ABSTRACT

The following report is on ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), which is an

alternative source of energy tapped from the thermal energy of the ocean. It uses
the temperature difference between surface and deep water to run a heat engine. In
the following pages, the working principle, types of plants, history and the future
of the technology will be covered. Though ocean thermal energy conversion is a
fairly old technology (first demonstration model constructed in 1926), sustainable
methods of utilizing it have taken a lot of time to be developed. Besides, lower
rates of electricity from fossil fuels rendered it useless. However, the risk of
exhaustion of non renewable resources is at an all time high, which makes the otec
a very viable option for the near future.
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

NO.
1 INTRODUCTION

2 WORKING PRINCIPLE

3 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY

CONVERSION SYSTEM
4 CLASSIFICATION OF OTEC PLANT

5 LOCATION OF AN OTEC PLANT

6 ENVIRONMENT IMPACT

7 TECHNICAL CHALLENGES AND

RESTRICTIONS
8 BENEFITS OF OTEC TECHNOLOGY

9 LIMITATION OF OTEC PLANT

10 CONCLUSION
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) difference between cooler deep and uses
the temperature warmer shallow or surface seawaters to run a heat engine and
produce useful work, usually in the form of electricity.
Among ocean energy sources, OTEC is one of the continuously available
renewable energy resources thus eliminating the need to store energy. Up to 88,000
TWh/yr of power could be generated from OTEC without affecting the ocean’s
thermal structure.
Systems may be either closed-cycle or open-cycle. Closed-cycle OTEC uses
working fluids that are typically thought of as refrigerants such as ammonia or
R-134a. These fluids have low boiling points, and are therefore suitable for
powering the system’s generator to generate electricity. Open-cycle engines use
vapour from the seawater itself as the working fluid.
OTEC can also supply quantities of cold water as a by-product. This can be used
for air conditioning and refrigeration and the nutrient-rich deep ocean water can
feed biological technologies. Another by-product is Fresh water distilled from the
sea. OTEC theory was first developed in the 1880s and the first bench size
demonstration model was constructed in 1926. Currently the world’s Only
operating OTEC plant is in Japan, overseen by Saga University.
Islands contribute negligibly to the global emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG);
However, they emit large amounts of GHG per capita. For example, in 2015, 0.4%
of GHG emissions worldwide originated from the Caribbean Islands. Similarly, the
per capita production of GHG is higher in islands (120 t), compared to the rest of
the world. These GHG emissions are derived mainly from fossil fuels renewable
energies have been spreading to preserve the environment and human health, with
solar and wind being the most common sources. Due to their learning curves and
increased installation capacity, the efficiency of renewable energies has been
improved and their installation costs have been reduced. However, it must also be
kept in mind that not all cities have the optimum conditions (e.g., solar irradiation
or wind Speed) to apply these technologies. Marine energy technologies represent
a keen interest for islands and coastal areas, as they allow for the generation of
electricity using an abundant resource in these regions; That is, seawater. The
primary marine energies are produced by the ocean’s thermal energy, Tides, marine
currents, offshore wind turbines, and waves. Wave power transforms the kinetic
energy contained in the movement of the waves Into electrical energy. Identifying
the areas where more massive waves are generated is extremely important when
planning and deploying wave energy equipment. Bearing in mind that wave
formation is closely related to surface winds, the places with the most excellent
feasibility for wave sites are between 40º and 60º of latitude in both hemispheres
there are two types of designs to capture the energy of waves. On one hand,
devices can be located at the bottom of the water, at a shallow depth and crossing
the water ‘surface. On the other hand, floating devices can also capture the kinetic
energy of a wave’s movement and convert it into electricity through a generator.
