LICHENS Unit- 5

i)Crustose Lichen

ii)Foliose Lichen

iii)Fruticose Lichen
Classification-
by Zahlbruckner (1907)
[A] Ascolichen
(i) Gymnocarpeae
(ii) Pyrenocarpeae
[B] Basidiolichen
(i) Basidiolichen
(ii) Deuterolichen
(iii) Ascolichen

Lichens:
Lichens are a unique group of composite organisms formed by a symbiotic relationship
between:
 Phycobiont (algal partner, usually Chlorophyceae or Cyanophyceae)
 Mycobiont (fungal partner, typically Ascomycetes or occasionally Basidiomycetes)
The resulting organism forms a stable, thallus-like structure that does not resemble either
component individually.

Key Characteristics of Lichens

1. Thallus Structure: Composite and thalloid, formed by both partners.
2. Photosynthesis: Carried out by the algal partner, which provides carbohydrates.
3. Water Retention: Managed by the fungal component, which absorbs and stores
water.
4. Thallus Types:
o Crustose – crust-like, tightly attached to substrate.

o Foliose – leaf-like, loosely attached.

o Fruticose – branched, bushy or hair-like.

5. Asexual Reproduction: Through structures like soredia, isidia, oidia, and pycnidia.
6. Sexual Reproduction: Involves only the fungal component.
o Female: Carpogonium (with ascogonium and trichogyne)
 o Male: Spermogonia producing spermatia

7. Fruiting Bodies:
o Apothecia (disc-shaped)

o Perithecia (flask-shaped)

8. Spores: Fungal component produces eight ascospores in each ascus.

9. Growth: Extremely slow; resistant to heat, dryness, and harsh climates.
10. Chemical Production: They produce lichen acids, used in various industries.

Distribution
 Found globally, from polar regions to tropical rainforests.
 Common habitats: tree bark, rocks, soil, wood, sea shores
 Rich diversity in Eastern Himalayas in India.
 Notable species in India:
Cladonia aggregata, Graphis duplicata, Gyrophora cylindrica, Haematomma
puniceum, Usnea aspera, etc.

Nature of Algal-Fungal Association

 Traditionally viewed as mutualistic symbiosis:
o Alga: Produces food via photosynthesis.

o Fungus: Provides water, minerals, and protection from desiccation and

sunlight.
However, other views exist:
 Parasitism: Fungus dominates and may parasitize algae (supported by presence of
fungal haustoria in algal cells).
 Helotism: A modified symbiosis where the fungal partner is dominant, and the algal
partner is subordinate.

Classification of Lichens
A. Based on Fungal Component (Zahlbruckner, 1907)
1. Ascolichens – Fungus is an Ascomycete
o Gymnocarpeae (discolichens): Have apothecia (e.g., Parmelia)
 o Pyrenocarpeae (pyrenolichens): Have perithecia (e.g., Dermatocarpon)

2. Basidiolichens – Fungus is a Basidiomycete

o e.g., Corella, Dictyonema

B. Modern Classification (Alexopoulos & Mims, 1979)

1. Ascolichens – Fungal component from Ascomycetes
2. Basidiolichens – Fungal component from Basidiomycetes
3. Deuterolichens – Fungal component from Deuteromycetes

