Chapter 1

Introduction to the Internet

1.1 Introduction to Computer Networks
1.2 Types of Computer Networks
1.3 Introduction to Internet
1.4 History of Internet
1.5 Applications of Internet
1.6 Working of Internet
1.7 Modes of Connecting to the Internet
1.8 Internet Working Devices
1.9 What is Intranet?
1.10 Introduction to E-mailing System.
1.11 Structure of E-mail
1.12 Creating e-mail account
1.13 Layering architecture of Networks
1.14 OSI Reference Model
1.15 TCP/IP Model

1.1 Introduction to Computer Networks

A computer network may be defined as a collection of two or more

interconnected autonomous computers where interconnection refers to the
ability of exchanging information. A computer is said to be autonomous if it
has its own processing capabilities and that does not need any other
computer system to control it. Computers over network can be
geographically located anywhere. It uses a well defined, mutually agreed set
of rules and conventions, known as protocols, for interaction.

Initially, the programming was done using an approach that uses a long list
of commands focusing on the flow of data through the program to perform
the desired task. Data is accessible anywhere throughout the program. Thus
ignores the security issues related to the data used. This programming
approach was known as non – procedural programming approach. Later, the
lists of commands were grouped together constituting different functions or
subroutines in order to control the accessibility and the flow of data.
Internet & Web Technology

Figure 1.1 Computer Network

This was the procedural programming approach or, in other words, procedure
– oriented programming (POP) approach that focuses on creating and
sequencing of procedures or a block of code keeping in mind to accomplish a
job. It involves the various functionalities as:

1.2 Types Computer Networks

Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics

such as medium used to transport the data, communications protocol used,
scale, topology, organizational scope, etc. The various types of computer
networks are:

 Local Area Network

 Metropolitan Area Network
 Wide Area Network

1.2.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is a privately-owned network, using a transmission technology
consisting of a single cable to which all the machines are attached, spans
within a single building or campus of up to a few kilometers in size.
Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 to 100 Mbps, have low delay (tens of
microseconds) and make very few errors while the newer ones may operate
at higher speeds, up to hundreds of megabits/seconds. LANs might be
related to the telephone lines.

1.2.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

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MAN is a bigger version of LAN that covers a group of nearby corporate

offices or a city and might be either private or public. A cable television
network available in many cities may be the best example of a MAN. MAN
links between local area networks have been built without cables using
microwave, radio, or infra-red laser links. Most companies rent or lease
circuits from common carriers due to the fact that laying long stretches of
cable can be expensive. A MAN might look like the system as shown in figure
1.2.

Figure. 1.2 A Metropolitan Area Network

1.2.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)

Wide Area Network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country
or continent. It contains a collection of machines intended for running user
(i.e. application) programs. These machines are called as hosts, which are
connected by a communication subnet. The hosts are owned by the
customers, whereas the communication subnet is typically owned and
operated by a telephone company or Internet Service Provider. The job of the
subnet is to carry messages from host to host.

Apart from these, there are few more types of networks which are categorized
depending on their purpose. These are:

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Personal Area Network (PAN)

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for

communication among computer and different information technological
devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a
PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs,
scanners, and even video game consoles. A PAN may include wired and
wireless devices. The reach of a PAN typically extends to 10 meters.

Campus Area Network (CAN)

A campus network is a computer network made up of an interconnection of

LANs within a limited geographical area. The networking equipment
(switches, routers) and transmission media (optical fiber, copper
plant, Cat5 cabling etc.) are almost entirely owned (by the campus tenant /
owner: an enterprise, university, government etc.).

In the case of a university campus-based campus network, the network is

likely to link a variety of campus buildings including, for example, academic
colleges or departments, the university library, and student residence halls.

Virtual Private Network (VPN)

A virtual private network (VPN) is a computer network in which some of the

links between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits in
some larger network (e.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires. The
data link layer protocols of the virtual network are said to be tunneled
through the larger network when this is the case.

