but the refractive
Calculate the speed of light in: index is much higher
(a) water and (b) diamond.
e the refractive index of perspex (1.495) is virtually equal to that of crown glass but the
Take c = 3.00 x 108 m s“!.
density is much lower (1.19 g cm*).

Example
The diagram shows a light ray entering se glass as
Note the following two points from
a fish tank. Use the refractive index values ee
the fish-tank example, which arise
only because the glass surfaces are to calculate angle @,,.
parallel:
From Snell’s law:
1. The light ray in the glass makes
the same angle, a, to the normal
n,sin 50° =n,sin a= n,sin 0,
at both sides.
2. The angle a in the glass can be (see Study point)
ignored in the calculation.
te00sin SOQ? = 1.33 sin 6,
sin50°
ie sin S| = 35° (2 sf.)
& Self-test
Calculate the angle in the glass, a, in
the fish-tank example.

2.6.3 Reflection
If a light ray strikes a smooth (polished) boundary between two media, as in Fig. 2.6.5,
it is usually partially reflected and partially refracted as shown. This diagram is drawn for
nN, >N> but the same holds for 7, <>, except that, in that case the angle of refraction,
f, would be less than the angle of incidence, a. Note that the angle of reflection (i.e. the
angle between the reflected ray and the normal) is equal to the angle of incidence.

Fig. 2.6.5 Partial reflection The fraction of the incident power which is reflected depends upon both the angle of
incidence and the refractive indices of the two materials:

e The greater the angle of incidence, they greater the power reflected.
e The greater the difference in refractive indices the greater the power reflected.
, Sina =n, sin f as usual.
 Refraction of light

(a) Total internal reflection

(b)

(d)

Fig. 2.6.6 Total internal reflection

The sequence of diagrams in Fig. 2.6.6(a) — (d) illustrates qualitatively how the fraction of
the reflected power varies with angle of incidence for a light ray incident upon a material
with a lower refractive index.

e For asmall angle of incidence — in (a) — the fraction reflected is small.

between a material of refractive
e As the angle of incidence increases — the sequence (a), (b), (c) — the fraction reflected index n and air (refractive index
increases (and the fraction transmitted decreases). = 1.000) is given by
Be
e Atsome angle of incidence, @,, called the critical angle, the angle of refraction is 90° sin@,=)-
and the refracted power is very low.
e For angles of incidence greater than the critical angle — in (d) — all the incident power
is reflected. This phenomenon is known as total internal reflection (TIR).

The relationship between the critical angle, @,, and the refractive indices can be found by
| Self-test |
considering the limiting case in diagram (c).
A light ray, travelling in perspex of
refractive index 1.495, is incident
Applying 2,sin 0; = nysin @ with 0; = @, and 6, = 90°
upon a boundary with air. Describe
what happens if the angle of incidence
a n,sin 8,= nzsin 90° is (a) 25°, (b) 35° and (c) 45°.

But sin 90° = 1, dp SID Ope Tia 0 O88» 0. = sin-'(2]

ny

(b) Examples of TIR

Section 2.6.4 deals with optical fibres, which depend for their operation on total internal
reflection. Here are two more everyday examples.

(i) Totally reflecting prisms

Many optical instruments, e.g. binoculars, microscopes and periscopes, use prisms to
reflect light and to fold the light path. The advantage of prisms over mirrors is illustrated
in Fig. 2.6.7. The multiple reflections in a mirror would cause multiple images in the
instrument. In the case of the prisms, the weak partial reflections as the light enters or
leaves the prism at right angles would send light back out of the instrument the way it
came and wouldn't affect the final image. The glass used for prisms has refractive index Fig. 2.6.7 Totally reflecting prisms and
in the range 1.5-1.7. You should be able to show that the critical angle is less than oo: a glass mirror
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

Fig. 2.6.8 Desert and

highway mirages

"materials, of refractive indices n, 2

and
; m, at
a tight angles (i.e. 9=0), the —
Acces R, of PENS teflectedis
given by: a
(ii) Mirages
“_ +
ae: cae theflectonofuae which
ae The reflection of light, apparently from a shimmering water surface on a hot summer road
or from a non-existent lake in the baking desert, is known as a mirage (strictly an inferior
mirage). Two examples of this are shown in Fig. 2.6.8.

This happens because the road (or desert) surface absorbs radiation from the Sun and
heats up. This warms the air in contact with the surface so that there is a temperature
inversion — the air temperature falls with height. The refractive index decreases as a
light ray (e.g. from a car, camel or telegraph pole) approaches the surface and, if the ray
A lightray hits an equilateral glass travels at a glancing angle, there is enough of a difference to cause TIR.
pnsm (n = 1.50) with angle of
incidence 50°. Calculate the angle
with which it emerges from the
prism.
increasing 7’,
os decreasing n

kre Ey :
Paes es a
pa een ee a
an soles oe a
See ae
RAIS ~ af
¢

Fig. 2.6.9 Mirage formation by TIR (greatly exaggerated curvature) a4

Multimode optical fibres typically

have core diameters of ~ 50 mm.
2.6.4 Optical fibres
Monomode (single-mode) fibres are
Optical fibres have become ubiquitous since the 1980s. They are used for data
typically 8-10 um.
transmission in local area networks (LANs), regional networks and long-distance networks
(intercontinental). They are also used in remote imaging systems, such as internal
medical examinations (endoscopy) and investigating inaccessible locations such as drains
and collapsed buildings (in the search for survivors).

core

Fig 2.6.11 Optical fibre

Fig 2.6.10 Oesophageal endoscopic This section deals with optical properties of stepped-index optical fibres. A typical optical
image showing reflux damage (Barrett's fibre consists of a single glass thread, the central part of which (the core) carries the
oesophagus) light signal and the outer part (the cladding) keeps the signal in the core. Around this
is a protective layer of plastic (not shown in Fig. 2.6.11) called the coating. Typically the
external diameter of the coating is ~ 250 um, i.e. 0.25 mm. An optical-fibre cable can
consist of hundreds of such fibres.
 - Refraction of light

(a) Multimode fibres and TIR

The optical fibre relies for its operation on total internal reflection of light rays at the The refractive indices of the core and
cladding depend on the design, but
boundary between the core and the lower refractive index cladding. values of 1.62 and 1.52 respectively
are typical.

Qolf-tect t (2.6.6 em
Show that the critical angle for the
core and cladding is approximately
70° for the v values given in the
Study point.
Fig. 2.6.12 Totally reflected light ray in a multimode optical fibre

All light rays that are incident upon the core-cladding boundary at angles greater than
the critical angle are totally internally reflected back into the core. They then repeatedly
hit opposite sides of the core at the same angle being reflected each time and emerge
from the other end of the fibre (unless they are absorbed or scattered by impurities in the
glass). The optical fibre is not necessarily perfectly straight but, given that the diameter of
the core is ~50 um, any reasonable curvature of the cable will hardly affect the angles of
the multiple reflections.

This kind of optical fibre is fine for short-distance communication or for imaging
applications (endoscopy), but it runs into a problem for digital communication over long
distances with rapid switching rates. To see why, consider the time taken for a signal to
travel 10 km.

Example
A multimode optical fibre has a core refractive index of 1.6. Calculate the difference ife
the time taken for a signal to travel through 10 km of optical fibre for light rays travelling
parallel to and at 20° to the axis of the fibre.

Speedofightinthe core= £= ie = 1.875 x 108m s7

oe
uetaken taal a =T E75x i08 = a [is

Distance
travelledbysignalat 20° =ae = 10642 m

oe : : 10642 | Logic level

“oetenee l

_ Timedifference = 2.5Us.

This time difference is proportional to the transmission distance, so a 1 km fibre would 0 t

give a time difference of ~0.4 us; for a 100 m fibre Ar would be 40 ns etc. Digital
Fig. 2.6.13 Digital signal
data is transmitted as a series of rapidly oscillating pulses. If the transmission rate is
more than 105 bits per second [100 kbps], the time between pulses will be less than
~10 us, so the time difference between the arrival of the straight-through and 20° will
r— Terms & definitions
cause the 1s and 0s of the pulses to overlap and cause the signal to be unreadable.
As modern data systems operate at Gbps rates [10° bits per second] this kind of Data degradation because of
optical fibre is restricted to a few metres, e.g. in a LAN. This restriction is overcome in the different paths the light rays
monomode fibres. can take is called multimode
dispersion.
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

(b) Monomode (single-mode) fibres

ath &D Self-test | In Section 2.5 we saw that light spreads out significantly by diffraction when it passes
A telephone conversation takes through apertures which are similar in size to the wavelength. In these circumstances
place over a 3000 km monomode we can no longer use the light-ray model and we need to use a full wave analysis (which
fibre system. Estimate the time delay is beyond the scope of A level physics). For reasons which are dealt with briefly below,
that the participants experience.
State any assumption you make.
optical fibre communication systems use infrared radiation of wavelength (in air) of
~1.5 mm. The result of the full wave analysis is that, for core diameters of less than about
10 um, the light waves cannot take multiple paths and they are effectively restricted to
travelling parallel to the axis of the fibre. These fibres are called monomode fibres.

Progressive signal loss due to attenuation becomes the main problem to be overcome
in monomode systems in boosting transmission rates and distances. For near IR
wavelengths this is mainly due to scattering by impurities in the glass of the fibre.
This process is called Rayleigh scattering and becomes more serious the shorter the
wavelength. This is the same effect that produces the blue of the sky — the short (blue)
wavelengths are scattered more by the atmosphere than the long (red) wavelengths.
Some molecules and ions in the glass (mainly OH) also selectively absorb particular
wavelengths.

Signal loss / dB wa OH

10

3 A B
| |
0.3
0.1
0.8 1.0 12 14 16 A/pm

Fig. 2.6.14 Optical fibre signal loss curve

The loss curve — Fig. 2.6.14 — gives a typical graph for a traditional monomode optical
fibre. The arrows A and B indicate (vacuum) wavelengths which are used for regional
networks and long-distance networks respectively. ZBLAN, a recently developed set of
materials, is showing losses as low as 0.01 dB per kilometre.

2.6.5 Determination of the

refractive index of a material
All the school laboratory methods of determining the refractive index are carried out in
air. They produce results which, at best have an estimated uncertainty of +0.01, so the
distinction between the refractive indices of air (v7, = 1.0003) and a vacuum (n = 1
exactly by definition) can be ignored.

(a) Method 1 - using real and apparent depth

This method is the more accurate of the methods used in A level physics laboratories. It
relies on the fact that the ratio of the real depth to the apparent depth of an object under
the surface of a refracting material (e.g. water) is equal to the refractive index of the
Fig 2.6.15 Real and apparent depth material.
 . ~ Refraction of light

This can be derived using Fig. 2.6.15 which shows two light rays from, O, a submerged
MATHS CHECK —
object emerging into the air at A and B. It is assumed that the angles a and f are small
See Section 424 .
enough for the small angle approximation to be valid. Viewed from above the object angle approximation ae
appears to be at I, which is at the intersection of the lines of the emergent light rays.
sin O~0~tan0 a‘ Ve .

Snell's law: nsin a= sin B becausen, = 1

But
a and f# AB : AB
B are small , SO sin a= = tan a =———
AO and sin f ms
= tan B = ——
Al

In this case, a and f will be typically 0.01 rad or less, so the values of tan and sin differ
by at most 0.005%.

., Substituting forsin @and AB_ AB _AO ___ real depth Self-test

si = ==. a i =
2 BEB SUL 28 aA apparent depth
6=0.01 rad. Find tan 6 and sin 0
To measure the refractive index of a liquid (e.g. water): and show that the difference is
approximately 0.005%.
1. Stick a coin to the bottom of a beaker and place the
beaker on the stage of a travelling microscope.

2. Focus the travelling microscope on the coin and read the

vertical scale, Ay.

3. Without displacing the beaker and coin, add the liquid to

a depth of ~5 cm. Refocus the microscope and read the
scale, hy.

4. Sprinkle lycopodium power lightly onto the surface of the

liquid, focus on it and read the scale, h3.
. _ h; = hy
5. Calculate 1 using n = es,is

An improved method is to carry on adding the liquid and obtain a series of values of real
depth and apparent depth. A graph of real depth against apparent depth is plotted. The
gradient is measured, the value of which is the refractive index. Fig. 2.6.16 Travelling microscope

(b) Method 2 - ray tracing Self-test 26.)

Typical uncertainties in the values
This method requires the material to be in the shape of a regular block, e.g. a of h,_, are +0.03 cm. Assuming a
semicircular or rectangular glass or perspex block. The advantage of a semicircular block true depth of 6.00 cm, estimate the
is that a ray along a radius is at right angles to the curved surface, so it is not refracted at uncertainty in an obtained value of
the boundary (see Fig. 2.6.17). n for water (n = 1.33).

1. The semicircular block is set up on a piece of plane paper on a drawing board on

which is drawn a series of lines (drawn faint) at regular angles to the straight face of
the block, e.g. 5° — 40° in 5° steps.
'
'
'
2. Two pins, P; and Ps, are placed.on one of the lines as in the diagram. Sighting these '
' 4
pins through the block, two more pins are placed so that all four pins are in a straight '
'
'
line as viewed through the block. The emergent ray (pecked line is drawn in later). '

3. Step 2 is repeated for each of the lines from step 1.

4. The block is removed, the ray lines drawn in using the marks left by the pins, and the
angles of incidence, @,, and refraction, @, at the plane surface measured using a
protractor.

5. A graph of sin 6, against sin @, is drawn and the gradient measured. This is the
refractive index.

2.6.17 Refractive index by ray tracing

WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

Ett” Pp ee
ae ee
A set of waves travelling at 6 m s~! in water of depth 40 m has a wavelength of 10 m. It approaches
a beach in a direction at 50° to the normal.

(a) Calculate the frequency of the waves.

(b) Assuming the speed of the waves is directly proportional to the square root of the depth, calculate
the speed and wavelength of the waves when the water is 10 m deep.
(c) Calculate the direction of travel of the waves at the 10 m deep point.
(d) What direction do the waves travel in when they are water of depth 2.5 m?

A light ray is incident at 45° at the middle of a glass block of dimensions 8.0 cm x 15 cm, and
refractive index 1.50. Determine the position and direction at which the light ray emerges from
the block.

A light ray enters a stack of blocks with refractive indices as shown. By calculating the relevant angles
in each layer, decide where total internal reflection occurs. You may assume that the blocks are long
enough for this to happen.

A student measures the refractive index of a glass block using the method of real and apparent depth.

He draws a cross on a piece of paper, puts the paper onto the stage of a travelling microscope, focuses
the microscope and finds that the reading on the scale is 12.52 + 0.01 cm. He puts a glass block
on top of the paper, refocuses and measures the position as 13.64 + 0.01 cm. Finally uses a non-
permanent marker to mark the top of the glass block and measures its position as 15.54 + 0.01 cm.
Calculate the refractive index, giving the estimated uncertainty and expressing your values to an
appropriate number of significant figures.

The resolution of the scale of the travelling microscope scale in Q4 is +0.005 cm. Suggest why the
uncertainty in position is + 0.01 cm.

A student uses method 2 to measure the refractive index of a semicircular perspex block.

Her results are given in the table. 0, is the angle in the glass and @, the angle in the air. All angles are
measured to + 0.5°.

FO TO) st 08 3200" 325-0 30.0 235.0

Pie 19,0) 23.0. 3102 390 480 39.0

Use the results to draw a graph of sin @, against sin @,. Use the + 0.5° uncertainties to work out
the max/min values of sin @, and @,, plot error bars and determine the refractive index of the block
together with its uncertainty.
 Refraction of light

A ray of white light, consisting of all wavelengths between

400 nm and 700 nm, hits an equilateral triangular prism with
an angle of incidence of 60°. The refractive index of the prism
varies with the wavelength of light. For red light of wavelength (in
a vacuum) of 700 nm, the refractive index is 1.51; for violet light
with Avac = 400 nm the refractive index is 1.53.

(a) Calculate the wavelengths of red and violet light in the glass.
(b) By determining the paths of red and violet light through the prism, calculate the angle between the
emerging rays of red and violet light.

The refractive indices of the core and cladding of a multimode optical fibre are 1.62 and 1.55
respectively.

(a) Calculate the critical angle between the core and cladding.
(b) A section of the optical fibre in a LAN is 10 m long. Estimate the travel time difference between
the light which passes along the axis of the fibre and the light which travels at the critical angle.
(c) Estimate the maximum bit-rate by which the fibre can be used for transmitting data, justifying
your figure.

If a light ray passes through a prism without reflection it is deflected by an angle, called the angle of deflection, 6, the
magnitude of which depends upon the refractive index, n, of the maternal of the prism, the prism angle, 4, and the
orientation of the pnsm.
Expenmentally, if the prism is rotated there is
a single minimum in the graph of 6 against the
orientation of the prism. We deduce that this
minimum deviation angle, D, must occur when the
light ray passes symmetrically through the prism.
(a) Explain the deduction in the last paragraph.

(b) Derive the equation: n =

2
sin|2
(c) Calculate the minimum deviation for a light ray
incident upon a prism with A = 45° and n = 1.7.
>. 2.7 Photons
By the late nineteenth century, the wave model of light was firmly established. It
explained a whole series of phenomena (see Sections 2.5 and 2.6) and the wavelength
Classical could be measured using Young’s slits. However, this theory could not account for
wave theory
the way that light interacted with matter. According to the classical wave theory, the
power radiated by a black body should get progressively higher at shorter wavelengths
(actually x 24), leading to the conclusion that the total power radiated away across
Intensity
(a.u.)
all wavelengths should be infinite! This ‘prediction’ was known as the ultraviolet
catastrophe. Planck successfully accounted for the shape of the black-body spectrum
by assuming that radiation was absorbed and emitted in discrete packets of energy,
rather than continuously as a wave. These packets were of energy E = hf, where h
is a constant called the Planck constant. Einstein took the idea of energy packets
0 sy INO) ees 2A) sy
literally and postulated that light propagated as a stream of particles (which we now
Wavelength/um
call photons) of energy Afand successfully accounted for another phenomenon — the
Fig. 2.7.1 The ultraviolet catastrophe photoelectric effect.

r— Terms & definitions—

The Planck constant, /, has
magnitude 6.63 x 10-34 Js.
2.7.1 The photoelectric effect
lf ultraviolet radiation is shone onto a negatively charged zinc plate, the plate loses its
get UV charge. This is easily demonstrated using an electroscope as in Fig. 2.7.2. The gold leaf
quickly drops. A positively charged plate shows no effect, suggesting that the UV causes
electrons to be given off from the zinc plate. The lack of response from a positive plate
can be explained because any electrons given off are attracted back by the positive zinc.
The photoelectric effect is not peculiar to zinc.

The vacuum photocell (or phototube) provides a simple way of investigating the
photoelectric effect. This was originally used in camera light meters and for reading the
optical soundtrack in cinema projectors. It consists of a cylindrical cathode (K) made from
a photo-emissive metal and an anode (A) placed in front of it. The whole is surrounded
by an evacuated glass envelope. Incoming e-m radiation hits the surface of the cathode,
liberating electrons. In the original uses, the anode is connected in a circuit with the
anode positive so that liberated electrons are drawn across and out into the circuit. The
current is proportional to the light intensity, enabling it to be used as a light meter. Note
Fig. 2.7.2 Photoelectric effect
that, in the discussion of the photoelectric effect, the word /ight should be taken to include
demonstration
near infrared and ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation.

(a) Photoelectric effect experiments

If we measure the -Vcharacteristics of a
photocell, as in Fig. 2.7.4, we notice that:

e For positive pds above a minimum

level the current is constant — all the
emitted electrons are collected by the
anode.
e This ‘plateau current’ is proportional to ji
the light intensity. Increasing
e There is a positive current for small light intensity
Fig. 2.7.3 The vacuum photocell
negative values of V down to a
‘stopping voltage’ Vs, (the same value
for all light intensities).
-Vs V

Fig. 2.7.4 Photocell characteristics

lf we assume that the photoelectrons are emitted with a range of kinetic energies, the r— Terms & definitions
——
value of Vs enables us to measure the maximum value of this, Ex max. If an electron with The electrons emitted by the
Fx max IS Just Stopped by Vs, then from the definition of potential difference: photoelectric effect are often
referred to as photoelectrons.
Ey max — eVs.

The experiments which showed that the radiation did not behave as waves concerned
the variation of Ex max with the frequency,f,of the radiation. A suitable circuit is given Self-test GD i
in Fig. 2.7.5. Notice the polarity of the voltage supply. The photocell is illuminated with If Vp = 0.6 V, find the value of Ey, max
monochromatic radiation (i.e. consisting of a single frequency). The pd applied across the (a) in J and (b) in eV.
photocell is adjusted using the potentiometer until the current just becomes zero and the fe=1,60x 10-9 C]
value, Vs, measured. This is repeated for a range of frequencies,f,and for different metal
surfaces (as the cathode in the photocell).

The results of such experiments and the one in Fig. 2.7.4 are as follows:

a. lf electrons are emitted, there is no measurable time delay.

b. For any metal there is a characteristic threshold frequency, /,,, below which no
electrons are emitted, whatever the intensity of the radiation.
c. There is a linear relationship between Fy max and the frequency, with the same gradient
for all metals (see Fig. 2.7.6).
d. lf electrons are emitted, Fy, max IS independent of the radiation intensity.
e. If electrons are emitted, the number of electrons emitted per second is proportional to
the intensity of the radiation. Fig. 2.7.5 Circuit for the photoelectric
effect

(b) Einstein’s explanation of the experimental

results
The results are incompatible with the idea that the energy of radiation is absorbed
continuously, as it would be if light behaved as a wave. There should be no threshold
frequency. Low frequency, low intensity radiation could transfer energy gradually to electrons
which would eventually build up enough energy to escape from the metal surface, after
a time delay. High intensity radiation would be expected to transfer energy more quickly
than low intensity and some electrons should gain more energy making Ex max higher. Fig. 2.7.6 Photoelectric graphs for two
metals
Einstein proposed the following model to explain the experimental results:

1. Electromagnetic radiation consists of discrete packets of energy, photons, with the

photon energy given by E = hf, where his a constant called Planck's constant. Self-test gp nai
2. When a photon interacts with an electron in the metal surface its entire energy is How does Einstein's photon model
transferred. explain result d?
3. An electron only interacts with an individual photon — the probability of two photons
interacting with an individual electron is vanishingly small.
4. There is a characteristic minimum energy, called the work function, @, which is
r— Terms & definitions
needed to remove an electron from a metal -~
surface. The work function is the least
energy required to remove an
Taken together, these postulates explain all the electron from a metal surface.
results a. to e. above. The maximum energy of the It is usually expressed in electron
photoelectrons is given by volts (eV). 1 eV = 1.60 x 10-19 J.

eax a He ~,

which is known as Einstein’s photoelectric

equation, which is a consequence of postulates
1, 2 and 4; 3 is also involved because, if two or Ca 2.9 |Au 45 values of @ in Table 2.7.1 and what
more photons gave their energy to one electron, it Meg a7 |Au 46 ‘ explanations can you suggest? [Hint:
could gradually build up enough energy to escape
and there should be no threshold frequency.
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

Example
Calculate the threshold frequency for photoelectric emission for selenium which has a
work function of 5.11 eV.
At the threshold frequency, Ex max = 9,“ Afin = Q-
p= S1VeV =5:11% 1.60% 108128 18 x 1000

Ba ste 8.18 x10

‘fee ge J e 15

(c) Radiation intensity es

Self-test
We can relate the intensity of a radiation beam tothe =@ =e@ ray
A selenium surface is illuminated
number of photons crossing an area per second. Sore a as sf
by e-m radiation. Calculate the if =e® =e | af
maximum KE of any photoelectrons
if the radiation:
Consider a monochromatic beam of radiation, of =e =e —e
frequencyf, crossing surface. Let NVbe the number of ant ey
(a) is of frequency 2.5 x 10!5 Hz
(b) is of frequency 1.0 x101!5 Hz
photons crossing the surface per second. c is ee
ww
ww
ww

(c) is a mixture of these two

frequencies. Then the power in the radiation, P = NE, where Ey) Fig 2.7.7 Photons and intensity
is the energy of an individual photon.