The relative level difference between different points of the machine turns hinges
joined to hydraulic systems, which pump fluids that turn electrical generators. The
main advantage of this type of device is that it does not need to be fixed to the
seabed and only works with the relative water level difference, allowing for its
installation in locations at different types of depths and distances from the coast.
Tidal Power is a type of marine energy which is often confused with wave power.
In order to clarify these distinctions, it is considered essential to understand their
differences. The energy of a wave is only related to the energy from the movement
of the waves, while tidal energy takes advantage of the movements of tides: that is,
the change in the tide produced by the gravitational forces exerted by the sun and
the moon. When the tide rises, the floodgates of a dyke open, allowing the entry of
water into a reservoir. When it has been filled, the doors are closed. When the tide
descends below the reservoir’s level, reaching its minimum height, the gates open
and let the water pass through narrow conduits that pass into turbines connected to
electric generators.
A characteristic that hinders the propagation of tidal energy in the world is that it
should be installed in places where the high and low tides have a considerable
difference (i.e., of more than five meters) in height. Otherwise, it would not be
profitable. Marine current power takes advantage of the kinetic energy of marine
currents. Although it is not widely used, it can be used to generate electricity in the
future, as tides are more predictable than wind and sunlight. Ocean currents are
produced by combining several factors such as temperature, wind, salinity, and the
earth’s rotation, among others. The appropriate water speed is estimated between 2
and 3 m/s. A seawater current at a speed of 2 m/s has, per every square meter of
area perpendicular to its flow, the same energy as a wind current at 18 m/s. The
main drawback of the devices designed to take advantage of marine current energy
at high depths is their high manufacturing, installation, and maintenance costs. It is
estimated that around 80% of the energy of marine currents is located in areas
more than 40 m deep [17], such that it is necessary to use new designs for devices
that can operate in these areas. As such, the cost of a large structure fixed to the
seabed makes first-generation solutions unviable. The second-generation systems
have anchoring systems, with a fixed base or anchor at the bottom and a series of
cables that hold the device to the seabed.
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is a renewable energy source based on
sea temperature change, concerning depth. This temperature gradient can be used
to drive a thermal machine that generates useful work, which is then transformed
into electricity. The oceans capture the heat generated by solar radiation and cover
more than 70% of the earth, making OTEC systems an almost unlimited source of
energy, as they only depend on the sun and ocean currents; this effectively makes
them the most effective energy storage systems in the world. It has been estimated
that the power that can be collected ranges from 3 to 5 TW, without harming the
environment. This paper presents a comprehensive overview of OTEC technology,
based on its different prototypes, infrastructure, and technological advances in the
development of devices, as well as the multiple applications that can be obtained to
generate drinking water and food. The comprehensive vision of this paper serves to
help governments, private entities, or researchers who intend to develop projects of
this type and wish to have a first approach to this technology. The remainder of the
paper is organized as follows: Section 2 explains the differences in sea temperature
and the different cycles of OTEC technology, while Section 3 exposes the
possibilities of installation. Section 4 discusses other uses of deep seawater.
Section 5 provides an overview of OTEC technology. Sections 6 and 7 are,
respectively, concerned about the associated environmental impacts and technical
limitations. Section 8 analyses the economic viability of OTEC projects, depending
on the location. Finally, our main conclusions are given in Section 9.
 CHAPTER 2