Structure of Lichens
The plant body of lichens is thalloid and shows an irregular shape. It is generally grey or
greyish-green in colour, although certain species may exhibit yellow, red, orange, or brown
pigmentation.
[A] External Morphology
On the basis of external morphology, lichens are classified into three types:
1. Crustose Lichens
These lichens are characterised by an inconspicuous, thin, and flat thallus which is firm in
texture. The thallus is closely adhered to the substratum, forming a crust-like appearance. In
some cases, it may be wholly or partially embedded in the substratum. When partially
embedded, only the fruiting bodies are visible above the surface.
Examples: Graphis, Haematomma, Lecanora, Lecidia, Rhizocarpon, Strigula, Verrucaria.
2. Foliose Lichens
These lichens possess a flat, leaf-like, and lobed thallus. They are attached to the substratum
with the help of rhizoid-like structures known as rhizines.
Examples: Parmelia, Physcia, Peltigera, Xanthoria, Gyrophora, Collema.
3. Fruticose Lichens
These are shrubby lichens that exhibit a well-developed, cylindrical, branched thallus. They
grow either erect or hang down from the substratum. The plant body is attached to the
substratum by means of a basal mucilaginous disc.
Examples: Alectonia, Cladonia, Letharia, Usnea.
[B] Internal Structure
The internal structure of the lichen thallus is complex, comprising both algal and fungal
components. Such an association is termed a consortium. In an advanced foliose lichen, a
vertical section reveals the following four distinct regions:
1. Upper Cortex
This is the outermost protective layer composed of compactly interwoven fungal hyphae,
usually arranged perpendicular to the thallus surface. There are no intercellular spaces, or if
present, they are filled with gelatinous substances. In some genera such as Parmelia, the
surface bears numerous irregular breathing pores that facilitate gaseous exchange.
2. Algal Layer (Gonidial Layer)
Located just below the upper cortex, this layer consists of algal cells embedded within a
network of loosely arranged fungal hyphae. Based on the arrangement of algal cells, lichens
are further classified as:
 Homoisomerous Lichens: Algal cells and fungal hyphae are distributed uniformly
throughout the thallus (e.g., Collema, Leptogium).
 Heteromerous Lichens: Algal cells form a distinct layer beneath the upper cortex
(e.g., Parmelia, Physcia).
Common algal genera found in lichens include:
 Green algae (Chlorophyceae): Protococcus, Pleurococcus, Cladophora, Trebouxia,
Trentepohlia.
 Blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria or Myxophyceae): Nostoc, Gloeocapsa,
Rivularia.
3. Medulla
The medulla forms the central part of the thallus and is composed of loosely interwoven
fungal hyphae with prominent intercellular spaces.
4. Lower Cortex
This layer comprises compact hyphae that may run either parallel or perpendicular to the
thallus surface. Some hyphae become specialised and extend downward from the lower
cortex to function as rhizines, anchoring the lichen to the substratum.
Note:
 The internal structure of crustose lichens is largely similar to that of foliose lichens.
 In fruticose lichens, the lower cortex is generally absent due to their cylindrical shape,
and the medulla forms the central axis.
Reproduction in Lichens
Lichens reproduce by both asexual and sexual methods. The reproductive strategies ensure
the dispersal and continuation of the symbiotic relationship between the algal and fungal
components.
[A] Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction is widespread in lichens and occurs through the following methods:
1. Fragmentation
This is a common method in which small fragments of the thallus break off either
accidentally or due to decay of older parts. Each fragment, if it contains both algal and fungal
components, can grow into a new thallus.
2. Soredia
Soredia are small, bud-like outgrowths that develop on the surface of the thallus. Each
soredium consists of one or a few algal cells surrounded by a loose weft of fungal hyphae.
These structures form a granular, greyish-white layer on the surface and are dispersed by
wind or rain.
In genera such as Parmelia and Physcia, soredia are produced in organised pustule-like
structures called soralia. Upon reaching a suitable substratum, soredia germinate and form
new lichen thalli.
3. Cephalodium
Cephalodia are wart-like projections on the surface of the thallus. They differ from the main
thallus in that they contain algal and fungal species distinct from the parent lichen. These
structures develop from the soredia of a different species and represent a sterile thallus of
another lichen, growing on the main thallus.
4. Isidia
Isidia are small, stalked, and coral-like outgrowths present on the upper surface of the thallus.
They consist of algal and fungal tissues enclosed by a cortical layer and are usually
constricted at the base, making them easily detachable. On detachment, isidia can germinate
under favourable conditions to form a new thallus.
Isidia also contribute to increasing the photosynthetic area of the thallus. They may vary in
shape:
 Rod-like: Parmelia
 Coral-like: Peltigera
 Scale-like: Collema
 Cigar-like: Usnea
5. Pycnidiospores and Oidiospores
Some lichens (e.g., Physcia, Buellia) form flask-shaped pycnidia, which produce
pycnidiospores. These spores germinate into fungal hyphae which, upon encountering
suitable algal cells, can develop into a new lichen.
In certain cases, fungal hyphae may fragment to form oidiospores, which serve a similar role
in vegetative propagation.

[B] Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction in lichens is confined to the fungal component, which most commonly
belongs to the class Ascomycetes. Thus, the process is analogous to that of ascomycetous
fungi.
1. Sex Organs
 Female Organs (Carpogonia): A carpogonium consists of a basal coiled structure
called the ascogonium, embedded within the algal layer, and a multicellular,
elongated trichogyne that projects out of the thallus surface.
 Male Organs (Spermogonia): These are flask-shaped structures producing
spermatia, which act as male gametes. Spermogonia generally develop near
carpogonia.
2. Fertilization Process
Spermatia adhere to the trichogyne, and upon dissolution of the intervening walls, the male
nucleus migrates into the ascogonium and fuses with the female nucleus. This results in the
formation of a diploid zygote nucleus.
3. Ascus Formation
After fertilization, the ascogonium gives rise to ascogenous hyphae, which form asci at their
terminal or sub-terminal cells. Within each ascus:
 The diploid nucleus undergoes one meiotic and one mitotic division.
 This results in the formation of eight haploid ascospores.
4. Fruiting Bodies
Asci are surrounded by sterile structures called paraphyses, and the entire mass is enclosed
in a protective structure called a fruiting body, which may be:
 Apothecium (e.g., Parmelia, Anaptyckia)
 Perithecium (e.g., Dermatocarpon, Verrucaria)
5. Ascospores
Ascospores vary in size, shape, septation, and colour (typically hyaline to greenish or brown).
Upon release, each ascospore germinates into fungal hyphae, which, upon contact with a
suitable algal partner, form a new lichen thallus.