We can also write this as P = Nhf =N Ac

A
We can now relate this to the inverse square law by considering a point (or spherical)
source of monochromatic radiation of power P. The diagram in Section 1.6.2 shows that,
Self-test
at distance r, this radiation crosses an area of 4272. So the intensity, /, of the radiation
For the Sun L = 6 x 1024 W. Taking
500 nm as representative of all the
[i.e. the power per unit areal is given by:
radiation from the sun, estimate
(a) the number of photons emitted
2 Nat
4nr?
per second and (b) the number
of photons crossing unit area per Most sources of radiation are far from monochromatic but if the intensity, at all individual
second at the distance of the Earth frequencies, drops off as r~?, the inverse square law must apply to all radiation whatever
(150 million km). the spectral distribution. See Section 1.6.2(a).

(d) Is light a wave or a particle?

That is a very good question. Light exhibits the wave properties of diffraction and
interference. When its speed is measured in materials, it corresponds to the wave
model explanation of refraction, which was discussed in Section 2.6. Light is a part of
For very long wavelengths (radio the electromagnetic spectrum. Waves at the low frequency end of the electromagnetic
waves) wave properties dominate
even when we consider emission
spectrum are produced by oscillating electric and magnetic fields, as predicted by
and absorption. The higher the Maxwell’s very successful theory of electromagnetism. On the other hand the emission
frequency, the more the particle and absorption of light demands a particle model. But the particle properties of energy
properties are seen, though X-ray
and momentum (see Section 2.7.4) are calculated using the wave-property values of
diffraction is used to investigate
crystals. frequency and wavelength.

So our picture is that light has both wave and particle properties. This is referred to as
wave-particle duality. We shall see in Section 2.7.4 that objects that we normally think
of as particles also exhibit wave properties. This whole topic is the subject of quantum
mechanics.
2.7.2 The electromagnetic spectrum
A schematic diagram of the e-m spectrum is shown in Fig. 2.7.8.

1020 1018 1016 1014 1012 Lo 108 10° f/ Hz

Fig. 2.7.8 The electromagnetic spectrum

Example
Show so (A/m)(Ep,/eV ) 1% y |10-12 106

Eon =o AE = he. . Aim)

Ey, /J)= 6.63 x 104 x 3,00 x 108 X |10-10 |104
34 8
= (A/m)(E,,/eV) = O08 ND 1.24 x 10-6 ~ 10-6. UV |10-7 |10!
.60 x 10 ae
visible |ee |2.5
IR |10-5 |104
Many aspects of the e-m spectrum are covered in Sections 1.6, Using radiation to ag =
investigate stars and 2.5, Wave properties. The regions named in Fig. 2.7.8 are not U-wave |- |y
exhaustive. For example, the infrared region is split into the near infrared, mid infrared, radio |10? |10-8
and far infrared; the boundary between the far infrared and the microwave regions is
called terahertz radiation (radio astronomers refer to these as sub-millimetre waves).
Self-test
Explain the link between the

2.7.3 Atomic spectra

names terahertz radiation and
sub-millimetre waves.

We saw in Section 1.6.4 that isolated atoms have spectra which consist of a series of
wavelengths. We refer to such spectra as line (or discrete) spectra. Atomic gases both
emit and absorb radiation at characteristic wavelengths. Part (d) of this section deals
with the production of emission and absorption spectra using a diffraction grating and Ps
examples are given in Fig. 1.6.10.

(a) Atomic energy levels

The reason why atomic gases have line spectra is to do with the way in which atoms can
possess energy. We are used to thinking of systems as being able to possess any level of
energy. The kinetic energy of a car could be 13500 J, 13510 J, 13511 J, 13511.1 J, etc.
The microscopic world does not behave in this way. Just as light comes in lumps (called
photons), atomic systems can only possess particular levels of energy. The simplest atom
is the aa hydrogen atom because it consists of just two particles (ignoring the quark
structure of the proton). Its energy levels (in eV) are as in Fig. 2.7.9. Virtually all the aN apse ei el48)
energy shown consists of the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the electron in
motion around the nucleus. An atom is excited if it is in an energy state above the ground Fig. 2.7.9 Energy levels of atomic
state. In Fig. 2.7.9, the state with m = 2 is called the first excited state. hydrogen
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

Conventionally a stationary free electron outside the atom is shown as having zero (0)
energy: an electron trapped inside the atom must be given energy to escape so its total
ae GD Self-test
energy must be negative. The lowest energy level, called the ground state, has -13.6 eV
of energy, so an electron must be given 13.6 eV in order to escape from a hydrogen
Express the ionisation energy of
atomic hydrogen in au.
atom. This is called the ionisation energy of hydrogen.

The symbol 7 is used for the principal quantum number of the energy state and
corresponds to the electron shells. At low temperatures, the electron in a hydrogen atom
is most likely to be found in the lowest shell (i.e. 7 = 1) but it could, in principle, be in any
of the shells.
electron, the electrons normally
fill up the energy levels from the
bottom. The shell with n = | can
hold up to 2 electrons, n = 2 can
hold 8, n = 3 can hold 18, etc. The (b) Atomic absorption spectra
arrangement of electrons between
these energy levels gives rise to the In a cloud of atomic hydrogen in space, most of the atoms will be in the ground state but
chemical properties of the atoms. some will be in the first excited state (i.e. 2 = 2). The cloud will be flooded with photons
of a large range of energies, which come from nearby stars. The difference in energy, AE
between the 2nd and lst excited states is given by:

AE =-1.5 eV -(-3.4 eV) =1.9 eV

Ifa 1.9 eV photon hits an atom, which is in the m = 2 state, it may be absorbed and giving
E
its energy to the electron and putting it in the higher-energy state, as shown in Fig. 2.7.10.
3.4eV
Photons with slightly higher or lower energies (1.8 eV or 2.0 eV) will not be absorbed;
so radiation which passes through the cloud will be depleted in photons with this energy,
Fig. 2.7.10 Absorption transition
giving rise to one of the dark lines in the spectrum in Fig. 1.6.12. Using ideas from in
Section 2.7.1, you should be able to find the wavelength of 1.9 eV photons and identify
the absorption line in the visible spectrum of atomic hydrogen to which this corresponds
(nidig.L.6.13).

For atoms or ions which only have one electron, e.g. H, Het, Li*+, Be*+ etc (which
occur frequently in the atmosphere of stars), the energy levels (in eV) can be calculated
Self-test from the simple formula:
Use the formula to show that the
Hé line in the spectrum of atomic (EO FeV) ==13:6 see
hydrogen (Fig. 1.6.13) corresponds n
to a transition from n =2 ton =6. where Z is the proton number (atomic number). This formula also approximately gives the
energy level of the innermost electron in atoms with more than one electron.

eV
0 Example
ae ~ |s5s/p/d Use the energy diagram for atomic hydrogen (Fig. 2.7.9) to shown that only transitions
between the first excited state (7 = 2) and higher states correspond to e-m radiation in
the visible part of the spectrum.
ee chip AE between n = | higher energy levels is between 10.3 eV and 13.6 eV. This lies in the
UV part of the spectrum. AE between n = 3 and higher energy levels is between 0.6 eV
Se 1s3s/p/d
and 1.5 eV. This is in the near IR part of the spectrum. We have seen (main text and
Self-test 2.7.7) that some transitions between n = 2 and higher lie in the visible part of
182 the spectrum.
(i) ee

Fig 2.7.11 Helium 2nd electron excited

energy levels.
(c) Atomic emission spectra @ ¥ ehienge PAL
ee kee

In a hot cloud of atomic hydrogen, e.g. the one in Section 2.7.3(b), which is heated by
absorbing radiation from a nearby star, some of the atoms will be excited, i.e. they will be When a helium atom is excited, one
of the electrons invanably stays
in energy levels above the ground state. This may also happen as a result of inter-atomic in its ground state: -54.4 eV The
collisions, when some of the kinetic energy of the colliding atoms is lost. If the electron second electron has a ground state
in such an atom falls into a lower energy state it gives out a photon of e-m radiation, of -24.6 eV and its excited energy
of energy equal to the difference in energy of the two states, e.g. the electron which is levels are shown in Fig. 2.7.11.

promoted in Fig. 2.7.10 will subsequently return to the lower energy level, emitting a (a) Show that this information is
consistent with the equation
1.9 eV photon in the process.
Vig
(E, LCN) =—1826 Pr
Gr
y
-—- aaa
‘
:
(b) Investigate whether the above
incident light information is consistent with these
- wavelengths in the spectrum of
Atomic — atomic helium: 388.8 nm 587.4 nm:
star hydrogen E 667.5 nm; 706.2 nm.
cloud
Sisto heResa USE en Toe Fis SMy

ee transmitted light
emitted light

Fig 2.7.12 Emission and absorption by hydrogen atoms

Different observers could see both an emission spectrum and an absorption spectrum Self-test GD na
from the same object, as shown in Fig. 2.7.12. In principle the two spectra are the same Express the typical photon energies
but in practice not all lines will appear, as discussed in Section 1.6.4. in Table 2.7.2 on page 157 in jourles,
TOMISHE

(d) Investigating and displaying atomic spectra

The simplest way to see the emission spectrum of a gas is to use a gas discharge tube.
This consists of a sealed glass tube containing a low pressure gas and two high electrical
terminals. When a high voltage is applied, the gas partially ionises allowing electrons to
pass through it. These collide with the gas atoms and raise them to a range of excited
energy states: they then drop down to the lower energy states and emit photons as they
do. The discharge tube in Fig. 2.7.13 contains low pressure argon gas.

The lamp can be viewed through a diffraction grating with the results shown: the central
image is the zero order spectrum (with all the wavelengths at the same place); the ones
on each side are the first order spectra. Alternatively, an image of the discharge tube can
be projected onto a screen using a lens and a diffraction grating interposed (Fig. 2.7.16).

Fee na apa ig 2.7.13 Argon discharge tube

Spectra from
an argon
discharge tube
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

~ Study point The coloured emissions of the aurora borealis are caused by the same mechanism.
: Charged particles in the solar wind spiral along the Earth's magnetic field lines and enter
wi Ras
the atmosphere at high latitudes. They collide with the atoms of the upper atmosphere
inc i rer aeeters
spectral line canbe calowlated fom (chiefly atomic oxygen and nitrogen) ionising them. The radiation is emitted as the
the separation of the grating lines, electrons recombine with the ions and descend through the atomic energy levels.
the distance from the grating to the
screen and the distance from the diffraction
line to the zero order spectrum.
grating
See Section 2.5.4 and Self-test 2.7.9.
\
-
Cats

light source

: Ist order
Fig 2.7.16 Projecting emission spectra screen

To display the absorption spectrum of a gas, a suitably shielded bright white light source
with a continuous emission spectrum (e.g. a filament lamp) is used and a tube of the gas
placed between the light source and the screen (usually between the source and lens).
With care this method can also be used to display the absorption spectra of metals by
allowing the white light to pass through a Bunsen flame in which a sample of the metal
salt has been vaporised (in a flame test).
Fig. 2.7.15 Aurora borealis: atomic
oxygen emission

2.7.4 Wave-particle duality

(a) Electrons are waves too
Just as electromagnetic radiation can behave as both waves and particles, objects that
we normally think of as particles, such as electrons, protons and even whole atoms have
wave-like properties. In other words, particles exhibit diffraction and interference. The
single-slit and double-slit experiments are rather difficult to arrange for electrons, although
the effect was predicted in the 1920s it was not achieved until 1961. The set-up is shown
schematically in Fig. 2.7.17. A stream of electrons (the red balls) is fired though a narrow
slit and hit a fluorescent screen: each impact causes a bright spot.

later

single-slit diffraction
pattern

8 Fig. 2.7.17 Single-slit diffraction of electrons

Initially the scatter of the dots appears random but gradually a pattern emerges which
clearly shows similarities to the diffraction pattern of a single slit (see Section 2.5).

To achieve the double-slit pattern the individual

slits must be made narrower (to spread out the
diffracted electrons), as in Fig. 2.7.18. In a 2008
Fig. 2.7.19 The build-up of an electron
version of the experiment, the individual slits were
interference pattern
only 62 nm wide and 272 nm apart! These values
Fig 2.7.18 were chosen to suit the wavelength of the electrons
Electron — see Section 2.7.4(c). The sequence of images in
double-slit Fig. 2.7.19 indicates how the apparently random
interference spread of electrons eventually resolves itself.

&,
 dale) Keystsy

(b) The electron

diffraction tube Self-test ED ——
oo”
iat
A diffraction grating with 850
In the school laboratory, the wave-nature J - =
--
- aa
-
lines per cm is used to display the
ele--
of electrons is usually demonstrated using 6 V~ Se ewwwee we
ee ~ Oe as - spectrum of a gas. A line is identified
-_—
the electron diffraction tube, Fig. 2.7.20, PI ~
rion ~
and the separation between the
which consists of a vacuum tube with an two first order spectra for this line
is measured to be 20.0 cm. If the
electron gun at one end, a graphite target Fine2emneo screen is 2.00 m from the grating,
(T) and a phosphor screen (P). Diffraction tube calculate the line’s wavelength.

e A metal-coil cathode (K) is connected to a low voltage a.c. supply which heats it up.
This causes it to emit electrons by thermionic emission.
e The electrons are accelerated to the anode (A) by an EHT [‘extremely high tension’,
i.e. high voltage] supply [typically 1 - 6 kV].
e A beam of electrons emerges from the hole in the anode and hits the graphite target
(shown as a red line)
e The beam is diffracted by the graphite, similarly to light at a diffraction grating and
emerges at a series of angles to the forward direction. The electron beams hit the
phosphor, producing a display of circular rings.
e |fthe EHT voltage is increased, the rings are observed to decrease in radius.

The diffraction pattern occurs because graphite consists of regular planes of carbon
atoms hexagonally arranged, with an inter-atomic spacing of 0.142 nm. The planes are
separated by 0.335 nm. Because the crystals in the graphite are randomly orientated, the
diffracted beams at any particular angle produce circles rather than an individual dot.

Fig. 2.7.21 Electron diffraction pattern

(c) The wavelength of particles

The diffraction tube can be used to measure the wavelength of the electrons. All that is
needed is to measure angles that the diffracted beams make with the forward direction. In
Fig. 2.7.21 a physics student is doing this by measuring their radii; the distance from the
target to the screen also needs to be measured.
‘The relationship B=
is useful when calculating the
In 1924 the physicist Louis de Broglie proposed that the wavelength (A) of a particle, such momentum ofaccelerated particle
as an electron is related to its momentum (p) by the equation:

where /7 is the Planck constant. This relationship has since been confirmed — it is
Self-test GED _—
consistent with both quantum and relativity theory. The following example shows how we
Use the de Broglie equation to
can use the accelerating voltage to calculate the wavelength.
calculate the wavelength of protons
which have been accelerated
Example through 5 kV.
[m, = 1.67 x 10-27 kg]
Calculate the wavelength of 5 keV electrons. (ms;= 9.1 x 10-3! kg)

5 keV
= 5.0 x 10°x 1.6x 10°79 J=8.0 x 107° J.

B= 2 Cp e2e G1 ei xs 10 ee aGx 10% p= 3.82 x iY Ns:

y Study point
.. The wavelength, 2 = p
h 6.63 x 10-4
3825102 © ip x 1071! mM [17 pm]
The electron diffraction and
interference pattems are not the
result of electrons interfering with
one another. The same pattern is
obtained even when the intensity
Notice that the wavelength calculated in the example is of the same order as the inter-
of the electron beam is so low that
atomic spacing in solids and liquids (approximately 10% of the graphite inter-atomic there is only one electron at a time
spacing). This means that electron diffraction can be used to investigate the structure in the apparatus. Fach electron
of matter. In fact X-rays, which have a similar wavelength, are more often used because behaves as its own wave and
interferes with itself!
difficulties with handling charged particles and the low penetration power of electrons.
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

(d) The momentum of photons

De Broglie’s equation also applies to photons — another aspect of the duality of wave and
i 2.7.11) Self-test particle descriptions. This means that if photons are absorbed or reflected by an object,
Calculate the momentum of an optical their momentum changes and so, by conservation of momentum, the object suffers
photon of frequency 600 THz. an equal and opposite momentum change. It is often more convenient to express the
momentum of a photon in terms of the frequency (f) rather than the wavelength of the
radiation:
gaatile
PKG

Now hf is the photon energy, so the photon —_— l

—=0 = i. ~
momentum Is Fon One of the consequences = = @

of photon momentum is that a beam of radiation =~* ae: s@

exerts a pressure on any surface which tt hits. — —® —t
The beam of photons incident on the surface of ~e
Einstein showed that the total area A, in Fig. 2.7.22, has intensity 7. Thus the + direction : eww
ee
ew
bee

energy and momentum of a total energy delivered in a time At is given by

relativistic particle are related by: Fig 2.7.22 Radiation pressure
! TAAt.
E? = p? c* + m? c4 a
Show that this is consistent with ; . The momentum of the incident photons in Af = io
E Fad

P= ¢ foraphoton.
lf the surface is totally black, so that all the momentum is absorbed, the rate of change
IAAt __ TIA
of momentum of the photons is So by the principle of conservation of
cAt GC.
momentum, the rate of change of momentum of the surface, caused by absorbing the
photons is + iA In other words, by Newton’s 2nd law (N2), the radiation exerts a force

ft on the surface, i.e. the pressure = 4

—GD Qelf-test An artist's impression of the solar sail in NASA's proposed sunjammer mission is given in
Fig. 2.7.23. The name of the mission is a reference to the 1964 story of that title by the
(a) Show that the pressure exerted
] science fiction writer Arthur C Clarke. The story concerned an interplanetary race using
by the beam in Fig. 2.7.21 is 2 5 the pressure of sunlight as a means of propulsion.
if the surface is perfectly reflecting.
(b) Calculate the pressure if the
perfectly reflecting surface is
inclined at 45°.

Fig. 2.7.23 NASA's sunjammer

2.7.5 Light-emitting diodes SYMBOL
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are electronic devices constructed from a small crystal LED symbol Sepia
of a semiconductor material, such as gallium arsenide (GaAs). It conducts electricity
in one direction (given by the arrow-head direction of the main part of the symbol)
and, as it does so it gives out e-m radiation. Many LEDs are designed to give out
Close to monochromatic radiation, but some (e.g. ‘white’ LEDs or ‘bright’ LEDs) emit
a broad spectrum.

Pure GaAs has the very high resistivity of about 10° Q m at room temperature, which me
is ~10!5 times as high as most metals. However, the addition of very small quantities depletion zone
(typically 1 atom in 10°) of specific impurity atoms, in a process called doping, can Fig, 2.7.24 LED structure
reduce the resistivity by many orders of magnitude. In particular:

¢ Doping with Si or Ge (group IV metals, with four electrons in the outer shell) results d
in mobile electrons in the GaAs lattice; the resulting crystal as called an n-type (n for
negative) semiconductor.
e Doping with Be or Mg (group II metals, with only two outer electrons) results in
mobile regions (called ‘holes’) with a net positive charge — a p-type semiconductor.

A single crystal is grown with p-type doping at one end and n-type at the other. A small
fraction of the mobile electrons and holes diffuse to the centre and combine producing
the depletion zone, a region without mobile charge carriers. But if a sufficiently high pd :
is established across the LED with the p-type positive and the n-negative, the charge 0

carriers are pushed together and the whole crystal becomes conducting; mobile electrons Fig. 2.7.25 LED F-V graph
‘fall into’ the holes giving out photons of light. This will not be examined.
V,

(a) Determination of h using LEDs

The photon energy of the emitted light is found from the pd, Vo, at which the LED starts to
conduct (see Fig. 2.7.25) and give out light. The photon energy is also given by hf

.. hf = eVo or, in terms of the wavelength: us= eV,

So, if there is a range of monochromatic LEDs available with different colours, a graph of i
A
Vo against oois a straight line through the origin of gradient me Fig. 2.7.26 Graph of Vo against 1/2

Experimental details
1. Obtain a range of low power LEDs, with as wide a range of wavelengths as possible; was
determine the wavelengths using a diffraction grating as in Fig. 2.7.16. If this is not
possible, note the manufacturer's values of wavelength.

2. Set up a circuit (see Study point) to determine pairs of (V, 2) and plot the /-V graph 7
for each LED. | Re WZ 7 1)

3. Use the graphs to determine the value of Vo, as in Fig. 2.7.25, for each wavelength by ®
drawing a best-fit straight line for the steep part of the graph. LS

4. Plot a graph of Y% against 1/A and determine the gradient, m. Feo ete) ee
5. Calculate a value for h from m = fe
nw 1 id point Bee &
Extension to IR and UV LEDs pss 7 Stu dy point =
Section 2.2.8 gives possible circuits
LEDs are available with emissions in the near IR (wavelengths 700-900 nm) and for plotting the /-V graph. Fig, 2.7.27
UV (wavelength ~ 390 nm). These can be used to extend the wavelength range. If is an alternative. Adjusting the
using these, the wavelength cannot easily be measured in the school laboratory so the te eine ee—
manufacture’s stated wavelength has to be relied upon. ihe ene oes lerocuemmere
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

An LED torch has a pd of 3.0 V and takes a current of 50 mA.

If the efficiency is 25%, estimate the number visible photons it emits per second. (Take the mean
wavelength to be 550 nm.)

The star a Centauri has a luminosity of L@ where Lg is the luminosity of the Sun. Its distance is
4.37 light years. Assuming that 70% of the star’s emissions are in the visible region, estimate the
number of visible photons per second which enter the eyes of an observer on the Earth.

Take the diameter of a dark-adapted pupil to be 7 mm. Le = 6.0 x 1074 W.

A metal has a work function of 2.4 x 10719J.

(a) Express the work function in eV.

(b) The metal is illuminated by monochromatic e-m radiation of photon energy 2.5 eV. State the
maximum energy of the emitted electrons.

(c) The metal is additionally illuminated with e-m radiation of frequency 3.0 x 10!4 Hz. Explain why
the maximum energy of the emitted electrons is the same as in (b).

(d) The metal is built into a photocell and its J,V characteristic plotted as in Fig. 2.7.4. What value
of stopping voltage would you expect with the 2.5 eV photons? Explain your answer.

Calculate the range of photon energies in the visible spectrum. Express your answer in both
JandeV.