Internetwork

A common form of internet is a collection LANs connected by a WAN. Thus,

an Internet or Internetwork may be defined as the collection of
interconnected networks. An Internetwork is formed when distinct networks
are connected together via telephone lines, or cable connection or satellite
communication.

1.3 Introduction to Internet

The Internet sometimes called the “Information Superhighway”, is a worldwide

publicly accessible series of interconnected computer networks that transmit data
by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP).

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It is a “network of networks” that consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic,

business, and government networks, which together carry various information and
services, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer, and the interlinked web
pages and other resources of the World Wide Web. Internet is a collection of
interconnected computer networks, linked by copper wires, fiber-optic cables,
wireless connections, etc.

Over the Internet, the data is transmitted by packet switching technique using the
standard Internet Protocol (IP). Packet Switching refers to the protocols in which
messages are divided into packets before they are sent. Each packet is then
transmitted individually and can even follow different routes towards its
destination. Once all the packets forming a message arrive at its destination they
are recompiled or re-assembled into the original message.

1.3.1 Services Provided by the Internet

Internet provides various useful services to the users in their day to day life
in almost every field. Some of these are as follows:

Discussion Groups

Discussion Group over Internet is a platform provided to several people

to communicate and discuss on the topic of their common interest.
There are basically two types of discussion groups:

a. E-mail Discussion Groups.

These provide a platform for discussion among several
people within a group having common interest. It involves
posting of messages directly to the members of the group
through e-mails.
b. Usenet Discussion Groups.
It is a massive system of worldwide discussion where all the
messages are posted on a bulletin board for a particular
period of time.

Long Distance Computing

Long Distance Computing involves the communication at long

distances. One can connect to a far away world very easily over
Internet. This service provides various facilities like:

a. Long Distance calling, i.e. one can call a person in US

while sitting himself in India at cheaper rate as compared to
telephone calls.
b. Distance Learning Over Internet, i.e. there are many
courses available over Internet to be studied while sitting at
home only.
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c. Video Conferencing, i.e. one can have conversation with

other at different location just like the way they have face –
to – face conversation.

File Transfer

File transfer provides facilities for transferring different types of files

from one computer to another. It uses File Transfer Protocol (FTP), a
commonly used protocol for exchanging files on a network to
manipulate the files on another computer on that network.

E-mail

The most widely used service of Internet is E-mail service i.e. electronic
mail. E-mail may be defined as an electronic media of communication
i.e. sending and receiving messages from one computer to another.

1.4 History of Internet

The foundation of Internet is found by the global interconnection of

hundreds of thousands of independent computers, communication entities,
and the information systems. What makes the interconnection possible is
the use of a set of communication standards, procedures and formats in
common among the networks and the various devices and computational
facilities connected to them. The procedures by which computers
communicate with each other are called protocols. The history of Internet
can be explained as follows:

1.4.1 In 1970s
Initially the protocols used by the Internet were the Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). TCP/IP is the protocol that determines
how computers connect, send, and receive information on the Internet. TCP
permits communication between the various computers on the Internet and
IP specify how the data is routed from computer to computer.

In 1969, the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (variously

called ARPA/DARPA), an agency within the Department of Defense,
commissioned a wide area computer network called ARPANET, to share
“super-computing” power. This network made use of the new packet
switching concepts for interconnecting computers and initially linked
computers at Universities and other research institutions in the United
States and in selected NATO countries. In 1970s, the ARPANET was

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essentially the only realistic wide-area computer network in existence with a

base of several dozens organizations, perhaps twice that number of
computers and numerous researchers at those sites.

1.4.2 In 1980s
In 1980s, as the Internet grew, the Domain Name System (DNS) was
developed, to allow the network to expand more easily by assigning names to
host computers in a distributed fashion.

1.4.3 In 1990s
In 1990s, lots of commercial organizations started getting online. Graphical
browsing tools were developed, and the programming language HTML
allowed users all over the world to publish on what was called the World
Wide Web. Millions of people went online to work, shop, bank and be
entertained.