WORKING PRINCIPLE

The oceans have a temperature gradient with depth. This gradient, known as the
thermocline, is used to power a heat engine to produce work (converted to energy
through a generator).
A heat engine is fundamentally a device that converts heat energy to mechanical
energy which can then be used to do work. This is done by bringing a working
fluid from a higher temperature source to a lower temperature sink.
In an OTEC plant, as shown in the adjoining figure, the working fluid is essentially
brought from the higher temperature source evaporator to the lower temperature
sink condenser. In this process, the thermal energy is converted to mechanical
energy through a turbine, and then further to electrical energy through a generator.
In the evaporator, warm water from the surface level of the ocean is supplied,
while in the condenser, cold water from the ocean depths is brought in. The
working fluid used here needs to be of low boiling point, and hence ammonia
(boiling point – 33°C) is generally used. Ideally, to make the operation
economically sustainable, the temperature difference between the evaporator and
condenser should be 20°C.
 CHAPTER 3

OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY

CONVERSION SYSTEM

OTEC is a process which utilizes the heat energy stored in the tropical ocean. The
world’s oceans serve as a huge collector of heat energy. OTEC plants utilize the
difference in temperature between warm surface sea water and cold deep sea water
to produce electricity.

3.1. INTENSIVE ENERGY

The energy associated with OTEC derives from the difference in temperature
between two thermal reservoirs. The top layer of the ocean is warmed by the sun to
temperatures up to 20 K greater than the seawater near the bottom of the ocean.
OTEC energy is different from geothermal energy in that one cannot assume the
cold reservoir is infinite. The physical energy of two large reservoirs of fluid at
different temperatures is in J/kg where r is the mass of warm water divided by the
mass of cold water entering the plant(1). For optimal performance, r is
approximately 0.5. It is assumed in this analysis that the specific heat of the two
fluid reservoirs is an average value over the often small temperature difference, but
varying with salinity in the case of seawater.
Thermal energy conversion is an energy technology that converts solar radiation to
electric power. OTEC systems use the ocean’s natural thermal gradient the fact that
the ocean’s layers of water have different temperatures—to drive a power-
producing cycle. As long as the temperature between the warm surface water and
the cold deep water differs by about 20°C, an OTEC system can produce a
significant amount of power. The oceans are thus a vast renewable resource, with
the potential to help us produce billions of watts of electric power. This potential is
estimated to be about 1013 watts of base load power generation, according to some
experts. The cold, deep seawater used in the OTEC process is also rich in nutrients,
and it can be used to culture both marine organisms and plant life near the shore or
on land. OTEC produce steady, base-load electricity, fresh water, and air-
conditioning options.
OTEC requires a temperature difference of about 36 deg F (20 deg C). This
temperature difference exists between the surface and deep seawater year round
throughout the tropical regions of the world. To produce electricity, we either use a
working fluid with a low boiling point (c.g. ammonia) or warm surface sea water,
or turn it to vapor by heating it up with warm sea water (ammonia) or de-
pressurizing warm seawater. The pressure of the expanding vapor turns a turbine
and produces electricity.
 CHAPTER 4

CLASSIFICATION OF OTEC PLANT

BASED ON TYPE OF CYCLE

According to the cycle type, there are two types of OTEC systems: closed-cycle,
open-cycle. To operate, cold seawater must be brought to the surface. The primary
approaches are active pumping and desalination. Desalinating seawater near the
sea floor lowers its density, which causes it to rise to the surface.
The alternative to costly pipes to bring condensing cold water to the surface is to
pump vaporized low boiling point fluid into the depths to be condensed, thus
reducing pumping volumes and reducing technical and environmental problems
and lowering costs.

4.1. CLOSED CYCLE OTEC

In the closed-cycle OTEC system, warm sea water vaporizes a working fluid, such
as ammonia, flowing through a heat exchanger (evaporator). The vapor expands at
moderate pressures and turns a turbine coupled to a generator that produces
electricity. The vapor is then condensed in heat exchanger (condenser) using cold
seawater pumped from the ocean’s depths through a cold-water pipe.
The condensed working fluid is pumped back to the evaporator to repeat the cycle.
The working fluid remains in a closed system and circulate continuously.
OTEC uses fluid with a low boiling point, such as ammonia (having a boiling point
around -33 °C at atmospheric pressure), to power a turbine to generate electricity.
Warm surface seawater is pumped through a heat exchanger to vaporize the Fluid.
The expanding vapor turns the turbo-generator. Cold water, Pumped through
second heat exchanger, condenses the vapor into a Liquid, which is then recycled
through the system.

4.2. OPEN CYCLE OTEC

OTEC uses warm surface water directly to make electricity. The warm seawater is
first pumped into a low-pressure container, which causes it to boil. In some
schemes, the expanding vapour drives a low-pressure turbine that is attached to an
electrical generator. The vapour, which has left its salt and other contaminants in
the low- pressure container, is pure fresh water. It is condensed into a liquid by
exposure to cold temperatures from deep-ocean water. This method produces
desalinized fresh water, which is suitable for drinking water, irrigation or
aquaculture. In other schemes, the rising vapour is used in a gas lift technique of
lifting water to significant heights. Depending on the embodiment, Such vapour lift
pump techniques generate the power from a hydroelectric turbine either before or
after the pump is used.