A glowing gas cloud containing helium is heated to a high temperature by a nearby star, so that
some of the atoms are in the excited state 1s2s (see Fig. 2.7.11). Visible white light from other
stars passes through the cloud. Explain, giving wavelength details, what effect the cloud has on
the visible spectrum of the light.

Electrons are given off from a heated wire, are accelerated through a pd of 500 V and directed in
a narrow beam at a graphite crystal oriented edge on. The crystal planes (separation 0.335 nm)
act as the slits of a diffraction grating. An interference pattern is observed on a fluorescent screen
30 cm from the slits.

(a) Explain why an interference pattern is seen on the screen.

(b) Calculate the wavelength of the electrons.

(c) Use the diffraction grating formula to calculate the angular position of the first and second
order fringes and hence the position of these fringes on the screen.

Electronic mass, m, = 9.1 x 103! kg

A low voltage accelerator produces beams of electrons and protons by accelerating them through
the same pd. Calculate the ratio of the wavelengths of the electrons and protons.

[m, = 9.1 x 103! kg; m, = 1.67 x 107 kg].

An electron in a stationary hydrogen atom is in the second shell (see Fig. 2.7.9, n = 2). The
electron drops down to the first shell and, in doing so, gives out a photon. By calculating the
momentum of this photon, calculate the recoil speed of the hydrogen atom.
[Mass of a hydrogen atom = 1.67 x 10°°7 kg]
 ate)
Ke)aks)

The solar constant, which is the intensity of the Sun's radiation, is 1.4 kW m~ at the Earth's
orbit. Calculate the area of a solar sail which is needed to produce a thrust of 1 N in the vicinity of
Mars, given that the radius of the orbit of Mars is 1.5 times that of the Earth. Assume that the sail
absorbs all the photons incident upon it.

A class of A level students undertakes the LED experiment to determine the value of the Planck
constant.

They use the manufacturer’s values for the wavelengths of the LED emissions. Their results are as
in the table. The estimated uncertainty in the Vo results is + 0.05 V.

Uinm 420 460 540 640 660

Oe bos 3 5s es as
By plotting a suitable graph, determine a value for / with its estimated uncertainty.
Pe. 2.8 Lasers
From the first functioning model made in 1960, lasers are now ubiquitous. Most
homes have several: in DVD and CD players and optical disc drives, to say nothing of
and USSR used the time delay in
laser pointers. The first public practical use was the bar-code scanner in 1974 and
laser pulses to measure the distance since then they have been pressed into service in a variety of contexts including:
to the Moon. Apollo 11, 14 and 15
and Lunokhod 1 and 2 all left laser e Surgery — cutting and cauterising, minimising blood loss; also ‘welding’
reflectors on the Moon; distance detached retinas
monitoring continues using them
Distance measurement, e.g. by estate agents (see Study point)
today.
Data transmission in optical fibres and free-space
Laser printers
research, e.g. into laser-initiated nuclear fusion.

The usefulness of lasers arises from the fact that they produce coherent light. We
refer to two light sources as coherent if they have a constant phase difference, e.g. the
Young slits, but what does it mean to say that a single source is coherent (with itself)?
In fact light from a laser is coherent in two ways. It has:

1. Spatial coherence: different points across the width of the laser beam are in phase
with one another;
2. Temporal coherence: there are no sudden changes of phase.

These properties allow it to be focused down to very small points (~1 mm) and to
produce very short duration pulses (~1 fs). These coherent light sources are made
possible by the phenomenon of stimulated emission.

L i ——— 2.8.1 Stimulated emission

We saw in Section 2.7 that atomic and molecular systems exist in a series of discrete
(b) U E, —— E, energy states. For the moment, we consider just two states, U and L (upper and lower) of
a system with energies, Ey and E,. An atom or molecule can change its state:
vw
— e from U to L by spontaneously emitting a photon of frequency fwhere:

ij Ey = E,

L—e—f, L E,
e from L to U by absorbing the energy of a photon of the same frequency,f,as above.
Fig. 2.8.1 (a) Spontaneous emission
and (b) absorption These two processes, spontaneous emission and absorption, are illustrated
diagrammatically in Fig. 2.8.1. The point about referring to ‘spontaneous emission’ rather
than just ‘emission’ is that a second process of emission also takes place. This is known
as stimulated emission and it was initially predicted by Albert Einstein.
U—0—S, Ey
In this process, an atom in the upper energy state (U) is stimulated into moving down into
vw the lower energy state by another photon of the same energy: hf= Ey — E,. In doing so
vw vw
od oe it emits a second photon which is in phase with the first one and travelling in the same
direction. If each of these photons now interacts with an atom in the upper state, there
will be four photons: the light will be progressively amplified as it passes through the
tA, [——e— £, medium, giving rise to the name laser, for Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission
Fig. 2.8.2 Stimulated emission of Radiation.

Clearly for the light to be continuously amplified in this way, the photons have to carry on
av pOoIn meeting atoms, all of which are in the upper state. Is this likely to occur naturally? The
answer is, ‘No!’ Let’s see why not.
Astronomers have discovered
naturally occuring masers For convenience we'll consider a monatomic gas. Suppose we have a gas at room
(microwave amplification ...). See
Section 2.8.5.
temperature (300 K) with all of the molecules being in the ground state (G). How could
 oe . Lasers

the molecules be put into an excited state (E)? It could happen occasionally by collision:
some of the kinetic energy of the molecules is used to put one of the molecules into state
E (i.e. an inelastic collision). Could this kind of collision happen repeatedly until we have |
more & molecules than G? No because the next time the E molecule collides, it is likely HI
to be with a G and also likely to drop down again into the ground state with the energy 2 G yo
reappearing as translational kinetic energy (we could call this a superelastic collision). ——)) <= ®@ E
Also the molecule is likely after a short time to lose its extra energy by spontaneous te
emission. And if we raised the temperature, say to 3000 K, all we'd achieve is to increase @G
the fraction of molecules in the excited state. The ‘best’ we can hope as we raise the |||
temperature is to approach 50% of the molecules being excited because at this point the
collisions would be equally likely to cause to decrease or to raise the energy level. This is gee!
illustrated in the Stretch & Challenge below. Je

.In 1868, the Austrian ee Ludwig Boltzmann showed how the ratio of the number of aaa oa
in-
Etwo —s nes states is related to the sauna aera

Fig. 2.8.3 Excitation and de-excitation

processes
:
"containing 1015 Satanatoms, eae theae ofree ae the atte state ifthe‘Suipeitre 3
is: ey = pe
oy) K (c) 300 K oomAaa eon on these values.
r— Terms & definitions4
Scientists refer to a population of
atoms (or molecules) when they
mean all those with a particular
property, e.g. the population of
2.8.2 Achieving a population sodium atoms, the population of
sodium atoms in the first excited
inversion
state.

r— Terms & definitions

—4
lf you have worked through the Stretch & Challenge, you'll have seen that that the
population of atoms at higher energy levels is normally much smaller than that at lower Let the populations of atoms
levels. With energy differences in the eV range and temperatures up to 1000 K, the In states 1 ee ; aie and
high-energy population is vastly outnumbered by the low-energy. A laser can only work if ore a
the populations are the other way round, i.e. if N, > .N;. We call this situation a population aopulation pain
inversion. |n order to do this we need to find some non-thermal means of boosting the
population of the upper state. We call such processes pumping. —
-—Terms & definitions

It is not normally possible to achieve a population inversion with a two-state system Pumping is transferring particles
because the upper state will usually empty as fast as it fills. So scientists work with to a high-energy state to achieve a
systems of multiple energy states... population inversion.

E, _ short-lived
(a) Three-state laser systems fast transition

Fig. 2.8.4 is of a three-state system. The three energy states are referred to as the ground U E,, metastable
state (G), the pumped state (P) and the upper state (U).
; : : 7 : pump slow, laser
To understand how a population inversion is achieved in multiple-state systems, you need transition transition
to know two important features of transitions between energy states:

1. Downward transitions can occur by a variety of routes, not all of which are equally G Eg _ short-lived
likely. Laser engineers choose systems in which state P is much more likely to decay
via the intermediate state U, rather than directly back to G. Fig. 2.8.4 Three-state system
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

r— Terms & definitions—— 2. Some energy states are very short-lived, i.e. they are populated only for a very brief
Optical pumping is raising the period of time before decaying. Others, known as metastable states, last much longer
state from the ground state to the before decaying. The reasons for these differences are beyond the A level course but
pumped state using photons of engineers choose systems in which P is short-lived (e.g. ~ 1 ns) but U is long-lived (in
energy (Ep — Eg). Other pumping atomic terms, e.g. ~ | ms).
technologies are: electrical,
chemical reaction and nuclear If the laser medium is pumped, e.g. by flooding it with photons of energy (Ep — Eg),
fission. atoms in the ground state will be raised to the pumped state and rapidly decay into the
metastable upper state (partly by spontaneous emission but mainly by collisions). If the
pumping is rapid enough, the population of U will exceed that of G, i.e. a population
a E> Self-test inversion will have been achieved: any spontaneous transition from U to G will produce a
If He =-10.0 eV, Ep =-7.5 eV and photon which will stimulate emissions from other atoms in state U.
Ey =-8.2 eV, state the energies of:
Historically, a three-state laser based on a ruby laser medium was the first one to be
(a) the pumping photons,
built (see Fig. 2.8.6). However, because over half the atoms in the ground state must be
(b) the spontaneously emitted
photons and pumped to achieve laser operation, three-state systems are energy hungry and inefficient.
(c) the lasing photons. In practice, most lasers use four-state systems.

E» — short-lived (b) Four-state laser systems

The characteristics of the pumped and upper states in a four-state laser are the same as
U Ey metastable
in the three-state laser. The additional, lower, state (L), is between the upper and ground
states. L is a short-lived state and rapidly decays, mainly by collisions to G.
pump slow, laser
transition transition
The advantage of this system over the three-state laser is that L is initially empty, so a
population inversion between L and U is present from the first few electrons in U. The
Ib; E,, _ short-lived short-lived nature of L means ensures that a population inversion is maintained with
much lower level pumping, and hence requires less energy input, than the three-state
G Eg laser. This means that lasing is possible at a much lower power input.

Fig. 2.8.5 Four-state system

(c) Laser inefficiency

eo > Qelf-test Most of the energy input into the laser is converted into the internal energy (kinetic energy
in a gas / vibrational energy in a solid) of the atoms of the amplifying medium rather
Explain why a three-state laser is
possible having P as a metastable
than raising the energy state of the atoms themselves from G to P. Even for successful
state and U as a short-lived state. pumping events, the energy input is (Ep — Eg) but the lasing output is less: (Ey — £,) for
the four-state laser; (EZ, — F<) for the three-state laser.

—_ (2.83) Self-test
Calculate the efficiency of energy 2.8.3 Laser construction
conversion for a successful pumping
event in Self-test 2.8.1. The ruby laser illustrated in
Fig. 2.8.6 was the first one to be
produced. It is introduced here to
illustrate generic aspects of lasers. Transformer

As the diagram shows, it was

trigger

optically pumped by the quartz

‘flash tube’ wrapped around the
ruby (the amplifying medium). The
role of the aluminium cylinder was
to reflect stray pumping light back
into the ruby to increase the effect.

Fig. 2.8.7 brings out significant Fig. 2.8.6 The original ruby laser
features which you should study.
 pumping light

100%
reflecting
mirror laser beam

nite le r— Terms & definitions—

amplifying pumping light ~ 99% reflecting mirror,
medium 1% transmitting The amplifying medium is the
material in the laser in which a
Fig. 2.8.7 Structure of an optically pumped laser population inversion exists.

_
The laser operates as follows:

The pumping radiation creates a population inversion in the amplifying medium.

Photons of energy Ey — E, (as in Fig. 2.8.5) or Ey — Eg (Fig. 2.8.4) are produced by ee eae
accurately parallel. Because of
af a ls : eats .
spontaneous emission in the amplifying medium. the multiple reflections (for a 1%
e These photons pass through the amplifying medium and produce coherent photons transmitting mirror, photons will hit
travelling in the same direction by stimulated emission. Each photon becomes two, ee M; for a ear are
; F ‘ , elore emission) only the pnotons
four, eight, etc., in an exponential increase. travelling accurately parallel to the
e The photons travelling parallel to the axis of the medium (see Study point) are axis will form the beam. Others
reflected backwards and forwards stimulating more photons and eventually escaping will escape from the sides of the
through the partly transmitting mirror in the laser beam. poeta
e A dynamic equilibrium is soon established when the rate of escape of photons Is equal
to the rate of their production by stimulated emission (itself controlled by the rate of Self-test a
pumping). Use the information in the Study
point to estimate the mean distance
travelled by a photon through
the amplifying medium before it

2.8.4 The semiconductor diode laser stimulates another one, fora 50 cm

long laser. Explain your reasoning.

The lasers in everyday household use are almost all Semiconductor laser diodes. These
are constructed out of small chips of semiconductor material, often gallium arsenide
(GaAs). They have many advantages:
e They are electrically pumped and operate at low voltage — some less than 2 V.
e They laser chip is very small (typically ~ 1mm) and can be incorporated into small
standard electrical packages for wiring into circuits, e.g. the pointer laser in Fig. 2.8.8.
e They are very efficient — up to 70% for infrared lasers.
e They can be mass produced cheaply.

Typical uses in the home are DVD and CD reading and writing, blu-ray reading,
optical fibre data transfer, computer scanners and printers. The structure of a typical
semiconductor diode laser is shown in Fig. 2.8.9.
Fig. 2.8.8 Pointer laser

metal contact

polished
surface
ee iy, ee... %
laser beam vy wll

5 Because of the high degree of

partially amplification, the polishing at the
polished end surfaces can be quite poor
n-type GaAs surface without stopping the laser action.
Diode lasers work effectively with
junction between n- and p-type reflection coefficients as low as 40%.
(non-polished surface) Fig. 2.8.9 Semiconductor diode laser
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

The details of how the diode works are well beyond the scope of this book but a brief
description is given at the end of Section 2.7. The power supply inserts new electrons
i (2.85) Self-test
into the n-type and creates new holes in the p-type regions which migrate to the junction,
Semiconductor lasers exhibit high
producing a population inversion, where the electrons ‘fall into’ the holes with the
efficiencies. A 940 nm laser operates
at a 70% efficiency. Such a laser emission of photons. As with optically pumped lasers, one photon being released leads
has a pumping current of 20 mA. to a cascade of photons. The density of the electrons and holes is much higher than
Estimate: population inversions in conventional lasers so very high amplifications can be achieved
(a) The pumping voltage for this in a short distance (compare with Self-test 2.8.4). The ‘polished surfaces’ are not required
wavelength. even to approach 100% reflecting, given the levels of amplification achieved.
(b) The number of photons produced
per second.
The advantage of semiconductor laser diodes for optical fibres relates to the spectral
purity of the output (practically only one frequency) and the coherence of the output,
which allows for very rapid switching. Switching frequencies of 10s of GHz are routinely
achieved delivering very large data transmission rates.

2.8.5 Nebulium and mysterium

Helium was first identified by its emission lines in the spectrum of the Sun's corona. In
1864 the astronomer Williams Huggins studied the spectrum of the emissions from the
Cat’s Eye nebula. He found a group of green-blue
spectral lines which had never been found in any 3s,
flame test in a chemistry laboratory. He concluded M photon=436,32 nm 233,14 nm 232,10 nm
that this was a previously unknown element,
which he dubbed ‘nebulium.’ Investigations in the
20th century showed that, in fact, the lines came Ip.
from O?+ ions (the green lines in Fig. 2.8.11)
which are normally not observed because the 500,69 nm |
495,89 nm
upper levels of the transitions are metastable 493,10 nm
and normally the ions lose energy by collisions
before they have had a chance to emit photons. 2
2)
However, in the near high vacuum conditions — 0 327
700 88400
66400551800
Fig 2.8.10 Cat's eye nebula harder than the best vacuum produced on Earth
— the collision frequency is so low that the atoms Fig. 2.8.11 ‘Nebulium’ emissions
have time to emit photons with these wavelengths.

—<ED Gelf-test Similarly, the molecule ‘mysterium’, was discovered by radio astronomers Howard Weaver
and colleagues in 1963. They were looking at emissions from hydroxyl (OH) molecules in
Calculate the energy difference
between the 'S, and the 3Py energy the Orion nebula, found some lines which were very much stronger than expected (they
levels in nebulium. didn’t fit the known pattern of OH line strengths). They assumed that they were from an
unknown molecule which they called mysterium.

The truth was that they had discovered the first natural maser — like a laser but one
which emits microwaves. The emissions were from OH which was being pumped into
metastable states by infrared radiation from nearby stars. Spontaneous emissions result in
stimulated emissions from other OH molecules. This could not happen on Earth because,
as we've seen from Self-test 2.8.4, a photon has to travel quite a long way before it
stimulates an emission; in the high vacuum conditions of space this distance is even
longer. But, to quote Douglas Adams, ‘Space is big’. A hydroxide cloud is billions of km
across, so there can be enough distance for lasing to occur.

Since then many space molecules have been found to exhibit maser activity, e.g.
water, ammonia and hydrogen cyanide, and in 1995 the first atomic hydrogen laser
was observed in the swirling disc surrounding the bright blue star MCW 349. The laser
emissions are in the infrared at wavelengths corresponding to transitions between highly
excited states of atomic hydrogen (see Stretch & Challenge).
 _ Lasers

The same disc also shows maser

emissions as shown in Fig. 2.8.13. The
laser emissions are optically pumped
from the UV radiation from the star, with
the masers being excited by IR radiation
which penetrates the disc to greater Transitions from level n + 1 to the
distances. energy level nin hydrogen give
|
% rise to waves which are labelled
These emissions were observed because :_ Hy»alpha. The hydrogen lasers
around MCW 349 were at 169 mm
the radiation is both very intense and
and 89 mm. Use the ‘equation
highly variable.
The radiation is much more intense than
eS
Fig. 2.8.13 Stellar-pumped lasers & masers
4i (E,/eV)
u
=-13.6ne2
;z
would be expected from a pure thermal ~ from Section 2.7.3(b) to show that
emission. The intensity of the masers corresponds to black-body temperatures of up to _ these are consistent with H16 alpha
10!5 K, at which temperature the molecules would not exist. The variability is due to the |
_ H10 alpha lasers have also been
fact that the laser/maser gain is so strongly dependent (exponentially) on the length of the
detected. Calculate the wavelength
path in the gas cloud with appropriate conditions — so any small variation in this length KCthe radiation.
produces huge changes in output. Both these properties allow astronomers to make a :
detailed measurements of the conditions in the gas clouds.

eerie ©20
The questions in this section are all based around the energy diagram of a helium-neon laser and a short
passage describing the laser.

The helium-neon laser

Real lasers have more complicated energy levels than in the textbook notes. The He-Ne
laser has a mixture of the two gases helium and neon as the amplifying medium. The two
gases at low pressure are sealed into a glass tube and an electric current passed through
them. Electrons colliding with the helium atoms excite them to the 2 !s and 2 %s energy
states (don’t worry about the names of these energy states). These two energy levels
happen to be almost the same as the 4s and 5s energy levels in neon, so energy can easily
be transferred from helium to neon atoms by inelastic interatomic collisions.

The 4s and 5s states of neon are metastable

He Ne
and this results in laser emissions down to
the 4p and 3p states. The wavelengths of the 2 Is 55
laser emissions are 633 nm, 1.15 pm and 20.65 eV aa 2 re
3.39 um (shown as red arrows).

The 3p and 4p states are very short lived. aaa

An atom in 3p decays very rapidly, by
spontaneous emission of wavelength 600 nm 3p
(green arrow), to the 3s state. The 3s atom
de-energises by collision (usually with nee
atoms in the container walls) to the ground hansen
state. The 4p state also decays rapidly by
spontaneous emission (not shown) to 3s.

A data book gives the energy of the helium

2 1s energy state as 20.65 eV above the G G
ground state.
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2 .

Explain what is meant by: (a) an inelastic collision and (b) a metastable state.

A neon atom in the 5s state decays to the 3p state by emitting a photon. This photon caused
stimulated emission in another neon atom.

(a) Draw a diagram to illustrate the stimulated emission event.

(b) How do the properties of the second photon compare with the first?

Why is important that the 3p state in neon is much shorter lived than the 5s for establishing a
population inversion?

Identify which of the laser transitions produce the 633 nm, 1.15 wm and 3.39 tum emissions. You may
assume that the separations energy states above the 3s state are drawn roughly to scale.

Identify the region of the e-m spectrum in which each of these emissions lies.

Use your answers to Q4 and the wavelength of the 3p-3s transition to calculate the energies of the
excited neon states above the ground state. Give your answers in both J and eV.

Calculate the wavelength of the spontaneous 4p—3s transition. In which region of the e-m spectrum
does this lie?

Describe in your own words the process of energy transfer between the He 2 !s state and the neon 5s
State.

The diagram shows an electron, with a kinetic energy of 5.3 x 10-!8 J, approaching a helium atom
(in a He-Ne laser) in the ground state. It collides with one of the electrons in the helium atom and
promotes is to the 2 's energy state (Shown as a dotted line).
---
raat <i

44 N
y) \
‘ \
ec ‘ \
seat f ‘
' \
\ 1
\ !
\ /
‘ 7
‘\ 4
N 7
x 4
sn a
“<-<--"

(a) Calculate the pd through which the incident electron has been accelerated.
(b) Express the energy of the incident electron in eV.
(c) Sketch a diagram showing the atom and electron, with their energies, after the collision.
(d) State the minimum accelerating voltage needed to enable an electron to excite a helium atom to 2 !s.

A He-Ne laser operates at 1.2 kV. Calculate the number of helium atoms an electron can excite to the
2 's state.
 Exam practice questions
1. (a) Use your knowledge of the process of electrical conduction in metals to explain
why they possess resistance and why the resistance increases with temperature. [3]

(b) A pair of students investigates the variation of resistance, R (in ohm), with
temperature, 0, of copper wire using the apparatus shown. They heat the water
bath using a bunsen burner, and obtained resistance readings for both increasing
and decreasing temperature. The results with error bars are shown in the graph.

3.5
thermometer

resistance/Q

oil-filled
test tube

water

80 100
temperature/°C

(i) In terms of the apparatus used, discuss why it is better practice to obtain resistance
readings when heating and cooling rather than heating more than once. [3]
(ii) Suggest an improvement to the experimental design which would lessen
the need to take readings when cooling as well as heating. Give a reason. [1]
(iii) Label the axes of the graph. [2]
(iv) The students expect the variation of resistance with temperature to be of the form:

R=R, (1 +08),
where Ro is the resistance at 0°C and a is a constant.

Use the graph to show that the data are consistent with this relationship
and determine values for Ry and a together with their absolute uncertainties. [6]

(c) Some conductors become superconducting at low temperatures.