The Key reasons for the Internet’s great success:

1. Decisions were made on a technical rather than political basis.

2. The Internet did not require a centralized structure that would not
scale up; it was and is a distributed operation.
3. The Internet allowed people to do things of inherent interest, such
as sending and receiving emails.
4. The software involved was free or very low cost.

Based on the past history, it can be assumed that the Internet will continue
to grow, change, support new applications.

1.5 Applications of Internet

 Assignment

1.6 Working of Internet

Working of Internet can be better explained by considering various issues as

mentioned below:

 Network Benefits
 Interconnected Networks & Communication
 Physical Components
 Network Connections
 IP Addresses
 IPv6
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 Web Page Retrieval

1.6.1 Network Benefits

 Provide Convenience: Computers on network can backup their files

over the network.

 Allow Sharing: Networked computers can share resources, such as

disks & printers.

 Facilitate Communications: Sending and receiving email,

transferring files, and videoconferencing.

 Generate Savings: Networked computers can provide more computing

power for less money. Several small computers connected on a
network can provide as much as or more computing power than a
single, large computer and will cost much less. Also, since resources
can be shared, not everyone needs their own peripherals, which can
result in a substantial cost savings.

 Provide Reliability: If one part of a network is down, useful work may

still be possible using a different network path.

 Simplify Scalability: It is relatively easy to add more computers to an

existing network.

1.6.2 Interconnected Networks & Communication

The Internet is essentially a “network of networks”, the communication
among which depends on a common set of protocols. The protocol that
determines how the computers connect, send, and receive information on
the Internet is Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). The
TCP permits communication between the various computers on the Internet,
and IP specifies how data is routed from computer to computer.

The TCP/IP provides “Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)” for sending
an email message, and “Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)” for a Web
Page request. TCP/IP divides the information to be sent into smaller pieces
called packets and then transmit them over Internet.

Advantages of Packets:-

 Error Recovery. If a packet gets corrupted, only that packet needs

to be resent, not the entire message.
 Load Distribution. If one area of the network is congested, packets
can be routed to less busy areas.
 Flexibility. If the network experiences a failure or disruption in
one locale, packet can be rerouted.
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In addition to the message pieces, each packet of data also contains

information about the computer that sent it, the computer it is being sent to,
a sequence number indicating where the packet fits in the overall message
and error checking information to ensure that packet is not corrupted while
in transit. The packets are reassembled after being received at the
destination computer. A message is sent from the destination computer to
the sending computer to resend any missing or corrupted packets. This
method of packet switching does not require the packets to be sent in
sequential order.
Packets IP is used to
route the
1 2 3 1 2 3 packets
4 5 6 TCP converts
a message Network
4 5 6
7 8 9 into a stream
of packets
Original Message 7 8 9
5

Source
1 2 3
8
4 6

7 9

Destination

Figure 1.3 Packet Switching

1.6.3 Physical Components

In addition to various software protocols, Internet includes a host of physical
components as well:

 Servers
 Routers
 Communication Media

Server: Servers are the computers that answers the requests for services,
such as list servers, mail servers, & news servers.

Router: Routers are the special-purpose computers that directs data

packets along the network. Routers can detect whether the part of the
network is down or congested and can then reroute traffic just like a traffic
cop.

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Communication Media: Communication media provides means to transport

packets of information like:

 Copper Wires – transmit messages as electrical impulses.

 Fiber Optic Cables – uses light waves to transmit messages.
 Radio waves, Microwaves, Infrared Light & Visible Light – all
carry messages through air.

1.6.4 Network Connections

Connecting to the Internet from homes generally requires the use of a
modem and a regular telephone line (copper wire) to connect to an
Internet Service Provider (ISP). A second modem at the ISP’s end completes
the connection and slower the two modem speeds determines the maximum
connection speed, usually 56 kbps. Modem (Modulator – Demodulator), is a
device needed to convert data from digital to analog and analog to digital.
Business, organization, network typically uses Network Interface Cards
(NIC) instead of modems. These systems have a higher speed connection,
usually 56 kbps or better, to their ISPs. Such connections are usually leased
from the telephone company.