CHAPTER 5

LOCATION OF AN OTEC PLANT

OTEC systems can be built on land (onshore), on a fixed platform in the sea
(offshore),or as floating constructs.
5.1. OTEC Onshore

Onshore locations have three advantages over offshore systems: First, they do not
require a robust lashing system and maintenance is more comfortable to carry out
Second, they can be designed in such a way that they are protected from storms.
Finally, the products generated—electricity and desalinated water, among others—
can be easily distributed. On the other hand, the disadvantages of an onshore
installation are several. First, bringing seawater to the plant requires a significant
investment in civil works, as it must be ensured that the pipes are fixed in changes
in the tide or storms. In this sense, the distance between the plant and an adequate
depth, requiring the excessive use of pipes to transport both hot and cold water, are
crucial. Some of these problems can be solved by building the plant in shallow
waters (i.e., between 10 and 30 m deep), reducing the distance to the optimal depth
and, therefore, the water loading and unloading pipeline. However, the
construction would be subject to a marine environment, thus requiring special
maintenance.
5.2. OTEC Offshore

OTEC power plants can be installed around 100 m deep. Thus, the turbulent waves
generated near the coast can be avoided; additionally, it would be closer to the cold
water supply. Carrying out an installation at a greater depth would increase the
costs, compared to onshore systems. The problems include stress due to the open
sea conditions and the complicated delivery of the product. Strong marine currents
and large waves increase the implementation costs. These platforms require
massive pillars to ensure their stability, while the distribution of the energy
produced requires submarine cables to reach the distribution power lines.
5.3. Floating OTEC
A medium- or high-power OTEC device can be settled on a ship, reducing the.
implementation costs compared to submarine infrastructures. The difficulty in
design and construction time also decreases with this type of installation. Floating
OTECs are suitable for large systems; however, these systems present several
challenges: Anchoring in deep waters is not easy; additionally, the distribution of
energy can be affected by the damage of the marine cables, as they are exposed to
constant movement, and their repair or maintenance is not easy to carry out.

CHAPTER 6
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

OTEC technology is a source of clean energy; although ammonia is used in closed-

Cycle OTECs, it is never emitted into the environment, avoiding the generation of
hazardous Waste. On the other hand, in the case of open-cycle OTECs, a negligible
amount of carbon Dioxide is emitted into the ocean, compared to fossil fuel plants.
Analyses obtained from OTEC systems have shown that the water expelled by the
systems at depths of 60 m is diluted at a ratio of 1:3; that is, one part of the water
expelled by the OTEC system to three portions of seawater. This water return depth
also provides vertical separation of the hot water entrance by about 20 m, which is
necessary to avoid reingestion by the plant. From the above, it can be deduced that
such systems have minimal Impact on the seabed.
The environmental risks of OTEC facilities are similar to those presented by any
civil work of constructing a marine platform. Under normal conditions, emissions
to the environment from the workflow (ammonia) are incipient [98]. It should be
clarified that a workflow emission due to a malfunction of the system should be
avoided at all costs.
OTEC systems must be designed to interact with the environment. There are two
effects to take into account. On one hand, fish may be attracted to an OTEC
system, as it will emit seawater with nutrients, positively affecting fishing. On the
other hand, the eggs and larvae may be affected by said emission. In this sense, the
success of an OTEC operation Will be directly proportional to the balance between
these two effects. Finally, with Proper planning, OTEC systems can serve to
increase tourist attractions.
 CHAPTER 7