(i) Describe this phenomenon with the aid of a suitable graph. [2]
(ii) Give an example of the use of superconductors and explain why a
superconductor is better than a conventional conductor in this application. [2]
WJEC AS Level Physics: Unit 2

2. (a) Explain what is meant by the principle of superposition. [2]

(b) A student arranges for a monochromatic red beam of light, of wavelength 650 nm,
from a laser to hit a double slit and views the resulting pattern on a screen 2.00 m away.

slits

—
peel
ojeens eRe
cesta g PEERED
16.0 mm

+f SES
SS)
aser Rass
view on screen
2.00 m
+ a

(i) Calculate the separation of the slits. [2]

(ii) Explain why, for the pattern to be observed, the slits need to be very narrow
and close together and for the screen to be a long way from the slits. [4]
(iii) Explain how the pattern would be different if green light of wavelength
500 nm were used instead of red. [2]
(c) The transparent mineral mica of refractive index 1.5 is available in sheets of
thickness 0.10 mm.

(i) A beam of light, with a wavelength in a vacuum of 650 nm, passes at right
angles through such a mica sheet. Calculate the number wavelengths of the
light in this thickness of mica [2]
(ii) Explain why the position of the lines would change if a sheet of mica were
placed over one of the slits in part (b). [2]
3. (a) A simplified energy-level diagram is shown for a 4-level laser system:

Level P|————_—_——————————._ 12.9 eV

Level VU ————_—_———————————. 10.8 eeVV

Level L.]——_——_———__ 59 eV

Ground state ————- 0

(i) On the above diagram, use labelled arrows to show (|) the pumping transition
and (II) the laser transition. [1]
(ii) This laser is optically pumped. State the photon energy of the radiation for
this purpose and justify your answer. [2]
(iii) Calculate the wavelength of the laser light produced. [2]
(iv) In this laser system, electrons only occupy levels P and L for a very short
period (~10~? s) before dropping to the lower level, whilst the natural lifetime
of level U is much longer (~10- s). Explain in detail how the system is able
to amplify light, including the significance of these lifetimes in establishing
a population inversion. [6 QER]
 Exam practice questions

(b) Asystem is under design in which small reflecting spheres of diameter

0.1.mm and density 1.5 x 103 kg m-, are to be held stationary against
the Earth’s gravitational field by a laser beam.

(i) Make a calculated estimate of the intensity of the laser beam required
(i.e. the power per unit area). You may treat the spheres as horizontal
discs for this calculation. [3]
(ii) Compare your estimate of the laser intensity with that of the Sun at
its surface. [7s,, ~6000 K]. i [1]
(iii) The spheres cannot be made 100% reflecting. Suggest a problem that this
is likely to cause. [2]

4. (a) The potential difference between the dome of a van de Graaf generator and the
Earth is 120 kV and it stores a charge of 1.2 wC. The dome is discharged safely
through a pupil in a time of 0.8 ms. During the discharge the pd falls to zero.

(i) Define the term potential difference. [2]

(ii) Calculate the mean current. [1]
(iii) By considering the mean pd, estimate the total energy transfer during the
discharge. [2]

(b) Current is driven though a resistor network by a battery.

030A 109

(i) Show clearly that the pd across the battery is 9.0 V [3]
(ii) The internal resistance of the battery is 2.0 Q. Analyse the energy transfers
in the circuit quantitatively. [4]
(iii) The 15 Q resistor is disconnected. Without any further calculation, explain
qualitatively how the pd across each of the 10 Q resistor, the 12 Q resistor
and the battery changes. [2]
WJEC AS Level Physics: Practical skills

Overview:
Practical skills
”

Dealing with zero errors.

Avoiding parallax errors.
Using a fiducial mark.
Resolution.
Recording and displaying data.
Number of significant figures in data.

Estimating uncertainty in a single measurement.

Best value and uncertainty from several measurements.
Precision or percentage uncertainty.
Finding uncertainty in a calculated quantity: multiplying
and dividing, adding and subtracting, powers.
e Plotting error bars.
Best-fit straight lines and error bars.

e Testing linear relationships using graphs.

e Testing non-linear relationships using linear graphs.

Identifying variables; independent variable, dependent

variable, control variable.
Measuring variables.
Look out for systematic uncertainties.
Experimental plans and descriptions.
 Practical work has several uses for AS/A level physics students:
e It is used by teachers to illustrate theory.
e It enables students to appreciate the experimental foundations of physics.
e It prepares students for the AS/A examination papers.
e It contributes towards the practical endorsement (A level only).
Much detail of individual practical techniques is given alongside the specified
practicals in Units 1 and 2.
The aim of this short chapter is to provide a ready reference to the general
techniques that you will need to use in your practical work. Whilst dealing
with some aspects of measurement taking, it concentrates on the more
advanced numerical aspects of physics at AS/A level, such as estimating and
combining uncertainties and using graphs to investigate linear and non-linear
relationships, including the use of error bars.
: Note: Some aspects of graphs are treated in Chapter 4, Mathematical skills.
> 3 Practical skills
3.1 Introduction
As part of the AS course you will be expected to answer questions on a significant number
of experimental investigations. These questions will cover experimental design, use of
apparatus and techniques, the collection and presentation of data, handling uncertainties
in data, drawing conclusions and evaluating outcomes. The titles and details of the
investigations are contained in Chapters 1 and 2 in the appropriate topic. This chapter
deals with the general skills you need to demonstrate. If you carry on to the full A level,
your experimental work will be assessed and reported in the Practical Completion
Certificate. This will cover the physical demonstration of the same skills. Some higher
level mathematical techniques for this are covered in the A level version of this book.

3.2 Using apparatus, making and

recording measurements
The list of general apparatus used in AS physics is not long. It includes: distance-
measuring equipment such as metre rules, digital callipers, micrometers and
(possibly) travelling microscopes; electrical meters, mainly ammeters and voltmeters;
digital balances; timers, such as digital stopwatches and light-gate activated timers;
thermometers or temperature probes; liquid volume apparatus such as measuring
cylinders. At A level, this list is expanded to include signal generators, oscilloscopes,
radiation detectors and counters.

3.2.1 Dealing with zero errors

Apparatus should be checked to ensure that it reads zero when it should do. Some
equipment can be zeroed, e.g. analogue electric meters. If a piece of equipment cannot
be zeroed the zero reading should be subtracted from each reading taken, e.g. a digital
calliper reads 0.02 mm with the jaws closed and 0.34 mm when reading the diameter of
a wire: the wire diameter should be reported as 0.34 — 0.02 = 0.32 mm.

Fig. 3.1 Parallax errors

3.2.2 Avoiding parallax errors
These affect readings from analogue instruments such as metre rules or electrical meters
with pointers and scales. In Fig. 3.1 it is clear that only the middle reading (in red) is
correct. The position to be measured should be as close to the scale as possible and
the eye should be at right angles to the scale. In ‘bouncing ball’ experiments the eye
should be at the anticipated height of bounce, the approximate value of which can be
determined by trial runs.

a
3.2.3 Using a fiducial mark
Sere Pointer
“

Fee es=Bae imrerereer{ In many experiments, it is useful to have a fixed mark from which to take measurements.
~ This is particularly useful in oscillation experiments. The oscillations should be timed
S
SS

when the object crosses the central point. This is where it is moving most rapidly. Also, if
the oscillations get smaller because of damping, after a few oscillations the object might
Fig. 3.2 Fiducial mark
not reach a pointer placed at the extreme positions.
 3 Practical skills

3.2.4 Resolution r— Terms & definitions—4

153.8 mA
The resolution of an instrument
Always record the resolution of any instrument you use. is the smallest measurable change
that can be recorded using it.
For a digital instrument, this is 1 in the least significant least significant figure
figure in the display. The resolution of the ammeter in
Fig. 3.3is 0.1 mA 4 2p is g
wNuvilindy
For an analogue instrument, e.g. the voltmeter in Fig. 3.3, a" Mhiyy 2 ~ Study point
the resolution should be taken as the interval between the
Resolution is not the same as
smallest graduations. In this case 0.1 V. V uncertainty. A stopwatch resolution
is often 0.01 s but the best
Fig 3.3 Resolution uncertainty that people can achieve
in hand timings is ~+ 0.05 s.

3.2.5 Recording and displaying data

The standard way of displaying systematic data, i.e. results of varying the independent
variable, is to use a table. The following table shows the points you should consider when
constructing a table:

Headings Over-arching heading

with units

mA Display ne . i
| 23.65 | 23.39 23.48 | 23.5 the instrument. In Tab

Systematic
gy 0.20 |3339 | 33.45 ey cee readings are to 0.01s

Va
ra consis nt even
sequence 0.30 a ee

Readings to the resolution of Calculated data to consistent

the instrument number of s.f.(see later)
Should we concem ourselves with
Table 3.1 Tabulation the number of significant figures
or the number of decimal places in
an answer? Note that 53.2 cm and
0.532 m are the same. They claim
3.2.6 Number of significant figures in data the same precision; they have the
game number of s.f. but a different
A stated value of a quantity without an indication of uncertainty Is of limited use because number of d.p.

we cannot be sure how precise it is. For example, what does a current of stated value
53 mA mean? With no other information, we take 53 mA to mean ‘somewhere between
52.5...mA and 53.4... mA.’ This means that the range of uncertainty is + 0.5 mA,
which is roughly 1 part in 100 (or 1%).

lf we calculate an electrical resistance, from a single pair of values of current and pd, we
need to decide how precise the answer is, i.e. how many figures to give in the answer. Qelf-test E>
Suppose the pd is 25.63 V and the current is 53 mA. The value of resistance, R is Calculate the value of resistance
calculated as follows: in Section 3.2.6 if the current is
53.4 mA.
eo 91509). 0
TP) 05 3,4.
But the current is only known to 1 part in 100. If the actual value of the current were
0.05270 A the calculated resistance would be 484.250...Q. These two answers are
different if we use more than two significant figures, which is the precision of the current,
the less precise datum. When multiplying and dividing,
express the result to the number
lf we can estimate the uncertainty in the data we can give a better answer to this problem. of s.f. as the least precise of the
This is dealt with in the next section. data values.
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Practical skills

3.3 The uncertainty in data

», jdee eS See ae 7

_y Study point —
In professional scientific work,
the + uncertainty would come with No experimental value is known with unlimited precision. A resistor with a marked value
a stated probability of the value lying
of 22 kQ cannot be taken to have a resistance of 22.00000....kQ. Experimental results
within the range. The calculation of
such an uncertainty requires detailed are quoted together with what is called the absolute uncertainty. The resistance could be
statistical work, which is omitted in quoted as 21.6 + 0.5 kQ, suggesting that the best estimate is that the resistance (in kQ)
A level physics. lies between 21.1 and 22.1.

This section introduces the methods employed in AS/A Physics in estimating

uncertainties.

6s 69 cm 70 3.3.1 Estimating the best value and absolute

uncertainty
Fig. 3.4 Multiple readings

(a) Uncertainty from a single measurement

The instrument resolution should be used as the uncertainty estimate. For example, when
r— Terms & definitions —j using a metre rule, the uncertainty should normally be given as + 0.001 m (+ 1 mm). It
An outlier is a result which is very may be possible to estimate readings to better than this, e.g. to half the resolution, but it
different from the others and is should be remembered that all length readings are the difference between the readings at
ignored in calculating the best each end and hence have two uncertainties associated with them.
value.
(b) Best value and uncertainty from several measurements
In Fig. 3.4, the results of five length measurements, x; ...... Xs, are given, each to the
r— Terms & definitions nearest 0.5 mm. If we have no reason to discard any individual reading, e.g. because we
The arithmetic mean is the
consider it to be an outlier, the best value is the arithmetic mean, (x), of the readings.
sum of the values divided by (x) = ¥ f. es ree 68.25 + 68.70 + ae + 69.40 + 69.50 Ge OR
the number of values. It can be
written as (x) or x. Ax, the absolute uncertainty in x is estimated by dividing the spread of values by 2, in this
case:
Ax = X max ~ *min — 69.50 = 68i2585 0 Gaston
Self-test
A current, /, is measured 4 times Because Ax is only an estimate of the uncertainty, we report it to 1 s.f. only. In this case,
with the following results in mA: we report Ax as 0.6 cm and we quote the value of x as x = (x) + Ax, which in this case is
36.7, 37.2, 36.6, 37.0. Give the
reported value of / together with its
69.0 + 0.6 cm.
uncertainty.
Note that we report the best value of x to the same decimal place as the uncertainty.
In this case, the uncertainty is in the 1st decimal place, so we reportx to 1 d.p.

r— Terms & definitions —

(c) Precision
The precision, p, is defined as
The absolute uncertainty in a quantity does not, by itself, indicate the level of precision
absolute uncertainty with which a value has been determined. For example, an uncertainty in wavelength,
x 100%).
best value ( 0%) AA of 10 nm would be very precise for a microwave (A ~ 1 cm) but unimpressive for UVB
It is also referred to as the (2 ~ 100 nm) and very imprecise for X-rays (A ~ 0.1-10 nm). The precision, p, is defined
fractional uncertainty or as follows
percentage uncertainty.
p == (x 100%)
For the UVB radiation mentioned above,p = a = ah Senta
ey Qelf-test
Calculate the precision of the It is a matter of taste whether the fraction (0.1) or the percentage (10%) is quoted. The
wavelength of the microwaves in
Section 3.3.1(c).
precision is useful when combining uncertainties, which is covered in the next section.
 3 Practical skills

3.3.2 Finding the uncertainty in a calculated

~ Study point
quantity |
(a) Multiplying and dividing If we are calculating p from R = a
Many quantities in physics are found by multiplying and dividing others, e.g. we manipulate the equation to give:
RA
distance © 1, ei RE Then p, = Pap+P,+P,-
speed = power, P = IV; resistance, R= e
time Note that this is not a rearrangement
of the equation in Section 3.3.2(a).
The uncertainty in the quantity to be calculated (speed, power or resistance) is found by
Uncertainties always add!
combining the uncertainties in the known quantities. For multiplications and divisions the
precisions (fractional or percentage uncertainties) add to give the precision in the answer.
So, in the resistance equation:

PR=PptPitPa
To calculate the absolute uncertainty in the resistance, we then use:

AR= perk.

_ Example
The pd, V, across a component is 5.35 + 0.02 V; the current, J, is 25.3 + 0.8 mA.
_ Calculate the resistance of the component together with its absolute uncertainty and
report the value correctly

-Iststep: Calculate the best value of R: R = Fa oe =211.462

2nd step: precision in the voltage,
p, = we = ().0037 [='0.37%]

precision in the current, p; = ae = 0.03161. 3.16%)

3rd step: Add the precisions: pp = py + p; = 9.00373 + 0.0316 = 0.0353

“Aisep © Caleulate AR AR = R py $211.46 x 0.0353 7460-70051)
“5thstep: «. Reported R= 211479 !
Note: In the example, py; is much less that P, so that it could really be ignored. In fact
ignoringpy, still gives us AR = 7 Q (1 s.f.)!

(b) Adding and subtracting

When combining by addition or subtraction, the absolute uncertainties add. For example,
if a car accelerates from 12.0 + 0.2 ms"! to 20.5 + 0.2 m s"!, the change in velocity is
(20.5 — 12.0) + (0.2 + 0.2) = 8.5 + 0.4 ms. Notice that subtracting quantities tends
to produce a result with a much larger percentage uncertainty. In this case the precisions Self-test
in the velocities are 1.7% and 1.0% but the precision in the change in velocity is 5% Calculate the acceleration in
(isto! Section 3.3.2(b) if the time taken
was 4.0+0.1s.

(c) Powers
We often need to square or find the square root of quantities in calculations. If we
remember that42 = A x A, then we can apply the rule from part (a). So: Self-test
The diameter of a sphere is
p(A?) =o measured as 2.00 + 0.01 mm.
; h I Calculate its volume, V+ AV.
We can generalise from this: p(A”) = np, and p(VA) =>, pa. As an example, the area of
Use the formula V = :qtr? and
a circle is given by mr2; m has no uncertainty; so, if we know the radius to a precision of
1%, the precision in the area is 2 x 1% = 2%. remember that 37 has zero
uncertainty.
WJEC AS Level Physics: Practical skills

3.3.3 Uncertainties and graphs

(a) Error bars
Consider an experiment into the variation of acceleration of a model rocket with height
above the ground. At a height of 1.9 m, the acceleration is measured to be 32+4ms1.
We plot this information as in the red barred vertical line in Fig. 3.5(a). The line, called an
error bar extends is at 1.9 m and extends from 28 to 36 m. The best value of 32 m s!
has no special significance apart from being the centre of the error bar. The horizontal
bars are not significant and serve only to draw attention to the extent of the error bar.
When we come to draw the best-fit graph, we expect it to pass through the bar.

acceleration /m s? acceleration /m s~2

40

30

is the gradient
| the y axis.

(a) 1.0 2.0 Be (b) 1.0 2.0 3.0

height /m height /m
Fig. 3.5 Error bars

If height of the rocket was only known to within 0.2 m we would also plot a horizontal
error bar to represent this, as in Fig. 3.5(b).|f there were no vertical error bars, the best-fit
line would pass through the horizontal error bar. If there are uncertainties in both the
Saaw “ Colf-test x and y directions the best fit graph would pass through the dotted box, which encloses
In a graph of V/V against //A, the both error bars. In fact, a sensible way of plotting the uncertainties in this case is just to
extreme graphs have the following draw the ‘error box’: this is not conventional but it is perfectly acceptable.
gradients and intercepts:
Gradient: —0.165, -0.169
(b) Best-fit straight lines and error bars
Intercept: 9.05, 9.17
We use the plotted error bars to:
Wnite the equation between V and /
as in Section 3.3.3(b). e decide whether the results are consistent
with a linear relationship
e determine the relationship (with an BY
estimate of the uncertainties) between the
variables.

Consider the set of results plotted in Fig. 3.6.

It is possible to draw a Straight line through
all the error bars, so the results are consistent
with a linear relationship between y and x.
The lines drawn are the extremes — they
represent
; the steepest and least steep lines it Fig. 3.6 Graphs and error bars
is possible to draw through all the error bars.

We can use these extreme lines to find the best values of the gradient and intercept
together with their uncertainties. If the extreme gradients and intercepts are m,, my, C,
and c, (see Maths check), then:
Fig. 3.7 Proportionality?
m= Mt Ma 4 Ma and = 142 255
 3 Practical skills

i.e. we take the arithmetic means of the extremes of gradient and intercept to be the best y I
values, with the absolute uncertainties being half the ranges. So the equation between i
y and x is written:
y= LCST SPCGMP are 17
Pe OP?
In Fig. 3.7, the relationshipy « x is consistent with the error bars because it is possible
to draw a straight line through the origin and the error bars. This should not be assumed,
however; the extreme graphs should be drawn as above and the best values of m and c
a
together with their uncertainties reported. Fig. 3.8 Data inconsistent with a linear
relationship

3.4 Using linear graphs to test

relationships
This involves comparing the expected relationship between the variables with the straight-
line equation, y = mx +c, where m and c are constants, the gradient and y-intercept
respectively.

3.4.1 For a linear relationship

We shall examine this using a typical AS example, the relationship between terminal pd,
Self-test C37)
V, and current, J, for a power supply: V = E —Ir. \t is advisable to rearrange the equation
What are the gradient and intercept
so that it is easy to compare with y = mx + c.
of a graph of v against ¢ for constant
acceleration?
eal ee) SS

Rearranging the equation: V = eae, I o Peg sae

i] \ t \
| | ' ! =

ompare wi y = m x c
fe ae Gelf-test z ,
J ; SS oe
State the values of r and E from

The variables in the two equations and the correspondence between them are indicated ea
in red. If the internal resistance, 7, and emf, E, of the supply are constant, a graph of
V against J, is a straight line with gradient —r and intercept E on the V-axis. Thus the
relationship is tested and (assuming the relationship holds) r and & determined.

: . . MATHS CHECK
3.4.2 For non-linear relationships ce
(v/m s-l)2. oe
Many non-linear relationships can be plotted to give a linear graph by a careful choice of
variables. Some are rather straightforward; e.g. v? = uv? + 2ax, for a constant acceleration.
If we plot v2 againstx (rather than v against x), the graph should be a straight line of
gradient 2a and intercept uw? on the v? axis.

Other relationships are more difficult to linearise. For example V = ra. where E£ and r
Self-test |
are constants as before, is not easy but it can be rearranged to give -= as + =
ER
Show that V = —— canbe
This suggests that a graph of éagainst 2should be a straight line of gradient oe R+r

rearranged to give J = Lf
ii aay! VER £E
and intercept E on the 77 axis.
WJEC AS Level Physics: Practical skills

3.5 Carrying out and describing

Self-test experimental work
The resonance frequency, f for a pipe
which is open at one end, relates to Experimental work in physics has two main purposes:
its length, /, by the equation
1+¢=£ where c is the speed
1. To test relationships between variables
4f
of sound waves and é€ a constant 2. To determine the value of a physical quantity.
(called the ‘end correction’), relating
to the diameter of the pipe. What In practice these two purposes often overlap. For example, if the purpose is to determine
graph, relating fand /, should be the presumed-constant acceleration of an object, it is sensible to demonstrate that it really
plotted to venfy the relationship and is constant, e.g. by plotting a graph of v2 againstx (as in Section 1.3.9) or v against f¢,
how should c and ¢ be determined?
showing that the results are consistent with a constant acceleration and using the gradient
to determine its value. This procedure has the additional advantage that it allows for a
more accurate estimation of the uncertainty in the result.

Physics teachers have additional reasons for carrying out practical work: demonstrating
a phenomenon or setting up an event which can be discussed in terms of physical laws.
r— Terms & definitions
—4
The purpose of a particular piece of experimental work should always be clearly stated.
The distinction between
independent and dependent
variables is not always useful. In
the equation v2 = u? + 2ax, we
could measure the velocity at
3.5.1 Identifying variables
a set of displacements (making All the quantities that need to be measured in experimental work are referred to
v the dependent variable) or as variables. This is the case whether or not their values actually change during an
the displacements at a set of investigation — they have the potential to vary. An investigation often involves looking at the
velocities. effect of varying one or more variables, the independent variables, on another variable,
the dependent variable. Some variables, the control variables, need to be kept the same
so that the effect of varying the independent variables is isolated. When planning an
investigation, all the key variables need to be identified.