Economic Importance of Lichens

Lichens, the symbiotic association between algae and fungi, play a vital role not only
ecologically but also economically. Their importance extends to food, medicine, dyes,
perfumes, and even industrial and ecological applications. Some of the key benefits are
discussed below:

[A] As Food and Fodder

Lichens have been used as food since ancient times, especially in arctic and subarctic regions.

 Edible lichens include species of Lecanora, Parmelia, Umbilicaria, and Cetraria

icelandica (Iceland moss).
 Umbilicaria esculenta is a delicacy in Japan, and Parmelia species are used in India
as curry powder.
 Polysaccharide lichenin present in lichens serves as an energy source; however, they
lack true starch and cellulose.
 Evernia prunastri was historically used for making bread in Egypt.
 In France, lichens are used in making chocolates and pastries, and in Japan,
Endocarpon miniatum is consumed as a vegetable.
 Lichens are also consumed by insects and animals such as mites, snails, and termites.

Fodder Use:

 Species like Lobaria pulmonaria, Evernia prunastri, Ramalina fraxinea, and R.

fastigiata are used as animal fodder.
 Cladonia rangiferina (reindeer moss) is a staple for reindeer and musk oxen in the
tundra.
 Dried lichens are fed to horses and swans.

[B] As Medicine

Lichens possess medicinal properties due to compounds like lichenin, usnic acid, and
erythrin:

 Parmelia perlata is used to treat dyspepsia, and snake and scorpion bites.
 Cladonia, Cetraria, and Pertusaria species help in treating intermittent fever.
 Cladonia pyxidata is used for whooping cough, while Usnea species help stop
bleeding.
 Usnic acid (from Usnea and Cladonia) is a broad-spectrum antibiotic.
 Erythrin (from Roccella montagnei) is useful in angina.
 Lobaria pulmonaria and Cetraria islandica are used in the treatment of tuberculosis.
 Lichens are key ingredients in Ayurvedic medicines, and some are used for their
hallucinogenic effects when mixed with tobacco.
[C] As Dyes

Lichens have historically provided natural dyes:

 Red and purple dyes from Ochrolechia androgyna and O. tartaria.

 Orchil, a blue dye from Cetraria icelandica, is used in wool dyeing.
 Orcein, a purified form of orchil, is used in histology stains and coir dyeing.
 Parmelia omphalodes yields a brown dye for wool and silk.
 Litmus, an important acid-base indicator, is derived from Roccella montagnei and
Lasallia pustulata.

[D] In Tanning Industry

Lichens such as Cetraria icelandica and Lobaria pulmonaria are used as tanning agents.

 They contain lecanoric acid and erythrin, which produce orcein and carbonic acid
when treated with ammonia.

[E] In Cosmetics and Perfumery

Several lichens are used for their aromatic and therapeutic properties:

 Evernia and Ramalina species are sources of essential oils used in cosmetic soaps
and perfumes.
 Ramalina calicaris is used for hair whitening in wigs.
 Pseudevernia furfuracea and Evernia prunastri are popular in perfume
manufacture.
 Used in hawan samagri, incense, and antiseptic creams for their fragrance and
medicinal properties.

[F] In Fermentation and Distillation

In regions like Russia, Sweden, and Siberia, certain lichens (Cladonia rangiferina,
Ramalina fraxinea) are fermented and distilled to produce liquor.

[G] As Culture Media

Lichens are used in laboratory culture media for growing fungi and bacteria.
[H] Ecological Significance

Lichens are pioneer organisms that initiate the process of soil formation by colonizing bare
rocks and secreting organic acids that disintegrate them.

They also serve as bioindicators of air pollution, being highly sensitive to environmental
contaminants.

Note: Some lichens are harmful:

 They can etch glass and marble surfaces, causing damage to buildings and
monuments.
 Species like Letharia vulpina (wolf moss) are poisonous.