TECHNICAL CHALLENGES
AND RESTRICTIONS

A complete safety system must be implemented for the anchorage system and the
submarine electric cable, in order to ensure the well-being of workers. In this
sense, survival burdens must be available to cope with extreme environmental
phenomena. Similarly, there must be loads induced by fatigue which can be used in
normal operations.
Ensuring the stability of the platform is also a challenge. To face this challenge,
traditional offshore mooring systems can be used, or a more sophisticated system
which makes use of dynamic positioning propellers. High-density polyethylene
pipes can be used for onshore plants, as long as the diameter is less than 1.6 m. In
offshore plants, steel or concrete pipes can be used; however, the costs are
considerably increased. A promising technology is pressurized tubes made from
reinforced elastomeric fabrics the disadvantage of this technology is that pumps
must be used at the cold water inlet, which may operate incorrectly at a depth
greater than 800 m over long periods.
The efficiency of OTEC plants can be evaluated using the principles of
thermodynamics used in conventional steam power plants. The difference lies in
the large volumes of water used for heat transfer, consuming approximately 30% of
the energy to operate the pumps. Additionally, various energy losses are generated,
due to gravitational energy, friction, and density differences between different
fluids. At a temperature difference between 26 ◦C and 4 ◦C, the theoretical
maximum efficiency is 8%, but losses associated with pumping needs and heat
transfer produce actual efficiencies between 3% and 4%. Although this seems to be
a reasonably small value, compared to other renewable energies, it is worth noting
that the energy source is practically inexhaustible. Approximately 4 m3/s of warm
water and 2 m3/s of cold water are needed to generate 1 MW of electricity,
between which there must be a nominal temperature difference of 20 ◦C. Closed-
loop OTEC technology is limited to less than 100 MW generation, due to suitable
pipe sizes. Open-cycle technology is limited to 2.5 MW, due to the difficulty of
handling low-pressure steam.

CHAPTER 8

BENEFITS OF OTEC TECHNOLOGY

OTEC can be immensely beneficial: it's clean, green renewable energy that doesn't
involve burning fossil fuels, producing large amounts of greenhouse gases, or
releasing toxic air pollution. By helping to reduce our dependence on fuels such as
petroleum, OTEC could also help to reduce the "collateral" damage the world
suffers from an oil-dependent economy-including wars fought over oil and water
pollution from tanker spills.
The distinctive feature of OTEC is the potential to provide base load electricity,
which means day and night (24/7) and year-round. This is a big advantage for
instance tropical islands that typically has a small electricity network, not capable
of handling a lot of intermittent power next to producing electricity, OTEC also
offers the possibility of co-generating other synergistic products, like fresh water,
nutrients for enhanced fish farming and seawater cooled greenhouses enabling
food production even in the arid regions. Last but not least, the cold water can be
used in building air-conditioning systems. Energy savings of up to 90% can be
realized. The vast baseload OTEC resource cold help many tropical and subtropical
(remote) regions to become more energy self-sufficient. The various uses other
than power generation are discussed below.

8.1. Desalination
Desalinated water can be produced in open- or hybrid-cycle plants using surface
condensers to turn evaporated seawater into potable water. System analysis
indicates that a 2-megawatt plant could produce about 4,300 cubic meters (150,000
cu ft.) of desalinated water each day. Another system patented by Richard Bailey
creates condensate water by regulating deep ocean water flow through surface
condensers correlating with fluctuating dew-point temperatures. This condensation
system uses no incremental energy and has no moving parts. On March 22, 2015,
Saga University opened a Flash-type desalination demonstration facility on
Kumejima. This satellite of their Institute of Ocean Energy uses post-OTEC deep
seawater from the Okinawa OTEC Demonstration Facility and raw surface
seawater to produce desalinated water. Air is extracted from the closed system with
a vacuum pump. When raw sea water is pumped into the flash chamber it boils,
allowing pure steam to rise and the salt and remaining seawater to be removed. The
steam is returned to liquid in a heat exchanger with cold post-OTEC deep seawater.
The desalinated water can be used in hydrogen production or drinking water (if
minerals are added).