Often, when plotting graphs, the dependent variable is plotted on the vertical axis (the
SB SP atalino
ordinate or y-axis) with the independent variable on the horizontal axis (the abscissa or
Some variables are almost self- x-axis). This is not necessarily convenient, for example when investigating the resistance
controlling; e.g. when using a wire of a wire, it doesn’t matter whether the current or pd is on the y-axis: if the current is on
from a single reel to investigate
the effect of length of a wire on
the x-axis, the gradient is the resistance; current on the y-axis makes the resistance equal
resistance, the diameter and to the reciprocal of the gradient.
composition of the wire are
automatically kept the same. Unlike living systems, the objects under investigation usually behave in a relatively simple
way and we can describe the effect of one variable on another in terms of algebraic or
trigonometrical functions

3.5.2 Measuring variables

a fs aly a
% EGE 4 Wp GAG
; i,
ae eit het A edd

Consider a wire of approximate

diameter 1 mm and length 5 m: The measuring technique and the instruments should be chosen which, (a) measure the
If the diameter, D, is measured relevant variables, (b) have appropriate precision and accuracy and (c) are as convenient
to + 0.01 mm that is a precision
of 1%. The volume depends upon
as possible and (d) give reproducible results. It is not always the case that particular
D2, which has a precision of 2%. measurements need be very precise — when measuring the volume of a long (~5 m)
A 1 cm uncertainty in the length piece of thin (~ | mm) wire, there is no point in trying to make the length measurement
means a precision of 0.2% which is to better than 1 cm uncertainty. Why not? See the Study point. On the other hand, there is
negligible.
every justification for improving the precision of the diameter determination.
 3 Practical skills

3.5.3 Look out for systematic uncertainties

Uncertainties in measurement which have the effect of always making the result too large
or always too small are called systematic uncertainties. They are sometimes easy to spot:
the relevant distance between the shielded radioactive source and the G-M tube ‘hot spot’
is unknown but will always differ from the distance x by the same amount, é.
7”
Carefully designed graphs
are useful in trapping this r/a source
kind of uncertainty.

lf the inverse square law

is being investigated, the Fig. 3.9
count rate, C, is expected Systematic
uncertainty
to be given

py C= where d=X+ €.
a
ae l
ke ee , $0 a graph of —= ;
The equation can be re-arranged to give —= = againstx
vC k vC
should be a straight line, if the inverse square law is obeyed. (See Self-test 3.11.) When
selecting the graph to plot, the variable with the systematic uncertainty should be linear Self-test
(i.e. in this case we plotx not x2). Self-test 3.12 gives another example.
1
From the graph of —7= against x in
Section 3.5.1: vc

3.5.4 Experimental plans and descriptions (a) State the values of the gradient
and intercept.
The report should be succinct but sufficiently detailed to allow another A level physics (b) Explain how e can be determined.
student to follow it. Whether you use a numbered list of steps or bullet points is a matter
of taste but the report should be clearly sequential. Details of standard items of equipment
and their operation need not be given, other than to explain the precautions to reduce
random and systematic uncertainties (e.g. measuring the diameter of a wire at several
points and in directions at 90°).

The method of analysis should be clear. For example, a statement of the graph to be Self-test
drawn (such as velocity against distance), how this relates to any algebraic equation and The electromagnet
how features of the graph (linearity, gradient, intercept) will be used. in the expenment
to determine gin
Section 1.2.5 doesn't
Example lose its magnetisation
instantly, so hangs
When determining the Young modulus, Y, of the material of a wire, the diameter, D, and on to the ball for an
unknown time, tT.
initial length, 7, are measured and a graph of force, F against extension, Al, plotted.
2 2 The fall height, 4, and true time
Pe or usAl, so the gradient, m, of the graph is ae < offall, t, are relatedby
0 0 1
ue Alym h= 3 et.
calculated from Y = DE
j measured and Y
The gradiej nt of the graph is
Explain how to determine g and t.
WJEC AS Level Physics: Mathematical skills

Overview:
Mathematical skills

Rules of indices.
Indices and units.
Using standard form.
Using SI multipliers.
Fractions, ratios and percentages.
Expressing angles in radians; converting between degrees and
radians.

Algebraic symbols, <, >, <<, >> and A.

Direct and inverse proportion; graphs.
Manipulating algebraic equations.
Evaluating expressions to solve equations.
Quadratic equations.

Angles in geometrical figures.

Areas and volumes of geometrical figures.
Right-angled triangles.
Trig ratios for angles outside the range O — 90° .

Graph preparation and point plotting.

Determination of rate of change from a graph.
Determination of the ‘area’ under a graph.
Equation of a linear graph.
Finding the equation from a graph.
In many ways, mathematics is the language of physics. Physicists develop
their models and theories in mathematical terms; they make quantitative
predictions about the behaviour of the world; they subject their experiments to
mathematical analysis; even the extent to which physicists and engineers are
uncertain is expressed mathematically.
As with Chapter 3, this short section of the book is not meant as a substitute
for a detailed mathematical course. It provides, rather, a ready reference to the
mathematical techniques you will employ in AS physics: use of indices and
standard form; algebraic manipulation; angles and trig ratios; graphs.
The topic of Graphs is split between this chapter and Chapter 3. Graphs are
sometimes plotted directly from equations; at other times experimental results
are plotted, to which best-fit or theoretical lines are added. The final section on
graphs in this chapter deals mainly (but not exclusively) with aspects of graphs
you will meet in non-experimental work.
> 4 Mathematical skills
4.1 Introduction
Chapters 1 and 2 include mathematical treatment of physics ideas. Basic GCSE level
mathematics is assumed. This chapter has two purposes:
e |tserves as a quick reference of the necessary skills. te
e |t introduces some new material, e.g. radians and the use of the ‘A’ symbol, which is
more conveniently dealt with away from the main text.

4.2 Arithmetic and numerical

computation
4.2.1 Indices
(a) Basic rules
¢ @=axaxa...(ntimes)
— where n is a positive integer, i.e. 1, 2,3...
Bias skal 20:
Self-test
e at=1legio9?=-t-_
What are a" 1022 10x10 100
(a) y2 x y? (b)
y2 x y? (c)vy(V2 + 2a)

e axa =a"), eg. 102 x 103 = 10°

© *igxaqy=a, eg, # =415

ay 405
For acceleration of 1.5 m s-? for 10 s:
(ay = a e.g. (54)0.5 = 54x05 — §2
Velinc =1.5ms2x 10s
Swell O(Mmiseeeas)
(b) Indices and units
=15ms1.
At GCSE we wrote the units of velocity and acceleration as m/s and m/s? respectively.
At A level and higher, the units are written m s! and m s~.

Examples When multiplying or dividing two quantities, the units are treated in the same way;
e.g. a car accelerates at 1.5 m s? for a time of 10 s. The increase in velocity is 15 m s-!.
5x 10° eb x U00! See the Study point for the working.
= 0.005
and 5.5/ x 103 >= 0,005 57 (c) Standard form
5 102 = 5. O00 This is used for very large and very small numbers. For example, the speed of light is
=. 5000 300 000 000 m s, which can be written 3.00 x 108 m s+; a current of 0.000 015 A
can be written 1.5 x 10-5 A. To convert to standard form:
ang 6.07 10? = 5 570
A large number, xyz00 ... 0 [total number of digits = 7] = x.yz x 10”-!. Compare this
with the speed of light.
Asmall number 0.0 ... OOxyz [total number of zeroes = n] = x.yz x 10-*), Compare
[ CALCULATOR CHECK this with the current above.
To check that you are entering
numbers correctly into your The examples in the box show conversions from standard form.
calculator, try:
Calculator help
(5 x 10-5) x (3 x 107).
To enter 2.5 x 10° into your calculator key: 2.5 EXP 6
If your answer is 300 you are doing
To enter 2.5 x 10° key: 2.5 EXP +/_6
it nght.
See calculator check.
 4 Mathematical skills

4.2.2 SI multipliers

Self-test
A resistor has a voltage of 300 mV
The multiplier is an abbreviated way of writing x 10”. For example 53 WA: From the across it and passes a current of
table, u means x 10-, so 53 UA is equivalent to 53 x 10° A, which is 5.3 x 10° A in 50 UWA. Calculate its resistance.
standard form — but see Exam tip.

4.2.3 Fractions, ratios and percentages

The fraction : means a divided by b. The ratio of a to b is also isig=4 ane p= 10)

the ratio of a to b is 3 = : = 0.4 = 40%. These are just different ways of writing the
same thing.
r— Terms & definitions—4
We can express a fraction as a percentage by multiplying by 100; so Percent means literally ‘in every
7 7 100° So % is 50 in every 100, i.e. 50%.
50 = 30 * 100% = 35%. You should know the following percentage equivalents:
r— Terms & definitions—j
T= 10%; % =20% ... 2 = 90%; 1 = 100%; + = 25%; + = 33.3%; 5 = 50%;
3 ~ 15%; 2 = 200%; 2.5 = 250% ...

4.2.4 Expressing angles in radians ;

The SI unit of angle is the radian (see Terms & definitions). If 7 is doubled, / will also (in radians) at
6

double so the ratio Z does not depend upon the value of 7.

To convert between degrees and radians: the circumference of a circle of radius r is eiUr,
50500) = =T rad moi tad. . ;
VA
Fig. 4.2 illustrates the small angle approximation which S \"
is only valid if angles are expressed in radians.

The red line is the arc of a circle with radius 7. :

By definition sin 0 = £ 8 (in rad) = z.tan 0= Fig. 4.2 Small angles

The three lengths,f,g and h, are very close, withf< g < hand, as 6 — Othe ratios L
and 7& and — 1. So for small angles we can write sin@= 0 = tan @. For many purposes,

angles < 0.01 rad [~6°] can be considered small.

 WJEC AS Level Physics: Mathematical skills

4.3 Algebra
4.3.1 Symbols
(a) Less than (<) and greater than (>)
a <b means ‘a is less than b’; similarly, x > y means ‘x is greater than y’.

Examples: 10 > 5; 5 x 10® <2 x 10’. Care should be taken with negative numbers,

e.g.—-10 >-20.

With care, these can be used in the same way as the ‘=’ sign (meaning ‘is equal to’).,
__y Study point
Eye ie eg ae .

If cis the speed of light ina e.g.p>qthen:p+x>q+x and 10p > 10g but -Sp < -Sq (!)
vacuum, v, the speed of sound in air
and v, the speed of sound in carbon
dioxide:
(b) Much less than (<<) and much greater than (>>)
vV,z>v,
and ¢ > Vv,
These can be used in the same way as < and >. More often they are just used to express
that there is a big difference in value without undertaking any algebra.

(c) Direct and inverse proportion

y x (‘y is directly proportional to x’, or just ‘y is proportional to x’) means that the ratio y
is constant, i.e. if x is multiplied by any number (e.g. 2, 3 or 7), y is multiplied by the
same number.

Sometimes when one variable is doubled, the other one halves. The product, xy, of the
variables is constant. In these cases we say that y is inversely proportional to x and write it
1
oO _.

He
Similarly, y can be proportional to x? (y « x2), or y can be inversely proportional to x?

_ » Study point — (yx 2

). See the box for examples.
Proportion relationships can also be
wnitten as follows: (a) (c)

VIC mE VEO
lg 2 k
y%'s yy
where k is a constant.

Examples of proportion
Hooke’s Law FaY
1
Waves Ax
a8
Kinetic energy £, & v2

Gravity Fa a

Self-test
Identify the constant & in each of the
examples above and give its unit.
 CS eidaleteatciniorctrcd eat ky

(d) Delta (A) ~ Study point |

A means ‘change in’, i.e. Av means ‘change in velocity’. If a length, x, changes from The mean resultant force, F, on
Xp) COO X= 20 Cin: an object is defined as the rate of
change of momentum, p of the
Ave Xk) =). 0 CMl= 2.) eile >... CM object, 1.e. f= ==

We always subtract the first value from the second value. So, if x, <x,, then Ax will be
negative (Ax < 0).

4.3.2 Manipulating equations x es solvthaean cauaion. eg.

finding x from y? -u2 = + 2ax, you
To find the value of a quantity, an equation must be manipulated to make the quantity into — might find it easier to‘substitute
the subject, e.g. find a if 10 =3 + 2a?. l quation b

In every part of the manipulation, we must perform the same arithmetic operation on the
two sides of the equation. Examples:

e Add or subtract the same quantity

e Multiply or divide by the same quantity Self-test
e Square both sides or take the square root of both sides. Find
x if7x + 16 = 49.

In our example:

e Subtract 3 from both sides — 7 = 2a?

e Divide both sides by 2 — 3.5 =a?
e Take the square root of both sides -— a= +Vv3.5 = +1.87 (3Ssf.)
r—— Terms & definitions
—4
The word ‘orders’ in BODMAS
means powers or indices, e.g. 23,
4.3.3 Evaluating expressions to solve equations V40 = 40°,
When evaluating expressions, such as 16 + (6 x 52 — 29)°> the sequence of actions
is summarised by the mnemonic BODMAS - bracket, orders, division, multiplication,
addition, subtraction. With the above expression this works as follows:

e to evaluate the bracket, work through the ODMAS sequence within the bracket:
5225-690 25-= 150° 150-29 = 121

en order: 121°5 =v1I21 = 11

1 Self-test
e addition: 16 + 11 = 27 (answer) Evaluate the following:

Another example: < + 4,2. The 2 term means 3 divided by 8, so start with that:
8
3 divided by 8 is 0.375. Then add 4.2 to give 4.575.

4.3.4 Quadratic equations Gelf-test

Ifx =24m,u=4ms-! and
lf an unknown quantity, x, satisfies the equation, ax + bx + c = 0, where a, b and c are = hina G2
constants, the solutions are: (a) From x = ut + Y2at2, show that
_ -b+vb*-4ac 1.52 +4t-24=0.
2a (b) Solve the equation using the
quadratic formula.
In AS physics, the most common type of question which requires this formula arises in
] :
find an unknown time from x = ut + 5 at?. Here, ¢ is the unknown quantity and the
1
constants are x, u and 5 4.
 WJEC AS Level Physics: Mathematical skills

4.4 Geometry and trigonometry

Find the values ofall12unmakea | 4.4.1 Angles in geometrical figures
angles: :

foie Pan
A C
A+B+C = 180° =arad a+B=y 6+ @ = 180° = rad

©SY,
a+B+y+6+e=360°
= 27 rad

r— Terms & definitions——+

Fig. 4.4 Angles in

geometrical figures

¥ is called the cross-sectional

3 4.4.2 Areas and volumes of geometrical figures
area, CSa,

The volume, V = A/
A=T7r= ape
For the cylinder, V = zr? / h /

b b Circumference
A=bh =D yay

a
h h A=— ap
ath

b 2 b
A = bh = Yaab sin C

= V=bwh
Self-test
What length of wire of
1 mm x | mm cross section could
:
Jw
you make from 1 m3 of metal?

Fig. 4.6 Areas and volumes

 4 Mathematical skills

4.4.3 Right-angled triangles

Pythagoras’ theorem: a2 + b2 = c?,

where c is the long side, the hypotenuse, of the right-

angled triangle.

e.g. ifa=8cmandb=15 cm 5

c =V 84 + 152 =V64 + 225 +V¥289 = 17 cm. Fig. 4.8 Pythagoras Theorem

A well known Pythagorean triple is 3, 4, 5. Others are 5, 12, 13 and 5, 24, 25.

For angles from 0 — 90° [0 — :rad] the trig ratios, sine, cosine and tangent, are defined
as follows:

Sine: sin @= Opposite __ a

hypotenuse ¢ %

Cosine: cos 9 = —adiacent__ ¢

hypotenuse ¢

Tangent: tan @= Opposite _ a a

adjacent 45 b
Fig. 4.9 Trig ratios
cos 0=4,

4.4.4 Trig ratios for angles outside the eV ICOSTO,

Similarly,
range 0-90° y=vsin 0.
Fig.4.10 shows the sine and cosine functions for angles which cannot be found in

a right-angled triangle, i.e. > 90° (F rad) and negative values.

tZe. Pes USE Can i ee
ee : Siete
BSS s. LSPS te ee egy CoS
sind
Note the different units in the sin 6
and cos 6 graphs. This does not
matter because 180° = JT radians,
etc. The labels could be swapped or
both could use the same.
Gis

6/rad

. Qelf-test x
What are the possible values of @
if sin 6 = 0.5? Give your answer
in ° and in rad.

Fig. 4.10 Sine and cosine graphs

 WJEC AS Level Physics: Mathematical skills

Velocity /m s-
4.5 Graphs

4.5.1 Graph preparation and point plotting

Fig. 4.11 illustrates the following rules which you should always follow when graph plotting:

1. The axes are both labelled clearly with the quantity being plotted.
2. The scales increase in equal steps and don’t include factors which make the scales
difficult to read, e.g. multiples of 3 or 7.
Time /s
3. The scales are chosen so that the points occupy at least half the grid in both
Fig. 4.11 Good practice in graphs directions.
4. The unit of the quantities plotted are included: the standard method to adopt is
<quantity> / <unit>. If the quantity is raised to a power, e.g. v then the label should
be (v/ms"!)?,
5. The points are clearly plotted, with the centre of the cross representing the position of
~ Study point
AST PN ace ae 3

the point.
Fig.4.6 shows the points plotted as
x. Alternatives are +, ©. ‘Plotting a graph’ requires a suitable line to be drawn in addition to setting up the axes,
See Chapter 3 for plotting data with scales and plotting the points. Chapter 3 deals with handling experimental data including
error bars. decisions on drawing the most appropriate line, e.g. best-fit straight line or best-fit curve.

4.5.2 Determination of rate of change from

a graph
: Self-test The mean rate of change of a quantityy with respect to x is defined by:
What do the gradients of the
following graphs represent? Mean rate of change = oy
(MGS
(a) Velocity against time
For example, if the gravitational potential energy of an object increases by 500 J when
(b) Displacement against time
it is raised by 20 m, the mean rate of change of potential energy with respect to height
ie2> Jan

Fig. 4.12 Calculating the rate of change

r— Terms & definitions—j The relationships between the rate of change and the graph are illustrated in Fig. 4.12
In the expression, ‘rate of change’ (a)-(c). For a straight line variation of y with x, the rate of change of y with respect to x is
the dependent variable is taken the gradient of the graph.
to be time, unless otherwise
For a curved graph, the mean rate of change between A and B is the gradient of the
specified. So the ‘mean rate of
change of velocity’ would be:
chord joining A and B. The instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at C is the
gradient of the tangent to the graph at C. In principle it doesn’t matter how large Ax is in
Ay ? . ,
ar’ be: the acceleration. finding the slopes but the larger Ax is the more accurate the value of the rate of change.
 4 Mathematical skills

4.5.3 Determination of the ‘area’ under a graph ~ Study point

The area between a velocity-time graph and the time axis is the displacement. This area he ea pecan
ISSignificant in many (but not all) graphs. Another examples is the area under a force— horizontal axis — and if the graph is
distance graph is the work done, i.e energy transfer. below the axis, the area is negative.

For a graph consisting of linear sections, the area can be divided into triangles and
rectangles (or trapeziums). In Fig. 4.13:
v/ms-
Displacement =A,-A,
7+10 l
=204m-40m Ay = AB Ag KO X10

= 164m

There are several ways of estimating the work done from the area under the force
extension curve in Fig. 4.14.

Force /m 1. Square counting: Each 1 em square

20 Pie ee ee eee eee sis.5,0.N<O;lim = 015 J) Treating
GS Ex a i tm < 4a square as 0 and > 2 a square Fig. 4.13 v-t graph
as 1, there are 12 such squares —
1220 0.0:
Self-test 7 nee

What work do you get if you count

2 mm squares in Fig. 4.14(a)? Each is
worth 1.0 N x 0.02 m = 0.02 J

02 0.4 0.6
(a) Extension /m
ee
Force /m
20 ee | 4.12
2. Divide the graph into equal aie
trapeziums, as in Fig. 4.14(b), find SusessemeeQueeSeeenncesneonne Self-test
Find the area of all the trapeziums in
the area if each and add to find
Fig. 4.14(b) and show that the work
the total area. For example done is approximately 6.0 J.

y= 3(07+11.5)x0.1=14255 49
See Self-test 4.12.

0.2 0.4 20-6

(b) Extension /m

Force /m 3. Draw a straight line which cuts the

curve into two so that the area above The trapezoidal rule states that if
~ you have divided your graph into
the line is (by eye) equal to the area
-_aseries of trapeziums of width Ax
below the line. In Fig. 4.14(c): and y co-ordinates, Vo, V; ... Yq, the

A,=18x0.08 =1.44] area, A, is given by:

: Yay, + 2yy + 2y3 +... Yq) Ax
Ae : x 18 x 0.52 = 4.68 J q Repeat the calculation of area using
_ this formula.
aAtea= 6.1 Jiis.f2)

(c) Extension /m

Fig. 4.14(a)-(c) Finding the area under a curved graph

WJEC AS Level Physics: Mathematical skills

4.5.4 Linear graphs

(a) Equation of a straight-line graph
The graph in Fig. 4.15 represents a linear relationship, i.e. it is a straight line. The
equation of the graph is:
5
y=mx +c, wheem= _+y
Te

lf the graph passes through the origin (0,0), i.e. c = 0, the equation becomesy = mx.
In this case we say thaty is directly proportional tox, y * x. This is also covered in
Fig.4.15 Linear graph Section 4.3.1(c).

The relationships v = u + at and V = E - Jr are examples of linear relationships.

r— Terms & definitions——
The value, c, of ywhen x is 0, is e A graph of v against ¢ for constant acceleration is a straight line with gradient a and
called the intercept of the graph intercept wu on the v axis.
on they axis.
e A graph of V against J for a power supply with a constant internal resistance is a
straight line with gradient -r and intercept E on the Vaxis.

Chapter 3 includes a section on plotting straight line graphs from experimental data
including cases where the relationship is non-linear.

(b) Find the equation from the graph

Method 1: If the horizontal axis (the x-axis) of the graph goes back to 0 as in Fig. 4.15,
draw a large triangle as shown, measure Ax and Ay, calculate m, read off c from the
intercept on the axis.

Method 2: If the data points are all a long way from the origin, as in Fig. 4.16, (e.g. if the
values of x are in the range 120 — 150) then:

1. Locate two well-separated points on the graph (x,, y,) and (x, y>).

2. Calculate the gradient from m = Lae

X,—X,
3. The equation is y—y, = mx -x;).
Insert the values and rearrange into the form y = mx + c.
Ifv=55 ms! att=25 sand
34 ms! at 27.3 s, find the Method 3: As method 2 but after identifying the points, write the equation as:
relationship between v and fin the
form v = u + at. State the values of
uand a.
Insert the values and rearrange into the form y = mx +c.
 Self-test answers

Section 1.1 1.2.7 (a) 29.9 km s“! at 330°

Cela aL eke (b) 29.8 km s~! at 30°
2. 18a? 1.2.8 20-30 s (BC): uniform acceleration from 10 to 20 m s"!

Op Qa 30-54 s (CD): uniform velocity of 20 m s7!

4. 36a 54-68 s (DE): uniform deceleration to rest from 20 m s“!

1.1.2 V=lbh «. (Vi=[Nl[d[A] =mmm=m3 1.2.9 0.4ms?

1.1.3 Pas=Nm?*s=kgms?m!s=kgm!s_! OED 1.2.10 Area 0-20s (trapezium) = (15 + 20) x 10 = 175 m, etc.

1.1.4 [x}=m: [w]=ms-!s=m; [4a]=ms2.s2?=m. 1.2.11 72 ms! at 56.3° to horizontal

.. The two terms on the RHS have the same units, so 1.2.12 (a) 102 = 262-2 * 1.2x; .°. 2.4x = 576; .. x= 240 m, ete
can be added together; and the LHS has the same units.
.. The equation is homogeneous. (6) 10 =26— 1.26 3. 12t=16..7= 1330s

1.1.5 5N at tan"! 0.75 = 36.9° to 4 N force (c) 240 = 26r- 0.67; .°. 0.672 — 26t + 240 = 0;

1-6 27S Nai, = 130 N "f= +V676

20 WTg -=376
576 13.3
sor30.0
LA Bsiné 1.2.13 63.4 ms“!
1.1.8 Mass =7.9 g cm x (10 cm x 5 cm x 4 cm) = 1580 g 1.2.14 (2nd part) Because the acceleration is different (and not
1.1.9 (Wheelbarrow): weight = CWM; lift = ACM constant) in the powered stage.