Another option is an Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) which is

slightly more expensive but uses regular telephone lines and replaces
modems with special adaptors up to five times faster than traditional
modems.

1.6.5 Client – Server Model

The client – server model consists of two parts:

 Client, that request for some service

 Server, that serves the client for any request.

Request

Client Network Server

Response

Figure 1.4 Client-Server Model

The client – server model is based on the request – serve principle as shown
in figure 1.4. The client makes a request to the server for any information or

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resources over network by sending a request message. Then the server

serves the client on his request by providing the required information or
resources.

1.6.6 IP Addresses
Each computer connected over a network must have a unique name or
address to be identified uniquely. Computers are best suited to manipulate
numbers, thus every computer is assigned a numeric address, called IP
Address. An IP Address is a 32 bit or four byte address, each byte separated
by a dot. One byte represent a number from 0 (00000000) to 255
(11111111). Each IP Address consists of a network component and a Host
Component.

Figure 1.5 IP address

IP Address plays an important role in the routing of packets over the

Internet. Source and Destination IP Addresses are included in each packet.
In essence, the address provides directions on where the packets should go.
A central authority manages IP Addresses; otherwise conflicts might arise.

The Network Information Center (NIC) is in charge of assigning IP

Addresses. IP Addresses are 32 – bit numbers, whereas Domain Names are
easy – to – remember symbolic strings. A program called a Resolver takes
care of the translation i.e., conversion of a symbolic name into its
corresponding IP Address. Types of IP Addresses:

 Static IP Address.
A permanently assigned IP Address, one that is given to a computer or
router connected to the Internet is called a static IP address.

 Dynamic IP Address.

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If one is connected to the Internet through an ISP, then typically each

time the user connects, he will be assigned a different IP address,
called a dynamic IP address, from the ISPs pool of IP addresses.

1.7 Modes of Connecting to Internet

To connect to the network a user needs to subscribe with an Internet

Service Provider. An Internet service provider (ISP) is a company that
supplies Internet connectivity to home and business customers. ISPs employ
a range of technologies to enable consumers to connect to their network. For
users and small businesses, traditional options include: dial-up, DSL
(typically Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line, ADSL), broadband wireless, cable
modem, fiber to the premises (FTTH), and Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN) (typically basic rate interface). For customers with more
demanding requirements, such as medium-to-large businesses, or other
ISPs, DSL (often Single-Pair High-speed Digital Subscriber Line or ADSL),
Ethernet, ISDN (B.R.I. or P.R.I.), and ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode). ISPs
support one or more forms of Internet access, ranging from traditional
modem dial-up to DSL and cable modem broadband service to dedicated
T1/T3 lines. More recently, wireless Internet service providers or WISPs
have emerged that offer Internet access through wireless LAN or wireless
broadband networks. In addition to basic connectivity, many ISPs also offer
related Internet services like email, Web hosting and access to software
tools.

 Access ISPs directly connect customers to the Internet using copper

wires, wireless or fiber-opticconnections.
 Hosting ISPs lease server space for smaller businesses and host other
people servers (colocation).
 Transit ISPs provide large tubes for connecting hosting ISPs to access
ISPs.

A few companies also offer free ISP service to those who need occasional
Internet connectivity. These free offerings feature limited connect time and
are often bundled with some other product or service. Thus there are five
different modes of connecting to the Internet:

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Figure 1.6 Modes of Connecting to Internet

1.7.1 Dial – up Connection

It uses analog telephone lines for establishing temporary communication.

The digital signals are converted into analog and analog into digital signals,
i.e. modulation – demodulation, using a device called as modem, used to
transmit the messages from one computer to another over the internet.

Advantages

The dial-up connection is cheaper just like a local telephone call.

Disadvantage

The speed of the connection is very low up to 28 kbps. A dedicated phone

line may speed up to 56 kbps (mostly below 46 kbps because of analog
phone lines and telephone company switches).