8.2. Air conditioning

The 41 °F (5°C) cold seawater made available by an OTEC system creates an
opportunity to provide large amounts of cooling to industries and homes near the
plant. The water can be used in chilled-water coils to provide air-conditioning for
buildings. It is estimated that a pipe 1 foot (0.30 m) in diameter can deliver 4,700
gallons of water per minute. Water at 43 "F (6 °C) could provide more than enough
air-conditioning for a large building. Operating 8,000 hours per year in lieu of
electrical conditioning selling for 5-10C per kilowatt-hour, it would save $200,000-
$400,000 in energy bills annually.
The InterContinental Resort and Thalasso-Spa on the island of Bora Bora uses an
SWAC system to air-condition its buildings. The system passes seawater through a
heat exchanger where it cools freshwater in a closed loop system. This freshwater
is then pumped to buildings and directly cools the air.
In 2010, Copenhagen Energy opened a district cooling plant in Copenhagen,
Denmark. The plant delivers cold seawater to commercial and industrial buildings,
and has reduced electricity consumption by 80 percent. Ocean Thermal Energy
Corporation (OTE) has designed a 9800- ton SDC system for a vacation resort in
The Bahamas.

8.3. Chilled-soil agriculture

OTEC technology supports chilled-soil agriculture. When cold seawater flows
through underground pipes, it chills the surrounding soil. The temperature
difference between roots in the cool soil and leaves in the warm air allows plants
that evolved in temperate climates to be grown in the subtropics. Dr. John P.
Craven, Dr. Jack Davidson and Richard Bailey patented this process and
demonstrated it at a research facility at the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii
Authority (NELHA). The research facility demonstrated that more than 100
different crops can be grown using this system. Many normally could not survive
in Hawaii or at Keahole Point. Japan has also been researching agricultural uses of
Deep Sea Water since 2000 at the Okinawa Deep Sea Water Research Institute on
Kume Island. The Kume Island facilities use regular water cooled by Deep Sea
Water in a heat exchanger run through pipes in the ground to cool soil. Their
techniques have developed an important resource for the island community as they
now produce spinach, a winter vegetable, commercially year round. An expansion
of the deep seawater agriculture facility was completed by Kumejima Town next to
the OTEC Demonstration Facility in 2014. The new facility is for researching the
economic practicality of chilled-soil agriculture on a larger scale.

8.4.Aquaculture
Aquaculture is the best-known by-product, because it reduces the financial and
energy costs of pumping large volumes of water from the deep ocean. Deep ocean
water contains high concentrations of essential nutrients that are depleted in
surface waters due to biological consumption. This "artificial upwelling" mimics
the natural upwellings that are responsible for fertilizing and supporting the world's
largest marine ecosystems, and the largest densities of life on the planet.
Cold-water delicacies, such as salmon and lobster, thrive in this nutrient-rich, deep,
seawater. Microalgae such as Spirulina, a health food supplement, also can be
cultivated. Deep-ocean water can be combined with surface water to deliver water
at an optimal temperature.
Non-native species such as salmon, lobster, abalone, trout, oysters, and clams can
be raised in pools supplied by OTEC-pumped water. This extends the variety of
fresh seafood products available for nearby markets. Such low-cost refrigeration
can be used to maintain the quality of harvested fish, which deteriorate quickly in
warm tropical regions. In Kona, Hawaii, aquaculture companies working with
NELHA generate about $40 million annually, a significant portion of Hawaii's
GDP. The NELHA plant established in 1993 produced an average of 7,000 gallons
of freshwater per day. KOYO USA was established in 2002 to capitalize on this
new economic opportunity. KOYO bottles the water produced by the NELHA plant
in Hawaii. With the capacity to produce one million bottles of water every day,
KOYO is now Hawaii’s biggest exporter with $140 million in sales.
8.5. Hydrogen production
Hydrogen can be produced via electrolysis using OTEC electricity. Generated
steam with electrolyte compounds added to improve efficiency is a relatively pure
medium for hydrogen production. OTEC can be scaled to generate large quantities
of hydrogen. The main challenge is cost relative to other energy sources and fuels.