(Spanner): Force = ACM; friction on nut = CM 1.2.15 (a) 26.0ms-}; 15ms-!

1.1.10 Total weight = (2+ 3+5.5+10)kgx9.8Nkg!=201N (b) 26.0 m s-!: -34.1 ms!

.. For equilibrium, upward force by pivot on plank ~200 N (c) 42.9 m s~! at 52.7° below horizontal
1.1.11 6x 60=3x904+1x50+2(100-—a); .°. 360 = 520 - 2d: (d) Horizontal: 130 m:; vertical —47.6 m (i.e. 47.6 m
$5 Hol MOE 65 eS tO) ial below starting point)

1.1.12 A: 40F=3 x 10+1%x504+2d .. 20F =40+4d(1] 1.2.16 ¢= 2.89 s. vy, =-8.3 ms! > v=35.6 ms! at 13.5° below
horizontal
B:60F
=3 x 90+ 1x50+2(100-d); .*. 30F = 260 —d [2]
1.2.17 (a) t~ 0.32 s
Then, eg., solve [1] and [2] for F by adding to eliminate
da — 50F= 300, etc. (b) 6% (uncertainty in height is negligible)

1.1.13 By all methods: F = 11.7 N at 31.0° to downward vertical

Section 1.3
1.1.14 F = 50.3 N at 9.6° to horizontal 1.3.1 (a) 20 000 kg ms“! (or 20 kN s)
(b) 1.8 X 1029Ns
Section 1.2
1277) 103i0s— 1:3.2 p= 005 ~ 620.9 ke emis

1.2.2 0-3 s; 6-8 s (0 velocity); 9.6-12s p2 = 0.45 x 2=0.9kg cm s! =p,

1.2.3 0-3 s constant forward velocity; 3-6 s decelerating; 1.3.3 (a) KE, =2.7x 10+];
6-8 s stationary; 8-9.6 s accelerating backwards; 9.6—12 s KE, = 0.5 x 0.3 x 0.032 = 1.35 x 10-45
constant velocity back . 50% of KE lost

1.2.4, 3:2.m s-! (b) 67% of KE lost

1.2.5 29.8 km s7! at 270° 1.3.4 1000 x (-6) + 4000 x 2 = 5000 v;

”. 5000v = 2000; .*. v= 0.8 ms“
1.2.6 (a) 29.8 km s-! at 270°
13:5 KE; a@sin 1.3°3;
(b) 19.0 km s~! at 90° KE) = 0.5 x 0.15 x (-0.02)2 + 0.5 x 0.3 x 0.042 = 2.7 x 104 J
(c) 26.9 km s~! at 225° 1.3.6 [F)=l42!. . N= 2 ". (p]=Ns QED
[A‘]'
WJEC AS Level Physics

1.3.7. (a) 1.4kN Section 1.5

(b) ~0.82 kN 1.5.1 23.5N m7!
(c) ~4 kN 1.5.2 200 um
1.3.8 Force = 200 N (so possibly, just) eshe ara0
73 ; 2
1.3.9 You can show that KE per second = 4? V ,~ {as for wind 1.5.4 “oe = Yee ae og = Yee = %re2E OED
turbine] + AKE =3 kW @
1.5.5
1.3.10 (a) Fon sand to right because Ap to right
(b) Fon belt to left by N3
shes] =Se ! >di __= kg ms? _kgms? , . Le. no units
al [liv|[4] kgm 3m2s2m2 kgms2 :
1.3.12 1. Contact force of sea lion on ball
2. Gravitational force of sea lion on Earth
1.5.6 Thickness halves
3. Contact force of back flipper of sea lion on ground
MiBO7= Gaps oo LOO00 & Cuca
4 Contact force of front flipper of sea lion on ground
5. Frictional force of back flipper of sea lion on ground Section 1.6
6. Frictional force of front flipper of sea lion on ground 1.6.1 (a) 970 nm

1.3.13 Contact force of (

sea lion on ball (
1.6.2 (
(
Gravitational (
force of Earth
on ball 1.6.3 ip 4Li
1.6.4 L=1x 4nd = 42.8 x 10° x 4x 2x (9.5 x 10!6)2 = 4.9 x 1027 W
1.3.14 1.0(4) ms?
L65 (a) 7.5 x 1029 m
1.3.15 72.0 kg [706 N]; 0
(b) ~ 80 kly
1.3.16 @#v Between B and C the
drag increases as the 1.6.6 690 000 km
air density increases.
1.6.7 Diameter = 9.34 x 10-3 x 150 x 10° km ~ 1.4 million km
1.6.8 7=3700 K;r ~ 6.0 million km
1.6.9 C-—Ho, F—HB;D—Nal;c,E—-Fel; K,H—Call; b— Mel
t
1.6.104... = 1.1mm: ..‘ T= W _= 2.898 x 10-3 Py
1.3.17 Taking a spread-eagled skydiver, estimating A = | m?: ae Amax 1.06 x 10-3
m= 90 kg; > Vien ~ 40 ms! Section 1.7
1.7.1 my ~ 0.94 GeV/c?
Section 1.4
1.7.2 f= 1.47 x 102° Hz; 2.04 pm; p= 3.3 x 10-2Ns5
1.4.1 Initially random vibrational energy of molecules in the rope
and winch. 1.7.3 2C:50%: Fe :54%: Au: 60% neutrons
1.4.2 614] 1.7.4 Neutron decay:
excess energy = 939.6 — (938.3 + 0.5) = 0.8 MeV
TAD) pa
m
ET
800
s5ins2 avis 2X 1.5 x 250 312m sl
Proton decay: My < My + me (+ my) .*. Not enough energy
1.4.4 1kWh=3.6MJ
1.7.5 LHS: 2, = 0; RHS: L,=0+1+(-1)=0. .. L, conserved
1.4.5 450kJ/0.125kWh
1.7.6 pretty, +¥,:
1.4.6 3.96 x 1019 J [= 39.6 EJ]
LHS: 1, =-1.RHS:£,=0+(-1)+0=-1. .. L,, conserved
alee kg ms? = m2. OED
1.4.7 (a) unit of the 0.3 term =
(b) 6.1 kW
PI] kem Sms? LHS: L, = 0; RHS: L, = (-1)+0+1=0. .*. LZ, conserved
Gh (a) Weak interaction; Neutrino involved which is only
affected by the weak interaction.
(b) Conservation of charge (+e on both sides),
[muon] lepton number (0 on both sides), quark number
(0 on both sides, but note a change of quark flavour
consistent with weak interaction)
 Poiod
bielReto) MarsLORSAYNAS)Act

Section 2.1 Zoned) y= s.92.V f= 1238)

2.1.1 6.25 x 1018 (b) 0.018 A, 3.67 V
a [REE intencenu
2.1.2 2.x 10!° electrons are transferred to the polythene rod. SETS gradient’ gradient
2.1.3 45 Ah expresses the charge = 162 kC | _ ____ gradient
2.3.14 E=
2.1.4 vis inversely proportional to 4, hence to diameter?. intercept’ intercept
Hence 4x the drift velocity = 0.48 mm s"!.
Section 2.4
Section 2.2 2A (Examples) Radiation from the sun; electricity

2.2.1 30MV 2.4.2 = Os

2.2.2 (a) 720 mW (0.72 W) 2.4.3 pis density; the unit is kg m3

(b) 216 C 2.4.4 (a) 0.1565

(CMiesuks (b) 1.6 Hz

vO 2.4.5 The horizontal axis represents time, so the peak-to-peak
interval cannot be a length. He should have said that this
represents the period.
The amplitude is the maximum displacement, so ‘maximum
amplitude’ is a tautology. He should have said that A was
the amplitude.
2.2.6 2%
2.4.6 0.6m
0.0063 2:0 Q
2.4.7 1/4 ~ 8 cm, So this is possible.
(a) Working resistance ~ 14 x Ro.
(b) Working temperature ~ 3200 K Section 2.5
Gradient = 8.29 Q m~!; diameter = 0.28 mm. 2.5.1 Roughly 25° on either side
2.5.2 The low frequencies have long wavelengths which spread
Section 2.3 out a lot by diffraction through the open window. The
2.3.1 (a) 36.5 Q higher frequencies, which are important for understanding
do not diffract to the same extent. Taking f> 3 kHz (for
(b) (i) 0.65 W
consonants) , this gives 2 < 0.1 m. Doorways and window
(ii) 2.47 W. Most power wasted in the resistor. gaps ~1 m, so diffraction spreading small.
8.3.Q 2.5.3 The string still has kinetic energy — just to the left of the
40,89, 180,362 centre line, the string is moving upwards; just to the right it
is moving downwards.
x=0.5A, y=0.4A
2.5.4 They do not affect each other.
aeAST NN
2.5.5 A=3.7 mm
Roughly 30°C S,;R = 31mm; S5R = 34.5mm; S,R-$,;R =3.5mm
The brighter the light, the lower the output voltage. “. agreement
(a) 0.27 A 2.5.6 $,U —S)U = 24; 8; V —S2V =2.5/
(b) 0.41 W (total) [0.37 W exported] Ps P 2.5.7 Path difference = 120 sin 30° = 60 m =2.5/. ... destructive
; (ae = 2 * interference.
Equations, using / = as 0.88 = LES and 0.28 = Cras
2.5.8 The intensity of the diffracted beams from the slits
Si = leew
7a OS® decreases with angle from the centre.
2.3.10 (Correct orientation) / = 1.75 A, V = 3.49 V; (cell wrong-way 2.5.9 Fringe spacing = 1.36 mm; A = 680 nm.
round) /=0.58A,V=1.16 V
2.5.10 470 nm
Baird
r 2.5.11 Slit width
2.5.12
WJEC AS Level Physics

2.5.13 Section 2.7

Node e
27.1 Bee = 016% 10s ie GeV.
Antinode o
2.7.2 All photons have the same energy (for a particular
frequency). A change in intensity will affect only the
number of electrons emitted, not their energy, because an
electron is only emitted by one photon.
2.7.3 (a)5.2eV =8.4 x 10719 J
(b) no electrons emitted
(c) same as (a).
2.7.4 (a) 1.5 x 104 photons s“! (b) 5.3 x 102! m~2
2.7.5 Iff=1 x 10!2 Hz,4=3 x 10-4 m=0.3 mm. So THz radiation
has a wavelength of less than | mm.
2.7.6 2.18 aJ
277 82136
a as
ene . Ge= 3.02 eV -= 4.84 x 10-1919 J

np) eee 6.630-34 x 3.0 x 108 m=411 nm.

E 4.84 x 10-19
Fig 1.6.12 gives Hé has A = 410 nm.
2.7.8 2x 10-13, 2 x 10-15, 2 x 10-18, 4 x 10-19, 2 x 10-29,
2 x 10-23, 2 x 10-27
2.5.14 2nd harmonic 4 Se ae
2.7.9 590 nm
2.7.10 410 fm

VC ee ea aa 2.7.11 1.3% 1077 N's.

2.7.12 (a) The momentum of the incident photons in Ar = AAAL
Sn = Mi
The momentum of the reflected photons in At = — a
2.5:19 (a)f;= 170 Hz; 6 =510-Hz
(b) With closed-end pipe: f, = 340 Hz and fp = 680 Hz *, The momentum change of the incident photons in
tee
j=!—2
lA
2.5.16 (a) % uncertainty ~ 9% (S:

(b) absolute uncertainty ~+50 nm *. The force exerted by the photons on the plane

2.0.17 a= 5 im — AP
At
_ 9/4
€
by 2 and N3
2.5.18 (a) d= 2.76 um *. The pressure exerted by the photons on the plane
(b) grating constant = 3.63 x 105 m7! = 3630 cm™!. foe
(S

Section 2.6 (b) pressure = =a

2.6.1 (a) deep = 2.5 cm, shallow = 1.5 cm

Section 2.8
(b) 23° 2.8.1 (a) 2.5 eV (0.4 aJ)
2.6.2 (a) 2.26 x 108m s7!
(b) 0.7 eV (0.11 aJ)
(b) 1.24 x 108 ms“!
(c) 1.8 eV (0.29 aJ)
2.6.3 29.6°
2.8.2 The pumping will produce a population in the P state. Any
2.6.4 (a) Ray emerges at 39°: weak reflected ray at 25° electrons which drop to U will quickly drop further to G,
so there will be a population inversion between P and U,
(b) Weaker refracted ray at 59°, stronger reflected ray at 35°
allowing stimulated emission to produce amplification.
(c) Total intemal reflection — strong reflected ray at 45°
2.8.3 0.72 (= 72%)
47.2°
ees Ae ge 8Ce .
2.8.4 For a laser operating with a constant beam, the rate of
sinc
="¢>. * ¢ = sin 1.62 = 09.8 production of photons must equal their rate of loss. Hence
a photon must travel ~ 280 lengths of the medium before
0.03 s, assuming the glass has a refractive index of 1.5.
stimulating an emission. This is 140 m in this case.
sin 6 = 0,0099998: tan 8 = 0.0100003
2.8.5 (a) Photon energy = 1.3 eV. Pumping voltage ~ 1.3 V
=
y, tan
=sin 82 MP = 5 x 10°5 = 0.005% (b) 8.6 x 1016 photons s71,
Uncertainty in n = +0.03 2.8.6 8.59 x 10719 J (5.37 eV)
 Exercise answers

Exercise 1.1 Using

x = ut+ 4Zat?,5=0+
%ax 12 ..a=10ms
1. (a) [G]= [FV ][M,.Ma)! = N m? kg? Maximum speed = 45 m s“!.
Distance travelled in first 90 s = 22.5 x 90 = 2025 m
(bk) N=kgms~. .. [(G]=kg ms? m2 kg? = kg! m3 s 2
Time at maximum speed = 100 s:
(a) V=kgm2s3A7!
Time to decelerate = 1800 / 22.5 = 80s
(b) Use R= 7 “Oe VAT =kems3 Aa
.. Total distance = 2025 + 4500 + 1800 m = 8325 m;
34 ke total time = 90 + 100 + 80 = 270s
2.2 x 10!! m [It could be 2.20 x10!! m if the original figure .. Mean velocity = 8325 m/ 270s = 30.8 ms"!
was to 3 s.f]
Av = 20V2 ms~! SE. .. (a) = 4V2= 5.7 ms? SE [i.e N135°
Circumference of Karth ~ 40 000 km — 85 000 kg
a) 1.0ms2
Taking right as positive: v;;; = 30 cos 30°= 26.0 ms! :
b) 250m
Vo = 20 cos 120° = -10.0 m s“!
c) [From gradient of tangent] -0.60 m s
Taking upwards as positive: vy = 30 sin 30° = 15.0ms_!;
d) Distance est = 355 m. (v)=8.9ms"!
Voy = 20 cos 30° = 17.3 ms
a) 123m,
(a) (vy + ¥9)q = 26.0 + (-10.0) = 16.0 m s7},
b) 49.1ms"1,
(vj + ¥2)y = 15.0 + 17.3 = 32.3 ms“!
c) 57.5ms-! at 59° to horizontal
—+ vy) + v7 = 36.0 ms! at 63.6° to horizontal
Estimate time = 0.25 s. Vertical speed at 0.25s=2.5 ms.
(b) (v7 — vj) = 10.0 - 26.0 = -36.0m st.
.. Horizontal speed = 2.5 m s~!. ... distance between vertical
(vy -v,)y = 17.3 - 15.0= 2.3 ms! lines 0.10 m
+ Vv) — v; = 36.0 ms! at 3.7° to left horizontal (a) 31.9m
[176.3° to right horizontal] (b) 2.54 s
(c) 43.3 ms-! horizontal
(a) 220m
Time = 40 s; distance = 1200 m
h against 72 : best fit straight line has gradient 4.25 (m s~2) and
intercept —0.045 (m) > g=8.5ms2
vh against ¢ : best fit straight line has gradient 2.21 (m°5 s~!)
and intercept —0.086 (m°5) — g=9.77 ms? and At ~ 0.04 s
=36.0m 5.
@ = tan“! 35 = 33.7° + same directions as in Q7 Exercise 1.3
(with a rounding error in Q7). AE (a) 800kgms"! (N s) to the right

2; 3.75 gcm 3/3750 kg m3 (b) 200N sto the right

10. (a) 100g (c) S80Ns

at N31°E

(b) 2.9 N [taking gas 9.81 ms !] 7190)

Let m be mass of a rider. Initial momentum = 2m x 6 = 12m;
Exercise 1.2 final momentum = 3m x 4 = 12m. Equal initial and final
momenta, .. as predicted
ie (a) 5.0ms!
(b) 4.4ms71 33%

(c) 4.7ms! [#0.5 (5.0 + 4.4)] (a) 28kNs

(d) 0.53 ms! downwards (b) 11.2 ms~! (in the direction of the first car), assuming
no resultant horizontal extemal force acts
(e) 18.9ms~! upwards
WJEC AS Level Physics

5.0ms! Ymv2 = 0.714mghy, 1.6. v =V1.428gh!

(a) 2.8x105 ms"! Time to drop a step height A» given by t= thy
(b) 3.4~x 107}3 J [~2.1 MeV]
‘,Horizontal distance= vt =V1.428gh, x 22 = V2.856h/o,
A17ms!;B18ms"! both in reverse directions to their
which is independent of g
original ones
(a) 84.9 m s7!
Change of momentum of football = [(— 25) — 30] x 0.45 =
24.75 N s. .. Mean force exerted by the wall on the ball is (b) Height = 92 m, range = 640 m
=*-2 = — 620 N [2.8.f] by N2, ie. — 620N in the original
Exercise 1.5
direction of the ball
L, (a) 24.5Nm!
.. By N3 the mean force exerted by the ball on the wall = —
(b) 0.078 J
(—620 N) = 620 N in the ball’s original direction
(Ce Oalisi/ard
10. (eg = 1lOms- Gn. = 4.5 DNS
Extension = 16.0 cm
(b) 8.4m s- at 22.6° to the 12 N force.
(a) 12.25Nm}
11, (a) 0.392N
oy sOsNS7 oD
(b) (i) 0.392 — T= 0.040a; (ii) T= 0.200a
(c) 0.304 J
(c) 1.63 ms2
(a) 0.885ms"!
12. (a) 49x 104ms
(b) 16.0 cm
(b) Assuming (Fyes) = 42Fmax — 186m s7!
[constant Fy., + 260 m ss (c) 9.81ms!
13. (a) Without air resistance b) With air resistance (a) end-to-end k = 12 N m“!. Total extension double for any
given load

coy.
(b) side-to-side k = 48 N m~!. Total load double for any
given extension
Frnax = 050 N, A/ = 0.14 mm
(a) 24.5N
(b) 156 GPa
14. (a) Graph of x/t against ¢ is a straight line,
The following table gives the masses, m, loads needed to
. constant acceleration
produce given deflections, x assuming Hooke’s law is obeyed:
(b) Gradient = 14.2 (cm s~2) “. acceleration = 28.4 cm s2
(c) 0.17 kg.
15. Gradient = 14.2 + 1.6 (cms) .. acceleration = 28 + 3 cms
(i.e. 11%), .. AM = + 0.02 kg. Supplementary question: by plotting a suitable graph,
show that m « x3.
Exercise 1.4 The deflection for ¢ = 1.0 x 107-3 is 4.47 cm, which is
1: (a) 540 kJ produced by a load of 1120 g.

(b) 5.0 kJ (a) 58900N

(a) S00 kJ (b) 295 kJ
(b) 5.0kN (Cl 74m

(a) 16.7kJ (a) 540m

(b) 19.8ms7! Any surface scratch will close up and not be under tension
until the glass is stretched so that the compression in the
(c) 62N
surface layer is overcome.
(a) 0.5 J
Ta = Tp; Al = 2Al4; OR = C4; Ep = 284;
(b) 16ms-! assuming all PE transferred to KE in sphere Energyp = 2xEnergy,.

(a) 1.62ms"! 3ZE

(b) 42.9° assuming no loss in energy, i.e. same height Ty
4. OE. :
as originally (0.134 m) ee 3 ING
ene 1 = INGY
2 Cdl By)
18)= By

1.69m Energy in 1 = 2 x Energy in 2.

Horizontal velocity after rolling down a height /, given by Ay + &
13. Ege =
 Exercise answers

Exercise 1.6 Exercise 1.7

1. (a) 1.2 x 1025 W 1. (a) “Ey = E, = 500 eV; Ey = 1000 eV [1 keV]
(b) 120 nm b) Ep=£,=8x 10773; y= 1.6 x10716)
Ao cS 104 Ax, Is ~ “Tx, a) 1.674 x 10-27 kg
1 Lo ~ 104-5 104 Le ~ 40Ls;
pr Le = 356 . Ao= 4 b) 940.6 MeV/c?
Using Wien's law Amax ~ (a) 0.3 mm ) Electron neutrino v,. Must be neutral (conservation
(b) 3pm of charge) and L, = 1.
(c) 30nm
(b) Weak decay because it involves the neutrino (strong
(d) 300 pm
and e-m interactions don't affect neutrinos).
This suggests (a) microwave
(c) Conservation of mass/energy would be violated
(b) (far) IR
~My, > Mp.
(c) UV
(d) X-ray Ao > p +m /udd > uud + ud
The intensity axis needs to be shrunk by a factor of ~100 At —+n+a*/uud—
udd + ud
(~34) and the wavelength axis needs to be expanded by a At+ + p+ a*/ uuu > uud + ud
factor of ~3.
Very short decay time; quark flavour conserved.
Dred giant = 10° x Lied dwarf: “- At same distance the red giant
appears 10° x as bright. To reduce the brightness of the red (a) The long decay time and change of quark flavour both
giant by a factor of 104 (so it only appears 102 x as bright) it indicate a weak interaction.
needs to be moved 10? x the distance. So the red giant is 100 (bl) A°4p+m /uds>uud+udor
times as far away as the red dwart. A°> n+ 729 / uds > udd + uu (or dd)
Nearly all the hydrogen outside stars has been used up (or (c) Must be the second one because a z— cannot decay
blown away by radiation pressure). into two photons (conservation of charge).
21 cm emission is only from neutral hydrogen atoms. (a) Neutron in Cl-37 is changed into a proton. Number of
protons increases by 1; number of neutrons
Visible light, of wavelength 0.4—0.7 um, is strongly scattered
decreases by 1.
by interstellar dust. IR radiation, especially far IR, has a
longer wavelength than the size of the dust particles so is not (b) n+ve>pt+e /udd+v,— uud + e~
scattered by them and can therefore better penetrate the dust
(c) Weak interaction .. unlikely to occur.
clouds within which the stars are being formed.
[Slightly unfair question!]. The reactions n + \
foal es and
Amax ~ 10 um so observations in the far IR shown a stronger
n+yv,—p+t-—are both possible but only if the neutrinos
emission if the star is surrounded by such a disc than in its
have enough energy. The w” and t~ particles are much
absence.
heavier than electrons: solar neutrinos do not have enough
The black body radiation from the stars contains photons with energy to create these particles.
the correct energy to raise the energy of electrons within the
(a) X must be a meson because the total quark number
hydrogen atoms to the first and second excited states. These
cannot change. It starts off as zero [1 + (-1)] so the
excited atoms drop down into lower energy states, by emitting
products must have 0. The m* has a quark number of
the characteristic wavelengths as they do so.
zero, SO X must also have 0. It therefore consists of a
10. The hot spot emits X-rays with a wavelength of around 300 pm quark-antiquark pair, i.¢. it is a meson. By conservation
(see Q3). Hence, a burst of X-rays will be observed once in of charge it must be a 7°.
each revolution (i.e. ~ once per second). If the observer is
(b) The decay is us > ud + uu (or dd)
directly in the plane of the accretion disc, this might not be
observed because of absorption within the disc.