1.7.2 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

The mode of connecting to Internet that uses a special digital telephone line
that uses digital modems for sending and receiving digital signals over the
ISDN lines. The telephone line is divided into three channels, Basic Rate
Interface (BRI):

 Two 64 kbps bearer (B) – channels for sending the data, and

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 One 16 kbps data (D) – channel that sends the routing information for
sending the data.

Advantage

Its speed is higher as compared to that of a dial – up connection, i.e. ranging

from 64 kbps to 128 kbps.

Disadvantage

 It is not available with every ISP.

 It requires installation of switching equipment.

1.7.3 Cable TV Connection

It is a high speed link to always stay connected at low cost. Its performance
does not depend on the distance like DSL (Digital Subscriber Line). Its
downstream speed is higher as compared to the upstream speed.

Advantages

Its speed is higher as compared to that of a dial – up and ISDN, i.e. ranging
from 128 kbps to 10 mbps.

Disadvantage

It provides the Internet connection over a LAN. Thus, as the number of

users increases on a LAN, the performance degrades.

1.7.4 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

DSL is a high speed data service that works over POTS (Plain Old Telephone
Service). It uses different parts of frequency spectrum than analog voice
signals. So separate voice and data channels on same line. There are two
types of DSL connections:

Asynchronous Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)

ADSL provides different bandwidths in upstream and downstream. The

bandwidth in upstream if higher, i.e. up to 8 Mbps as compared to that in
downstream, i.e. up to 1.5 Mbps.

Synchronous Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL)

SDSL provides same bandwidth in both upstream as well as downstream.

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Advantages:

It provides two different frequency spectrums for voice as well as data

channels, thus providing continuous internet connection without interfering
with the telephone line.

Disadvantages:

DSLs with greater than 1.5 Mbps speed requires shorter distances to be
work upon.

1.7.5 Satellite Connection

Satellite connection works is just like getting TV signals from a satellite. It

provides the upload speed of up to 128 Kbps and the download speed is up
to 400 Kbps.

Disadvantage:

It is a unidirectional connection since it can only send data from the satellite
to the receiver but not from the receiver to the satellite. So a separate ISP is
needed to send data from receiver through the Internet.

1.8 Internet Working Devices

There are various devices that are required in the working of Internet. These
are:

Router

Network Switch

Hub Do it yourself

Bridge

Gateways

1.9 What is Intranet

An intranet is a computer network that uses Internet Protocol technology to

securely share any part of an organization's information or network
operating system within that organization. The term is used in contrast
to internet, a network between organizations, and instead refers to a network
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within an organization. Sometimes the term refers only to the organization's

internal website, but may be a more extensive part of the organization's
information technology infrastructure. It may host multiple private websites
and constitute an important component and focal point of internal
communication and collaboration. Any of the well known Internet protocols
may be found in an intranet, such as HTTP (web services), SMTP (e-mail),
and FTP (file transfer protocol). Internet technologies are often deployed to
provide modern interfaces to legacy information systems hosting corporate
data.

Intranets have also contrasted with extranets. While intranets are generally
restricted to employees of the organization, extranets may also be accessed
by customers, suppliers, or other approved parties, Extranets extend a
private network onto the Internet with special provisions for authentication,
authorization and accounting (AAA protocol).

1.9.1 Uses of Intranet

 Increasingly, intranets are being used to deliver tools and

applications, e.g., collaboration (to facilitate working in groups and
teleconferencing) or sophisticated corporate directories, sales and
customer relationship management tools, project management etc., to
advance productivity.

 Intranets are also being used as corporate culture-change platforms.

For example, large numbers of employees discussing key issues in an
intranet forum application could lead to new ideas in management,
productivity, quality, and other corporate issues.

 In large intranets, website traffic is often similar to public website

traffic and can be better understood by using web metrics software to
track overall activity. User surveys also improve intranet website
effectiveness. Larger businesses allow users within their intranet to
access public internet through firewall servers. They have the ability
to screen messages coming and going keeping security intact.