8.6. Mineral extraction

The ocean contains 57 trace elements in salts and other forms and dissolved in
solution. In the past, most economic analyses concluded that mining the ocean for
trace elements would be unprofitable, in part because of the energy required to
pump the water. Mining generally targets minerals that occur in high
concentrations, and can be extracted easily, such as magnesium. With OTEC plants
supplying water, the only cost is for extraction. The Japanese investigated the
possibility of extracting uranium and found developments in other technologies
(especially materials sciences) were improving the prospects.
 CHAPTER 9
LIMITATION OF OTEC PLANT

The biggest problem with OTEC is that it's relatively inefficient. The laws of
physics (in this case, the Carnot cycle) say that any practical heat engine must
operate at less than 100 percent efficiency; most operate well below-and OTEC
plants, which use a relatively small temperature difference between their hot and
cold fluids, have among the lowest efficiency of all: typically just a few percent.
For that reason, OTEC plants have to work very hard (pump huge amounts of
water) to produce even modest amounts of electricity, which brings two problems.
First, it means a significant amount of the electricity generated (typically about a
third) has to be used for operating the system (pumping the water in and out).
Second, it implies that OTEC plants have to be constructed on a relatively large
scale, which makes them expensive investments. Large-scale onshore OTEC plants
could have a considerable environmental impact on shorelines, which are often
home to fragile, already threatened ecosystems such as mangroves and coral reefs.
Another problem of OTEC is that it is restricted to only the tropical and
Subtropical climates as shown in the map above, pertaining to proper need of
temperature gradient. Hence a majority of countries are deprived of reaping the
benefits of this technology.
There are also political concerns. Because OTEC facilities are more-or- less
stationary surface platforms, their exact location and legal status may be affected
by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea treaty (UNCLOS). This
treaty grants coastal nations 12- and 200- nautical-mile (370 km) zones of varying
legal authority from land, creating potential conflicts and regulatory barriers.
OTEC plants and similar structures would be considered artificial islands under the
treaty, giving them no independent legal status. OTEC plants could be perceived as
either a threat or potential partner to fisheries or to seabed mining operations
controlled by the International Seabed Authority.

CHAPTER 10

CONCLUSION

Despite being an old technology, OTEC is yet to be commercialized. It is however

fast gaining ground with new projects on the horizon and intensive research.
Organizations and research groups like Makai Ocean Engineering, Lockheed
Martin, DCNS and a host of other companies are spearheading the endeavour to
commercialize OTEC. This is important in order to ease the pressure on fossil fuel
resources and also to provide a cheap and uninterrupted power supply to the
tropical regions where many countries are underdeveloped.
The major hurdle that needs to be overcome is the inefficiency of OTEC. However
it can be argued that the fact that it is a continuous source of energy nullifies the
disadvantage of inefficiency. The first projects, as we learned, are likely to be in
and around remote settlements or islands which have no conventional sources of
electricity. Depending on the success in these locations, bigger plants may be built
for more power consuming locations. Renewable resources like OTEC are
absolutely vital to the energy demands of the world in the face of dwindling fossil
fuels, and among the other renewable sources, OTEC complements its energy
production with a host of other benefits like pure water supply, irrigation, etc.
OTEC is the technology that offers the most near term potential in being useful to
the world.
 REFERENCE

1. Bank, W. World Development Indicators; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA,

2019.
2. Meckling, J. The developmental state in global regulation: Economic change and
climate policy. Eur. J. Int. Relations 2018.
3. Seungtaek, L.; Hosaeng, L.; Junghyun, M.; Hyeonju, K. Simulation Data of
Regional Economic Analysis of OTEC for Applicable Area. Processes 2020.
4. Ullah, N.; Ali, M.A.; Ibeas, A.; Herrera, J. Adaptive fractional order terminal
sliding mode control of a doubly fed induction generator-based wind energy
system. IEEE Access 2017.
5. Tobin, A.; Peláez-Restrepo, J.; Villegas-Ceballos, J.P.; Serna-Graces, S.I.;
Herrera, J.; Ibeas, A. Maximum power point tracking of photovoltaic panels by
using improved pattern search methods. Energies 2016.
6. Gohar Ali, H.; Vilanova Arbos, R.; Herrera, J.; Tobón, A.; Peláez-Restrepo, J.
Non-linear sliding mode controller for photovoltaic panels with maximum power
point tracking. Processes 2020.