Exercise 2.1 6. t (20 -10 mC) = 8.3 s: t (27 — 13.5 mC) = 8.5 s;
t (12-6 mC) =8.0s. .. All very close to equal times.
cf 41.47 x 10-7 C [14.7 aC] t (24-6 mC) = 19.0-3.0 = 16.0. .. %-life = 8.0 s.
2 3.93 x 10°C
(a) Ionic volume = 1.047 x 10739 m3
3. 100 pA Pies 3 = 2.9 x1030 m3
4 (a) 110C
1.047 x 10-30 a eee
(b) 100mAh = 360C, so the label is misleading (6) 27 10° ms
(a) 1.3mA 0.1 ms"!
(b) ~2.0 mA [from the gradient at t = 0]
 WJEC AS Level Physics

O.- NB Lee, A yi 10-66 mms 7. Pes !N_ where vis the fraction of the speed of light.
(a) -y
“. Graph as shown
.OTR Rearranging:
iavoy! If v= I 5)
lite N Ifv<0.
< 0.14
v/mm s-!
Py? _ Py
then 1 “BE < 0.0196, .*. Pat > 0.9804,

-, PN 5 0.99 QED.
PE
(i) ~5 kV (i) ~9 MV
See graph. NB Ideally it should be plotted on a 10 x 10 grid.

(b) ~80 squares under '2-cycle

Each square =1x 103sx0.05mms!
=5x10°mm
. Drift distance ~ 0.004 mm. (4 um)
Comment: The electrons each travel much further than this
by their own random thermal motion. The magnitude of this
distance emphasises the point that the electrons in wires all
move in concert.

Exercise 2.2
1. (a) 109A
(by) 212
2 (a) 27kWimUK
(bo) 2.3 kW in Germany. The kettle will take ~ 20% longer
to boil in Germany.
(b) Ro max = 11.40 [Q]
3. 60 W bulb current = = a1n = 0.25 A. .. Both bulbs take Ro min = 11.05 (Q]
0.25 A, so should operate OK in series.
Ry =11.23 0.152
Warning: Do not try this at home! If these two bulbs are
connected in series to a 240 V supply and the current abruptly ies 18.60 = 11.05 - 0.0755
switched on, the torch bulb will explode. This is because the
resistance of the bulbs is much less at room temperature than pee 18.8 140 ~ 0.0698
at the operating temperature, so the initial current is much
higher. The mains bulb is designed to allow for this. “. m= 0.073 + 0.003 [Q K7!]

4. (a) 0.8W (i) Unit: °C-! or Ko!

(b) 1 keV (=1.6 x 10716 J)
Ro 11.23 + 0.16
(c) 19x 107 ms
= (6.5 + 0.4) x 1073 K7!
(d) 0.76 mA [= 95% of 0.8 mA]
This is consistent with iron.
(a) 1.71x10-3Ns
If the graph remained linear at low temperatures, the
(b) The electrons collide with the anode, passing on their
resistance would become zero at = —154°C.
kinetic energy and raising its temperature. The power
given up is 95% of 0.8 W = 0.76 W, Hence the graph cannot be linear.
(c) Change of momentum of photons per second is 9. At low voltages the power will be very low and so
1.71 x 10°23 x 95% x 5 x 1015 N = 81 nN. the temperature will be approximately constant.
By N2, this is the force exerted by the anode on the Thus Ohm's law will be obeyed. At higher voltages
electrons. So by N3 the electrons exert an opposite the temperature will increase, raising the resistance,
force of 81 nN on the anode. so Ohm's law will not be obeyed. The operating
temperature is expected to be ~ 2000 K or more (to
6. 1.4x106ms!
give a whitish emission).
 Exercise answers

(b ) The series variable resistor is only needed in the low

voltage range. Below 2 V the resistor is adjusted:
sez

increasing its resistance y

Sos

ere
eras

Boda
s
ook
oad

go

decreases the current in the

ee a,

Gc

oO

1nvV/"
oO

Hey
=e

Dp ees
A,

aes
oO
©

eS
1c

Sh
GE

V <2 V to be obtained.

(C) From the graph of / against

V
(above) ? the behaviour changes at ~ 1.2 V.
0 'V
2.0 Q at low temperatures
LES

6.2 Q at operating voltage.

() Transition voltage ~ 1.03 V. Above this the graph

(above right ) is almost a straight line but with a slight
downward curve. Suggesting that the value of n is
slightly less than 0.6.

(f) Table of In values of / and V’.

Exerc ise 2 3
(a) To 8 I69 = Yall, Igo = Al

(d) (i) 4.5. V (ii) 0.675

! W

Using the dotted triangle: gradient =

2, Linw/i Ink+ninV 3. 10.7 m

Ink In J intercept —0.66

cae 0.52, i.e. (//A) = 0.52 ( y/v)p-54
Cross over when In V 0.16
wea 1.17V(2 WOA GE )
WJEC AS Level Physics

10. (a) 1009, (b) 442

11. (a) 65V, (b) 96.0mA
12. Method 1 (following the hint, using the additional red graph):
look for the pd, V, for which the currents add to 80 mA. At 3.0
V, Ip = 30.0 mA and Ig ~ 51 mA (actually a little more) so the
required voltage is a little less than 3.0 V (2.90 V?)
I/mA

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 J/A_ 1.0

7. pdacross R, = /R;;
pd across R> = (J — [pyt)Ro

Vin = IR, + UZ -Lout)Ro (1]

and Vout =U — Lou)

Re [2]

From (1) 1 = Vin + ou

Ri + Ry Suscaaacsanaangasae
Substituting into [2] for /— 0 D 4 6 VIV

Va +four
Vin lo Ro. 13. Method 1 (as in Q12): look for the current, /, for which the pds
R, + Ry add to 10 V. At /=56 mA, Vp = 5.6 V and Vz = 4.4 V, so this
which rearranges to Vout = Vinton 7 Rik is the required current.
out °

Te) Boag A more elegant method for Os 12 and 13:

“. By comparison with V = E ~ Ir: 12. Ifthe current through the bulb is /p, the current through
: V,,R> the resistor is 0.08 — /g , so the pd, Vp, across the resistor
Equivalent emf = Rare and equivalent internal is given by Vg = 8 — 100IB. For /g in mA, this gives Jp =
. RR 80 — 10Vp. This is the equation of the dotted line labelled
resistance = nea 12. The required answer is where this line crossed the bulb
ia characteristic, i.e. 2.90 V, fg = 51.0 mA, .. Ig = 29.0 mA.
8. fa) 1502 13. Ifthe pd across the bulb is Vp, the pd across the resistor is 10 —
(b) Red LED: 150 Q, 180 Q; Vg. So the current in the bulb is (10-Vg)/100. So 7in mA given
Yellow LED: 120 Q, 150 Q, 180 Q: by /= 100 — Vg. This is the equation of the dotted line labelled
Green LED: 100 Q. 120 Q. 150 Q: 12. The required answer is where this line crosses the light bulb
Blue LED: 100 Q, 120 Q. characteristic, i.e. /= 56.0 mA, Vg = 4.40 V «. Vp = 5.60 V
uemicradient 65020003 Ona 14. The lower the external resistance, the lower the terminal pd.
Two ways of using the data are:
Intercept = 0.02 + 0.01 2
neo (a) Plot agraph of V against /, using the relationship
csa = (7.77 + 2%) x 1078 m2 V=E-Ir:
p= a = A x gradient (bo) Plot a graph oft against - using the relationship
“. p = (5.05 + 0.05) x 10-7 m lp ale eras
ee JE TE Te
Assume the uncertainties in V are negligible. The
percentage uncertainty in the resistance values is 2%, so
that is also the percentage uncertainty in 7 and 1/R. The
table gives the data required to draw both graphs. The
graph of V against /is reproduced at the top of the next page.

a [8.065[ooo [aos [oo [ooo [ooo |a00r

 Exercise answers

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 12 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 I/A

Exercise 2 4
(a) wavelength 0.400 m; amplitude 6.00 mm

(b) The distance travelled is not known: it could be

0.08 m, 0.48 m, etc.
(c) 320ms_!.

(d) i 800 Hz; 7 = 1.25 ms

(a) (i) 0.100 m, 0.300 m, 0.500 m , 0.700 m;
(ii) 0.200 m, 0.600 m;
(iii) 0.000 m, 0.400 m , 0.800 m.
(b) Vertical speed gradient x horizontal speed
~ 25 -—30ms_! (max gradient where graphs cross axis).
Intensity
3. (i) 0.55 m, 0.95 m, 1.35 m 1.75 m
(ii) Osis, Oo7syian, Ipileyinn. leave) 10m

4. (a) = 1.00 cm, (b) 500 Hz ° (c) 0.002 s

(d) On expanded diagram: mean separation of planes

0.88 cm. Maximum deviation from mean separation
0.31 mm. This represents 0.029 cm on actual size diagram.

5. From the information , = 2.5 Hz and T 0.4 s. 2n Olrad

so

(a)
0.20 m 360 a”
(b) Gradient
~ 0.64 m°
AAAAAAAAAAA

0.20
-« Vmax a5).0) 1.56ms =]
~ 0.64

For A level candidates who have done shm:

the equation of motion of a point in the wave is given
byx A sin (27ft + €). The velocity is given by
V= 2nfA cos (2nft — é) SO Ving = 2a = 1:57 m's 1
in good agreement with the graphical method.

8. A 10 cm; O= 1000z
= 3140 (rad) gl po =H.
WJEC AS Level Physics

(a) The slit separation, x = 0.64 mm.

Exercise 2.5
a (a) Diffraction (b) ~ 10 fringes. The interference pattern is mainly visible in
the central diffraction maximum. 10 x 2 mm gives 2 cm.
(b) The point at O receives diffracted waves from both
slits. The waves add by superposition. The waves (c) (i) The central maximum would be ~ 1.6 cm wide
are in phase because the path lengths from the two and would contain 10 fringes 1.6 mm apart. Both
slits are equal. Because of this the waves interfere the diffraction and interference pattern spreads are
constructively, i.e. the resultant amplitude is twice proportional to the wavelength.
the amplitude in part (a) — so the intensity is 4 x the (ii) No interference pattern is seen but the diffraction
intensity in part (a), pattems overlap to give a mixture of red and green
(c) As the probe moves towards P the probe continues to (appearing as yellow) in the centre shading to red at
receive waves from both slits but the waves from the the edges where the green diffraction pattern central
slits are increasingly out of phase because the path fringe finishes.
length from the bottom slit is greater than from the (iii) The interference pattern is not affected but is half
top slit. When this path difference is 1/2 the waves the intensity because of the absorption of the light
are exactly out of phase an so (almost) cancel each which is polarised at right angles.
other out. Further motion in the same direction results
(iv) No interference pattern is seen. Two light beams
in the waves approaching / path difference at which
at right angles cannot superpose to give a zero
point they fully reinforce again. This effect is called
resultant. [NB. It is instructive to investigate a photon
interference.
explanation for this effect.|
(d) Young formula A = 2.94 cm; Pythagoras 4 = 2.76 cm.
The Young formula which is derived for d >> D gives
Exercise 2.6
quite an accurate answer even when d= 8 cm and
DIETS cms
i (él) ff SOOIRY

Angles for the known wavelengths are consistent with a (Bb). (yes i siaom
grating slit separation of 2.02 x 10-6 m. Using this value, (c) 22.5° to normal
the wavelength for the mystery line is 546 nm, in good
(d) 11.0° to normal
agreement.
2. Ray emerges from middle of opposite face (4.02 cm from top)
(a), (b) Diffraction pattern for the shorter wavelength light
at 45° below the normal.
is more compressed. The extent of the pattern is
proportional to the wavelength. The intensity scale for the 3. Angles of incidence on the horizontal boundaries are
450 nm pattern is not to the same scale as the 650 nm. respectively: 54.7°, 61.0°, 70.4°. TIR occurs at the boundary
between the 1.30 and 1.20 layers, with an angle of incidence
of 70.4°.
4. Refractive index = __!eal depth _
apparent depth
= (15.54 4 0.01)— (12.52 20.01) — 1 5940.03
(15.54 + 0.01) — (13.64 + 0.01)
5. Because it relies on the accuracy of focusing, which is a
judgement.
6. (See graph on next page.) With these max/min lines
Max = 1.586
Min = 1.435
7 =e eS
(c) Slit width ~ 0.33 mm.
7. (a) A,=464nm
=188 + 3 mm (uncertainty 1.4%) A, = 261.0m
SS
oS
~vyss3ltims! (b) angle between red and violet rays = 1.6°
The equations are: 188+3=-4—eand 516 +3=74-¢ ch 6 (8) -@=75uils
Subtracting and multiplying by 27 1=776+ 12 mm= (b) 2.4 ns
0.776 + 0.012 m. This gives v = 341+5ms"!
(c) Bits which are less than ~3 ns apart could start to
Andé=8+6mm! overlap. .*. Max safe bit rate ~ 108 bit s~! (0.1 Gbps)

v= [wth T'=mg and z= "4,sov= ee

Exercise 2.7
For the fundamental vibration, the standing wave has 1. 1.0x 101754
2. 21000
2h (6) ils GW
(b) 1.0eV
 The photon energy of the 3 x 10!4 Hz radiation is
2.0 x 10719 J. This is less 2.5 eV; indeed it is less than
the work function. Hence no electrons are emitted by
these photons. The photon energies do not combine:
photons cannot co-operate to cause photo-emission.
(d) 1.0 V. The electrons would lose 1.0 eV with this pd.
4. Assuming 400 nm — 700 nm wavelength range: 2.8 x 10719 J
(1.8 eV) —5.0 x 10719 J (3.1 eV).
5. The visible photons (up to 3.1 eV) are energetic enough to
promote the 1s2s electrons to the 1s2p, 1s3s and 1s4s energy
levels but not the 1s5s level. In falling down the energy levels (b) The second photon has the same frequency and
only the 1s4s — 1s2s transition is in the range 1.8 eV —3.1 eV polarisation as the first and is in phase with it.
and gives rise to a visible photon (2.1 eV, 590 nm). If some
electrons are promoted to the 1s5s level either by a subsequent
sf The 3p state needs to be shorter lived than the 5s because it
needs to empty quickly, so that its population is always less
absorption or by UV photons, then visible photons with of energy
than that of the 5s.
2.6 eV (480 nm) from the 1s5s — 1s3s transition are possible.
633nm: 5s > 3p; 1.15 um: 4s > 3p; 3.39 wm: 5s — 4p (shorter
The electrons behave as waves. These waves are
wavelength = greater energy difference)
diffracted by the gaps in the planes and the diffracted
waves interfere. 633 nm: visible (red); 1.15 tm and 3.39 um: IR
(Sass 105 /tan, Ap = 20.28 eV
(c) First order: 9.4°, 0.165 rad; 5.0 cm from midpoint 4s = 19.85 eV
Second order: 19.2°, 0.334 rad 10.4 cm from midpoint
Sy oy Nes MY
Te A= ue oe The values of E;, are the same: SK = (Gy EY
P 2mEx

de = |Me = 42.8
A
350 nm, near UV

A helium atom in the excited state collides with a neon

Spem ie? atom in the ground state. The excited electron in the helium
. 4.8 x 105 m2. [= area of a square of side ~700 m] atom transfers energy to a ground state electron in the neon,
promoting it to the 5s state.
10. gradient = (1.29 + 0.07) x 10° Vm
(a) 33V : oy
+ h=(6.9+0.4) x 104 J s. 12;35,6V
(b) 33 eV
Exercise 2.8 (c) (see sketch)
1. (a) Aninelastic collision is one in which kinetic energy is lost. (d) 20.65 V
(b) A metastable state is one which lasts a relatively long
10. 58 (max)
time before decaying into a lower energy state.
 Exam practice answers

1 (a) (i) Mean speed = Total] distance travelled (iii) Velocity at 2.0 s. Assuming Fres * V,
; time [taken] ae
Ti taken for first 6 km
i ) Time
(ii) =peOROletiinnes
tien 0.0667 h
8)
F..Tes (2.0 18.5
= 96N
=73° x 132
10 km = 921+ 96N=1017N
.. Driving force at 2.0s
Minimum total time for 10 km = RO an OM2Sih
. Power output = 1017 x 13.5 W = 13.7kW
.. Minimum time for the last 4 km =
(d) Work done by braking force = decrease in kinetic energy
0.125 — 0.0667 = 0.0583 h
« Fx 25=%x
350 x 18.52
= 59 900 J
.. Maximum speed for last 4 km =
“. Force = 2400 N.
=e-KM
Tin Co a
(b) (i) The resultant force steadily decreases from its initial 2, (a) tensile stress, o = ——lensiieload_____mg _ dmg
maximum value, reaching zero at ~ 7.0 s. After this cross-sectional area Vind? nd
time the resultant force is zero. tensile strain. eo clease in lengthy _ Al
original length ae
Young modulus, E = 2
S

2, ES 4mg x lo = 4mglo
me Al xl

. (re-arranging) A/ = 4lom
240" OED
( Se eB
(b) (i) length, / ,
i

(ii) mg = Ao, & mounts x 10-2) 2 <5 0h 10° 1. 8kg

4x 9.81
(ili) For this length of wire, using o = 250 MPa and
B= 200:'GRa:
Acceleration at 2.0 s = gradient of tangent at 2.0 s é= na .. the maximum extension, Aljax =
+ Uommissl. o
Serre foo
iE
_ XS
4.0 x 250 x 10° _ 9.005 m= 5 mm
. Resultant force, F = ma = 350 x 2.63 = 921 N 200 x 10
— If the mm scale is read by the naked eye, the best
(c) (i) Power = work done per unit time uncertainty is + 0.5 mm, giving a percentage
= Work done _ (force x distance) per unit time uncertainty of 10%.
time taken mtn
If the diameter is measured using a digital micrometer,
= Force x distance moved per unit time the uncertainty is + 0.01 mm, giving a percentage
(for force and motion in same direction) uncertainty of 3%. This is squared in the calculation.
= hy Hence the minimum percentage uncertainty in
(ii) 2450 W = Fx 18.5 ms"! the value of E is ~16%, which is rather poor. If
245 A/ is measured using a travelling microscope to
“ Fres =Tg5 = 132.N + 0.01 mm, the total percentage uncertainty could
be as low as 8%.
 Exam practice answers

(iv) L The extension A/ is proportional to /p so the Around ¢;, the radius is again roughly constant
percentage uncertainty in A/ will be lower, but the luminosity is falling, implying that the
Il. The extension is inversely proportional to, A, temperature is falling.
the cross-sectional area of the wire. However, the (ii)SS At point A on the luminosity graph, i.e. at time ¢,,
maximum load is also inversely to 4 so these effects the luminosity is roughly constant but the radius
cancel out and reducing the diameter of the wire is increasing, suggesting that the temperature is
has no effect on the uncertainty in the value of E. If falling. Thus the maximum temperature must be
we consider the uncertainty in the value of A itself in between ¢, and t,. At point B on the luminosity
the smaller the diameter the greater the percentage graph, i.e. time fp, the luminosity is again roughly
uncertainty ind and hence 4 [pa = 2pg]. This will constant but the radius is decreasing suggesting
increase the uncertainty in £. that the temperature is rising. Thus ti, Must be
between f, and fp.
5 2 nati tr
Pa= 0.979 = 0.018; p) = 7535 = 0.001 (which is negligible)
0.06
Peradient = GRage = 0.047 (a) The electron and the electron neutrino are fundamental
particles — leptons.
ee ee A SASORI I
na@ gradient ~ 7X (0.272 x 1032-:1.27x 103 The proton and the x meson are hadrons: they are
composed of quarks. The composition of the proton is
= 2.04 x 1011 Pa
uud (two up-quarks and one down-quark); the z- meson
Pp=2 x 0.018 + 0.001 + 0.047 = 0.084, is composed of ud (anti-up quark and down quark).
., AZ =+ 0.084 x 204 GPa =+ 17 GPa
(i) Only one of the protons in the iBe nucleus is
.. The Young modulus, £ = 200 + 20 GPa [could also be involved. One of its up quarks is turned into a down
expressed as 204 + 17 GPa| quark, transforming the proton into a neutron.
hence: u+e7-A d+v,
(i) Amax = 420 nm from the graph. Or, including the other quarks: uud + e~ > udd + v,

.. Using Wien's law: T (ii)oe The weak interaction is involved:

_= wr
2.898 x 103mK _eee 6900 K o~ 7000 K 1: There is a change of quark flavour (u to d).
see
2: A neutrino in involved and neutrinos only feel the
1) eeae, a
(i) 2,898-x-10-
1 m K _ll 5470 K
weak force.
(iii) Conservation of charge is illustrated. Taking the
(iii) In the visible range [~400 — 700 nm] the spectral
u+e-—d+-v, form of the reaction, the total charge
intensity is approximately constant at the lower
on the left is %4e + (-e) = —%e : on the right, the total
temperature, giving 6 Cep a white appearance.
charge is -%4e + 0 = —e.
At the higher temperature, the intensity graph is
skewed towards the low wavelength end giving Conservation of quark number: one quark on each
it a bluish colour. side [or three if considering the form of the equation:
uud + e- > udd + v,]. Alternatively, baryon number is
Surface area, A =4n 72 = a2.
a
conserved: one baryon on each side of the equation.
From Stefan's law: L = md? oT
The mass gain in the reaction is:
erie eee 1.46
x 1030 36.966 77 u — 36.965 90 u = 0.00087 u
a T2 4 20 69002 ¥ 5.67
x 10-8x
Converting to SI units, Am = 0.00087 x 1.67 x 10°27 kg
= 6.0 x 10!9 m [60 million km] = 1.45 x 10-30 kg
The energy required to create this Am is
1.45 x 103° x (3.00 x 108)2 = 1.31 x 10713J
Hence the neutrinos in part (b) cannot be detected by
this means.
For an initial velocity (w) of 0 the equations become:
Paso {dll
and x= mi [2]

Substituting for v from [1] into [2] — x= a

time “x = Yat? OED
»
Tax ala From (117=~.a Substitute into (2\ torr x=2~Y%=2—
Poh Re)
(i) Around fg the radius is roughly constant (it is the Rearranging a — 2ax = v?, i.e. v2 = 2ax OED
minimum of the radius curve) and the luminosity is
rising. This implies that the temperature is nsing.
WJEC AS Level Physics

(c) The vertical component of the velocity when the stone

hits the ground is given by
vy =V2gh =V2 x 9.81 x 40 = 28.0 msl.

28.0

The horizontal projection velocity vy is given by:

(i) The scale is 1 cm = 20 N
tan 60° = 28.0
The resultant force is 179 N [180 N] at 26.6° [27°] to VH
the 120 N force. eo =16.2ms!
tango"
(ii) Vector quantities.