 When part of an intranet is made accessible to customers and others

outside the business, that part becomes part of an extranet.
Businesses can send private messages through the public network,
using special encryption/decryption and other security safeguards to
connect one part of their intranet to another.

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 Intranet user-experience, editorial, and technology teams work

together to produce in-house sites. Most commonly, intranets are
managed by the communications, HR or CIO departments of large
organizations, or some combination of these.

1.9.2 Benefits of Intranet

 Workforce productivity: Intranets can help users to locate and view

information faster and use applications relevant to their roles and
responsibilities. It also helps to improve the services provided to the
users.
 Time: Intranets allow organizations to distribute information to
employees on an as-needed basis; Employees may link to relevant
information at their convenience, rather than being distracted
indiscriminately by electronic mail.
 Communication: Intranets can serve as powerful tools for
communication within an organization, vertically and horizontally.
 Web publishing allows cumbersome corporate knowledge to be
maintained and easily accessed throughout the company
using hypermedia and Web technologies.
 Business operations and management: Intranets are also being used
as a platform for developing and deploying applications to support
business operations and decisions across the internetworked
enterprise.
 Cost-effective: Users can view information and data via web-browser
rather than maintaining physical documents such as procedure
manuals, internal phone list and requisition forms. This can
potentially save the business money on printing, duplicating
documents, and the environment as well as document maintenance
overhead.
 Enhance collaboration: Information is easily accessible by all
authorised users, which enables teamwork.
 Cross-platform capability: Standards-compliant web browsers are
available for Windows, Mac, and UNIX.
 Promote common corporate culture: Every user has the ability to
view the same information within the Intranet.

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 Immediate updates: When dealing with the public in any capacity,

laws, specifications, and parameters can change. Intranets make it
possible to provide your audience with "live" changes so they are kept
up-to-date, which can limit a company's liability.
 Supports a distributed computing architecture: The intranet can
also be linked to a company’s management information system, for
example a time keeping system.

1.10 Introduction to E-mailing System

E-mail or electronic mail may be defined as an electronic media of

communication i.e. sending or receiving messages from one computer to
another. The messages can be the notes entered from the keyboard or
electronic files stored on the disk.

E-mail does not require the receiver of the mail to be online at the time the
mail is sent. Sent messages are stored in electronic mailbox until the
recipient fetches them. After reading the mail, one can store it, forward it to
other person, or delete it as desired. Thus it is known as a Store – and –
forward method. Email also allows a user to distribute same message to a
large number of recipients simultaneously. Email emerged as an
inexpensive, efficient and faster means of communication as compared to
telephone calls or traditional postal mail service.

1.11 Structure of an E-mail

Any new email message received is always stored in the mailbox of the
system that displays the list of messages showing following details:

(i) Sender’s name who sent the message.

(ii) Subject line of the message (usually truncated).
(iii) Date on which the message was sent, and
(iv) Size of the message sent in Bytes.

Every email is composed of several components as mentioned below:

(i) Header

(ii) Body:
a. Text
b. Signature

(iii) MIME Attachment

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1.11.1 Header Section

The header part of a message provides various information as

explained below:

 From. This field indicates who sent the message and when.
 Date. This field repeats the date and time at which the message
was sent.
 To. This field indicates to whom the message was sent.
 Subject. This field indicates a hint as to what the message is
about.
 CC. This field tells us that the message was carbon copied to
another user.

One thing that doesn’t appear in the message but one must be aware
of it is:

 BCC. BCC stands for Blind Carbon Copy. It is used when the
sender of the message does not want one or the other recipients to
know about each other that the same message is copied to anyone
else also.

1.11.2 Body Section

The body section of a message includes two parts:

 Text
 Signature

Text. The main content of the message that shows the actual message
is the text part of the body section.

Signature. The other part of the body section of a message is known

as Signature of the person sending the message. It provides the
information details of the sender like Sender’s name, email address,
phone number, address, and so on.

1.11.3 MIME Attachment

Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME) provides the facility of

sending binary files along with the text through an email. These files
may include graphics, a spreadsheet document, video, voice and/or a
word processor document.

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