1. (a) Metals conduct electricity because they possess free 3)

electrons [a.k.a. conduction electrons or delocalised
electrons] which are free to move through the lattice of
positive metal ions. They possess resistance because
the conductions electrons interact with the lattice ions,
colliding with them and transferring energy. The higher resistance/Q
the temperature, the stronger the vibrations of the
lattice ions and the stronger the interaction between the
conduction electrons and the ions. If a pd is applied the
effect of the increased interaction strength is to reduce
the drift velocity of the electrons, reducing the current
and therefore increasing the resistance.
(i) The thermometer is in the water, which is unlikely
to be at exactly the same temperature as the copper
coil. When the water is being heated, the temperature
of the coil is likely to be lower than that of the water,
when it is cooling down, the converse is true. Hence
taking the mean of heating and cooling resistances
is likely to achieve a value which more accurately
reflects the true resistance at that temperature.
(iia Including the thermometer in the test tube, 100
temperature/°C
alongside the coil, would help because the
temperature reading should accurately reflect the Roa = gradient = 0.095 + 0.0008 Q K"!
temperature of the coil. , We. ee
=F 40- = 3.96% 102K
(iii) See labelled graph
0.05 0.0008
(iv) It is possible to draw straight lines through all Pro = 2-40 = 0.021; Porad = 0.0095 = 0.084
the error bars, so the data are consistent with a
linear relationship between RX and @, which can be , Py = 0.021 + 0.084 = 0.105
expressed in the form: R = Ro (1 + aA) Absolute uncertainty in a = 0.105 x 3.96 x 1073
From the graph: R(0°) range = 2.35 Q - 2.442 = 0.4 x 103 K7! (to 1 s.f)

and R(100°) range = 3.31 Q — 3.38 Q

a = (4.0 + 0.4 x 1073) K-
aoe 2.44 3 2.35, 2.44 5 2.35 _ 4 40 +0.05Q (c) (i) The resistance in such materials decreases with
temperature. As the temperature is reduced below
max gradient = 338—2:35 - 0.9103 9K"! the superconducting transition temperature (7),
all electrical resistance disappears, as shown in
and min gradient = sel act = 0.0087 OK"! the graph.
 Exam practice answers

(a) (i) Level P 12.9 eV

Level U 10.8 eV
pumping

Level L 5.9 eV
1)
(ii) The most common use for superconductors is in
the coils of electromagnets, in MRI machines or in Ground state, G 0
particle accelerators, such as the LHC in CERN.
(ii) The photon energy is 12.9 eV. To cause the upward
The advantage of using superconductors is that transition, the photon energy must exactly match
large currents are possible without energy losses the difference in the energies of the two levels. This
through ohmic heating in the coils. As well as the is 12.9 eV.
energy costs, the heat generated would necessitate
(iii) Laser photon energy = 10.8 —5.9 eV =4.9 eV
additional resources to remove it.
= 7.84 x 10-19 J.
es Ne ee 6.63 x 10-4 x 3.00 x 108 _ 453 nm
2. (a) The principle of superposition states that, whenever 7.84 x 10
two waves altive at (or pass through) a point, the total (iv) When electrons are pumped to level P, they drop
displacement produced by the waves is equal to the vector down very quickly to level U, where they stay
sum of the displacements produced by the individual waves. for a long time. Any that drop down to level L
16.0 mm spontaneously, very quickly leave this level. Because
(b) (i) The fringe separation, Ay = 8
of this the population of level U, caused by the
aby . ,-4D_ _ 650 x 10-9 x 2.00 pumping, is higher than level L, i.e. there exists a
D Ay 2.0 x 103 population inversion.
= 0.00065 m = 0.65 mm Once the population inversion is established, a
(ii) For the pattern to be observed, the beams of light from 4.9 eV photon, e.g. from a spontaneous emission
the two slits must overlap, so that the light received between U and L, which is incident on an atom in
on the screen is from both slits. The slits need to be level U will cause the atom to drop to level L by
narrow so that significant diffraction occurs at the stimulated emission (see diagram).
slits. If the slits are close together and the screen is U-—e——-_—*U
distance the two diffracted beams overlap, allowing
interference between the beams to occur. wy a2
4.9eV
The path difference between the light from the two WM Ww 4.9 eV
slits and a point on the screen needs to be only a
small number of wavelengths of light — and this
path difference must change by a whole wavelength —_—_—— L
(~650 nm) if the point on the screen changes by
~ Imm. This is only possible if the distance from the This process results in two photons, where
slits to the screen is large. previously there was one, i.e. amplification has
occurred.
(iii) The angle through which the light diffracts at the slits
is proportional to the wavelength, so the width of the The weight of the spheres
central part of the diffracted beam would be less. The foes,
= BR PS
separation between the fringes is also proportional to
the wavelength, so the same number of fringes would = $n (0.05 x 10°3)8 x 1.5 x 105 x 9.81
be observed in this narrower pattern: the 9 fringes
would occupy ~ 12 mm rather than 16 mm. =7.70x 10°N

650
(c) (i) Wavelength in mica = ESS 430 nm.
; 0.1 mm
Thickness of mica = naG an 230 wavelengths.
Photon momentum = 5 = Ht = =.where £ is the
(iia The results of the superposition at a point of the photon energy.
waves from the two slits depends upon their
.. Momentum change per photon on collision = —2 2
phase when they reach that point. The waves
which pass through the mica have passed through If intensity of beam = /, then the number of collision
more wavelengths (~230) than the ones which ; HE
pass though air (~150). Because of this the pattern per second on a dis¢ of area 4 is E
is shifted by ~ 80 fringes. It is unlikely that this . The momentum change of the photons per second
difference will be a whole number of fringes so the Ldn IA
patter will be observed to move. Peds
WJEC AS Level Physics

Note:
i.e. by N2 and N3 the force exerted on the disc= 2 a
There are other ways of tackling this, e.g.
2 Ix 1m (0.05 SOs 3) = GLTK 10-9 « the pd across the 15 Q resistor = 3.0 V (as above)
3.00 x 108 « the effective resistance of the 10Q/15Q
». 1=1.5 x 108
W m2. combination = 6 Q
= by ratios the pd across the 12 Q resistor = 2 x 3.0
(ii) Intensity of sunlight at the Sun's surface = = 6.0) Viet:
oT* = 5.67 x 10-8 x 60004 = 0.73 x 108 W m2
——‘=r
a
Every second the energy transferred to the external
i.e. the laser intensity must be twice the intensity of circuit = /V = 0.5 A x 9.0 V =4.5 W.
sunlight at the Sun’s surface.
2/3 of this is transferred in the 12 Q resistor, i.e.
(iii) Even a small percentage absorption of the laser 3.0 W. Of the remaining 1.5 W, 2/5 is transferred in
photons will cause massive heating of the spheres the 15 Q resistor (0.6 W) and the remainder (0.9 W)
and therefore lead to their evaporation. in the 10 Q resistor. This power is transferred as heat
to the surroundings.

4. (a) (i) The potential difference, ’, between two points is The energy transferred in the internal resistance per
the energy transfer per unit charge when a charge is second = 2r = 0.52 x 2=0.5 W.
moved between the two points. The energy transferred from chemical energy in the
mG battery per second is 4.5 W + 0.5 W = 5.0 W
(ii) [= a ie = 0.0015
A (1.5 mA).
x
(iii) The total resistance in the circuit increases because of
(iii) Mean pd = % x 120 kV = 60 kV the removal of an additional path, so the total current in
.. Energy transfer = 60 kV x 1.2 wC = 72 mJ (0.072 J) the circuit decreases. The pd across the cell increases
as a consequence of V = E — /r and the pd across the
(b) (i) The pd across the 10 Q resistor = 0.3 x 10 = 3.0 V. 12 Q resistor also decreases because of the reduced
.. The pd across the 15 Q resistor = 3.0 V current. The pd across the 10 Q resistor increases
because the terminal pd of the battery increases and
.. The current in the 15 Q resistor = a =0.20A
the pd across the 12 Q resistor decreases.
.. Current in the 12 Q resistor = 0.30 + 0.20 = 0.50A
.. pd across the 12 Q resistor = 0.50 x 12 = 6.0 V
“. pd across the battery= pd across 12 Q resistor
+ pd across 10 Q resistor = 6.0+3.0=9.0 V.
 Quantities and units 00 14.4 Energy and power
12 LZ Checking equations for 56 1.4.5 Dissipative forces and
homogeneity energy
12 ii: Scalar and vector 98 es) Hooke’s law
quantities
99 TZ Stress, strain and the
15 1.1.4 Working with vectors Young modulus
16 LES Density 60 oe Work of deformation
17 1.1.6 Moments of forces and strain energy

20 1.17 Conditions for 61 1.5.4 Stress and strain in

ductile metals
equilibrium
24 12.4 Speed and velocity 63 oe Stress and strain in
brittle materials
26 b22 Acceleration
65 1.5.6 Polymers
28 1.2.3 Uniform acceleration
equations 70 1.6 Using radiation to
investigate stars
31 1.2.4 Projectiles
71 1.6.1 Black body radiation
36 13 Dynamics
73 1.6.2 Luminosity, intensity
36 ee Momentum and distance ~
38 pa? Elastic and inelastic 74 1.6.3 Black body radiation
collisions and stars
39 1.3.3 Force and momentum 79 1.6.4 Line spectra: Fraunhofer
40 13.4 Momentum andNewton’s 1.3 lines ;
3rd law of motion 77 1.6.5 Radio astronomy
42 13.0 Forces between
78 1.6.6 Multiwavelength
materials in contact
astronomy
43 1.3.6 Free-body diagrams
80 Tt The standard model
43 L37 Force and acceleration — three generations of
leptons and quarks
44 1.3.8 Gravitational force
80 Li¢ Units of mass and
50 14.1 Work and energy energy
o1 1.4.2 Directions of the force 81 LG Antiparticles
and the displacement
82 1.7.4 The evidence for
D2 143 Energy conservation: neutrinos
kinetic and potential
energy 82 Lio Building heavy particles 17 de .
WJEC AS Level Physics

Specification map (continued)

Interactions (forces) Speed of a wave

between particles
Wavefront diagrams
Conservation laws in
particle physics Diffraction
Electric charge Interference
Electric current Young's fringes
experiment
How current depends
on drift velocity of free Accurate measurements
electrons in a metal of wavelength
Potential difference Making sense of
Electrical power diffraction

/against V(/-V) graphs

Stationary waves
for conductors
144 Refraction and wave
Resistance properties

Resistivity Refractive index

How the resistivity of Reflection

a metal depends on
temperature Optical fibres

Superconductivity 154 The photoelectric

effect
Currents and pds in
series and parallel The electromagnetic
circuits spectrum
Formulae for resistances Atomic spectra
in series and parallel a
Wave-particle duality
The potential divider os ta
Stimulated emission
Power supplies 2a et
Achieving a population
124 How waves propagate
inversion
124 Transverse waves
Laser construction
Longitudinal waves
The semiconductor
Waves from oscillating diode laser
sources
Nebulium and
Snapshot of a wave mysterium
 derived quantities 10-11
diffraction grating 70, 133-135,
absolute temperature 72 cavity radiation 71
139-140, 159
absolute uncertainty 180 Celsius temperature 72, 105
diffraction of waves 70, 130, 133-
absorption spectra 75-76, 158-160 centre of gravity (C of G) 19-20, 23 136, 139-140, 150, 161
acceleration 11, 12, 14, 15, 17, charge 94-95, 112-113, 163 directions of force and displacement
26-33, 39-40, 43-47, 53-54, circuits 33, 95-97, 100-101, 51-52
103; 124161 107-108, 112-113, 115-121, discharge tube 159
unit 11, 26 154-155, 163, 169
displacement 12-14, 24-27, 28-29,
adding vectors 11-12 clockwise moment (CM) 18 51-54, 124, 127, 134
air columns 138 coherent light 133-134 displacement-time graphs 24-25,
air resistance 42 collisions 37-39, 167-168, 170 127
algebra 190-191 components of vectors 15-16 dissipation of power 103, 115
ammeters 97, 107, 113 compression modulus 59 dissipative forces 56
amorphous 63-64 compressive force 58-59 Doppler shift 77
amplifying medium 168-169 conductivity 104 drag 42, 56
amplitude 103, 105, 126, 128, conductors 101-107, 117 drift velocity 96-97, 103
130-132, 135-138 conservation of baryon number 85 ductile metals 61-63
angle of incidence 146-147 conservation of charge 94, 112
antibaryons 80, 82 conservation of energy 52-53, 103, 112
anti-clockwise moment (ACM) 18, 23 conservation of lepton number 84
antinodes 136, 140-141 conservation of momentum 36-38, Einstein’s photoelectric equation
antiparticles 81-82 40, 162 155-156
area under a graph 26-27, 195 conservation of quark number 85 elastic collisions 38-39
area unit 10-11 contact force 43 elastic potential energy 51, 54-56,
arithmetic mean 180, 183 continuous spectra 70-71, 75 58, 60
atomic absorption spectra 158-159 converting units 17 electrical potential energy 100
atomic emission spectra 159 cosmic microwave background electrical power 101
atomic energy levels 157-158 radiation (CMBR) 77 electromagnet, measuring
covalent bonding 63 acceleration 33
atomic spectra 157-160
crack propagation 64 electromagnetic force 41, 84
atoms 80, 95, 157-163, 166-168
critical angle 147, 149 electromagnetic radiation 55, 70, 81,
aurora borealis 160
currents 10, 11, 33, 56, 94-97, 145, 154, 160) 163
100-106, 112-115, 117-121, electromagnetic spectrum 70, 78-79,
138, 154-155, 163 156-157
baryons 80, 82-83, 85 j electromagnetic waves 125, 127
base quantities 10 electromagnetism 156
batteries, role of 118 electron diffraction tube 161
dark matter 77 electron shells 42, 158
best-fit straight lines 182-183
data, recording/displaying 179 electron volts 54, 80-81
best value 180
data transmission 148-150, 170 electrons 41-42, 54, 61, 64-65, 72,
black body radiation 71-72, 74, 75,
154 data uncertainty 179-185 77-78, 80-82, 84, 92, 94-97,
de Broglie equation 161-162 103-105, 112, 116-118, 144,
bonds 63, 65-66
deceleration 26-27 154-160, 170
breaking stress 62
density 12, 14, 16-17, 22-23, 42, elementary charge 81
brittle materials 63-64
46, 146 emf (electromotive force) 118-119,
measuring 22-23 at
WJEC AS Level Physics

emission spectra 75, 159 Hooke’s law 58

energy Hookean materials 59-60
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
definition of 50 hydrogen 75-80, 82-83, 157-159, 106
and dissipative forces 56 170
malleable 61
and power 55 hysteresis 60, 65-66
masers 170-171
transfer 55, 124 mass, measuring using principle of
equations moments 23
acceleration 28-31 mechanical energy 53
impulse theory 31
checking for homogeneity 12 mesons 80, 82-83, 85
in phase 126, 131-132, 166
manipulating 191 metastable states 168, 170
indices 188
path difference 132-133 mirages 148
inelastic collisions 37-38
quadratic 30-31, 191 moments of forces 17-20, 23
inertia 36
solving 191 momentum 36-42, 162
infrared 157
equilibrium 20-22, 41 monochromatic 133, 139, 156, 163
interference of waves 131-136
error bars 182-183 monomers 65
internodal distance 136-137
evaluating expressions 191 monomode fibres 149-150
internal energy 50, 52, 55, 61
excited states 157-159, 167, 170 motion
inverse square law 73, 156
experimental plans/descriptions 185 in a straight line 24-27, 28
ionisation energy 158
in two dimensions 25, 27
isolated system 36-37
scalars 13-14
under gravity 29-31, 45-46
fiducial mark 178
| multimode fibres 149
force 12-13, 14, 15, 17-22, 36,
39-47, 50-56, 58-59, 83-84, Joule heating 103, 105
124-125, 162
four-state laser systems 168
neutrinos 82, 84
fractions 189
kelvin scale 72 neutrons 80, 83-84
Fraunhofer lines 75-76
Kirchhoff’s first law 112 Newton’s laws of motion 36-37,
free-body diagrams 43 39-43, 46-47, 54
kinematics 24
free electrons 96-97, 103-105, 112, 1st law 36, 39, 54
kinetic energy 38, 50, 52-53, 66,
116, 144, 158
80-81, 124, 157, 159, 167-168 2nd law 36, 39-41, 43, 46-47
free fall 32-33, 44, 54
3rd law 36, 40-42
friction 42-43, 56
nodes 136, 140-141
fringe separation 133-134, 138-139 |
normal force 42
laser construction 168-169 nucleons 80
laser inefficiency 168
lasers 130, 133, 135, 139, 166-172
galvanometer 95
lattice structure 61-63
geometry 192-193
leptons 80-82, 84 obsidian 63-64
gradient of a graph 24-27, 28, 39,
light, measuring wavelength of Ohm's law 102
ATS OG OOM OS. 170,151,
138-139 open circuits 118
182-184, 194-195
light-dependent resistors (LDR) optical density 146
graph preparation 193
116-117 optical fibres 147, 148-150, 170
gravitational force 41, 43-47
light-emitting diodes (LED) 97, 102, oscillation 125-128, 132-133,
gravitational potential energy (GPE,
L13; 133-134, 163 136-137, 149, 156, 178
PE) 50-54, 56
limiting friction 42 outlier 180
line spectra 70-71, 75-76, 157
linear graphs 183
hadrons 80, 82 longitudinal waves 125, 138
harmonics 137-138 luminosity 73-74 parallax errors 178
heavy particles 82-83 parallel circuits 112-115, 120
homogeneous equations 12
parallelogram law of vector addition emissions 159-160
13 solar 70-71, 75-76
radian 189
particles 80-85, 101, 126-127, 154, Spectrometer 140
156, 160-162 radiation 70-79, 145, 154-156,
Spring constant 58-59
path difference 132-133 o2=1639 4.
radiation intensity 73-74, 155-156
standard model particles 80-81
photocell 154-155 star, measuring the distance to 73-74
radio astronomy 77-79, 170-171
photoelectric effect 154-156 Static friction 42
rate of change 194
photoelectrons 155 stationary waves 136-138, 140-141
ray tracing 151
photons 81-82, 154-165, 166, Stefan-Boltzmann law 72
168-170 Rayleigh scattering 150
stimulated emission 166-167
photoresistors 117 reflection 146-147, 149
strain energy 60
pions 83 refraction 144-153, 156
stress-strain graphs 62, 65
Planck constant 154-155, 161 refractive index 145-147, 149,
150-151 structure of brittle materials 63
polarisation 128
resistance 40, 42, 100, 102-109, structure of ductile metals 61-63
polymers 65-66
112-117, 118-121 structure of rubber 66
population inversion 167-168, 170
resistive sensors 116-117 subtracting vectors 15
positrons 81-82
resistivity 104-105, 107-108, 117, 163 superconducting transition
potential difference (pd) 54, temperature 106
resistors 100, 112-116, 120-121
100-103, 112-116, 118-121, superconductivity 106
154-155, 163 resolution, recording 179
resolving a force 15-16 symbols of algebra 190-191
potential dividers 115-117
resonance 138, 140-141 symbols of units 10-11, 44
power
resultant force 13, 16, 20-21, 36, 39, synchrotron radiation 78
definition of 55
43-46, 124 systematic uncertainties 185
electrical 101, 115
rheostat 116, 120
supplies 118-121
rubber 66
precision 180-181
ruby laser 168
principal quantum number 158 temperature 10, 38, 42, 56, 70-72,
principle of conservation of energy 74-79, 96, 100-102, 104-106,
52-53 108-109, 116-117, 138, 144,
principle of conservation of 148, 158, 163, 166-167, 171
scalar quantities 12
momentum 36-38, 40, 162 temporal coherence 166
seismic waves 124, 144-145
principle of moments (PoM) 18-20, tensile force 58
semiconductor diode lasers 169-170
23 tensile stress/strain 59
semiconductors 116-117, 163,
principle of superposition 131 tension 58-59, 64, 66-67
169-170
prisms 147 terahertz radiation 157
series circuits 112-114, 119
progressive waves 124, 136-137 terminal pd 121, 183
shear force 58
projectiles 31-32 terminal velocity 46
shear waves 125
propagation of waves 124, 127 thermionic emission 161
S|! multipliers 11, 189
protons 80-81, 83-84, 101, 157 thermistor circuits 116-117
S| units 10, 189
pumping 167-169 three-state laser systems 167-168
significant figures 179, 180
Pythagoras’ theorem 13, 15, 16, 25, threshold frequency 155-156
~ sinusoidal 126
193 total internal reflection (TIR) 147-149
small angle approximation 151
transverse waves 124-125, 136-138
Snapshot of a wave 126-127
trigonometry 13, 15, 74, 128,
Snell’s law 146, 151
192-193
quantities 10-14 sound in air 140-141
turning effect of forces 17-18
base 10 Spatial coherence 166
derived 10-11 spectra
scalar 12, 14 atomic 157-160
vector 12, 14 beta particles 82 ultraviolet catastrophe 154
quarks 80-85, 157 black body radiation 71-72, uniform acceleration equations
quartz 63-64 74-75, 154 28-31
CMBR 77 units 10-12, 17, 188
WJEC AS Level Physics

variables 184, 190 wave frequency 144, 156 X-rays 161

vector quantities 12 wave-particle duality 156, 160-162
vectors 12-16 wave properties 144-145
|
adding 12-13 wave speed 127, 144-145
yield stress 62-63
components of 15-16 wavefronts 127, 130, 134
Young modulus 59, 62, 67
subtracting 15 wavelength 70-72, 74-79, 81,
126-127, 130, 132-140, 144- Young's fringes 133, 138-139
velocity 11, 14, 15, 25-27, 28-29,
36, 38-39, 41-42, 46, 53, 77, 145, 150, 154, 156, 158-163,
96-97, 103 170-171
unit 11 Wien displacement law 72
zero errors 178
velocity-time graphs 26-27, 54 work 50-53
vertical motion under gravity 29-31 definition of 50
voltage 14, 100, 102; 107, 119-120, unit 50
154-155, 159, 161, 169
voltmeters 100, 107, 112-113
Physics ©
AS Level =
Written by a team of experienced authors, teachers
About the authors:
and examiners this book’s engaging visual style and
Gareth Kelly, CPhys, MinstP, graduated in
comprehensive detail will support you through the AS Theoretical Physics from Cambridge University
course and help you prepare for your exams. in 1972. He taught Physics at Penglais
Comprehensive School, Aberystwyth, for 26
» Endorsed by WJEC, this book offers high quality years before joining a major awarding body
in 2002, with responsibilities for Physics
support you can trust and Electronics. He has continued in active
involvement with these subjects at GCSE and
® Each topic includes detailed explanations and A level.
underpinning knowledge, all written in clear
Nigel Wood is an experienced Chief Examiner
uncomplicated language in A Level Physics for a major awarding body,
and was formerly Head of Physics at Dulwich
j Exam practice and skills guidance is provided for College.
the new assessment objectives
® Maths techniques and skills are regularly tested
throughout
Examples and worked solutions explain and
reinforce understanding of key physics concepts
m» Numerous questions, tests and tips help ensure you
have a good grasp of the key content for each topic
® Avibrant colour design and detailed colour
diagrams and photos make the information
accessible and appealing.

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