Aim

To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward

bias and reverse bias.

Apparatus
A p-n junction (semi-conductor) diode, a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt
battery, a high resistance rheostat, one 0-3 volt voltmeter, one
0-50 volt voltmeter, one 0-100 mA ammeter, one 0-100 μA
ammeter, one way key, connecting wires and pieces of sand
paper.

Theory

What is P-N Junction?

A P-N junction is an interface or a boundary between two
semiconductor material types, namely the p-type and the n-
type, inside a semiconductor.
In a semiconductor, the P-N junction is created by the method
of doping. The p-side or the positive side of the semiconductor
has an excess of holes, and the n-side or the negative side has
an excess of electrons. The process of doping is explained in
further detail in the next section.

Formation of P-N Junction

As we know, if we use different semiconductor materials to
make a P-N junction, there will be a grain boundary that would
inhibit the movement of electrons from one side to the other by
scattering the electrons and holes and thus, we use the
process of doping. We will understand the process of doping
with the help of this example. Let us consider a thin p-type
silicon semiconductor sheet. If we add a small amount of
pentavalent impurity to this, a part of the p-type Si will get
converted to n-type silicon. This sheet will now contain both the
p-type region and the n-type region and a junction between
these two regions. The processes that follow after forming a P-
N junction are of two types – diffusion and drift. There is a
difference in the concentration of holes and electrons at the two
sides of a junction. The holes from the p-side diffuse to the n-
side, and the electrons from the n-side diffuse to the p-side.
These give rise to a diffusion current across the junction.

Also, when an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-side,

an ionised donor is left behind on the n-side, which is immobile.
As the process goes on, a layer of positive charge is developed
on the n-side of the junction. Similarly, when a hole goes from
the p-side to the n-side, an ionized acceptor is left behind on
the p-side, resulting in the formation of a layer of negative
charges in the p-side of the junction. This region of positive
charge and negative charge on either side of the junction is
termed as the depletion region. Due to this positive space
charge region on either side of the junction, an electric field with
the direction from a positive charge towards the negative
charge is developed. Due to this electric field, an electron on
the p-side of the junction moves to the n-side of the junction.
This motion is termed the drift. Here, we see that the direction
of the drift current is opposite to that of the diffusion current.

Biasing Conditions for the P-N Junction Diode

There are two operating regions in the P-N junction diode:

 P-type
 N-type

There are three biasing conditions for the P-N junction diode,
and this is based on the voltage applied:

 Zero bias: No external voltage is applied to the P-N

junction diode.
 Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential
is connected to the p-type while the negative terminal is
connected to the n-type.
 Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage
potential is connected to the p-type and the positive is
connected to the n-type.

Forward Bias
When the p-type is connected to the battery’s positive terminal
and the n-type to the negative terminal, then the P-N junction is
said to be forward-biased. When the P-N junction is forward
biased, the built-in electric field at the P-N junction and the
applied electric field are in opposite directions. When both the
electric fields add up, the resultant electric field has a
magnitude lesser than the built-in electric field. This results in a
less resistive and thinner depletion region. The depletion
region’s resistance becomes negligible when the applied
voltage is large. In silicon, at the voltage of 0.6 V, the
resistance of the depletion region becomes completely
negligible, and the current flows across it unimpeded.
 Reverse Bias
When the p-type is connected to the battery’s negative terminal
and the n-type is connected to the positive side, the P-N
junction is reverse biased. In this case, the built-in electric field
and the applied electric field are in the same direction. When
the two fields are added, the resultant electric field is in the
same direction as the built-in electric field, creating a more
resistive, thicker depletion region. The depletion region
becomes more resistive and thicker if the applied voltage
becomes larger.

Procedure

For forward-bias
1. Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram.
2. Make all connections neat, clean and tight.
3. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and milli-
ammeter (mA).
4. Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near
negative end and insert the key K. Voltmeter V and milli-
ammeter mA will give zero reading.
5. Move the contact a little towards positive end to apply a
forward-bias voltage (VF) of
0. 1 V. Current remains zero.
6. Increase the forward-bias voltage upto 0.3 V for Ge diode.
Current remains zero, (It is due to junction potential barrier of
0.3 V).
7. Increase VF to 0.4 V. Milli-ammeter records a small current.
8. Increase VF in steps of 0.2 V and note the corresponding
current. Current increases first slowly and then rapidly, till VF
becomes 0.7 V.
9. Make VF = 0.72 V. The current increases suddenly. This
represents “forward break-down” stage.
10. If the VF increases beyond “forward breakdown” stage, the
forward current does not change much. Now take out the key at
once.
11. Record your observations as given ahead.
For reverse-bias
12. Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram.
13. Make all connections neat, clean and tight.
14. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and micro-
ammeter (μA).
15. Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near
positive end and insert the key K Voltmeter V and micro-
ammeter μA will give zero reading.
16. Move the contact towards negative end to apply a
reverse-bias voltage (VR) of 0.5 V, a feebly reverse current
starts flowing.
17. Increase VR in steps of 0.2 V. Current increases first
slowly and then rapidly till VR becomes 20 V. Note the current.
18. Make VR = 25 V. The current increases suddenly. This
represents “reverse break-down” stage. Note the current and
take out the key at once.
19. Record your observations as given ahead.

Observations
For forward-bias
Range of voltmeter = …..V
Least count of voltmeter = …..V
Zero error of voltmeter = …..V
Range of milli-ammeter = …..mA
Least count of milli-ammeter = …..mA
Zero error of milli-ammeter = …..mA

1. Table for forward-bias voltage and forward

current

Note. The readings are as a sample.

For reverse-bias
Range of voltmeter = …..V
Least count of voltmeter = …..V
Zero error of voltmeter = …..V
Range of micro-ammeter = …..μA
Least count of micro-ammeter = …..μA
Zero error of micro-ammeter = …..
2. Table for reverse-bias voltage and reverse
current

Note. The readings are given as a sample.

Calculations

For forward-bias
Plot a graph between forward-bias voltage VF (column 2) and
forward current IF (column 3) taking VF along X-axis and
IF along Y-axis.
This graph is called forward-bias characteristic curve a junction
diode.
For reverse-bias
Plot a graph between reverse-bias voltage VR (column 2) and
reverse current IR (column 3) taking VR along X-axis and
IR along Y-axis.
This graph is called reverse-bias characteristic curve of a
junction diode.
 Result
Junction resistance for forward-bias = 40 ohms
Junction resistance for reverse-bias = 2 x 106 ohms.

Precautions
1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not
being used.
3. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
4. Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.

Sources of error
1. The junction diode supplied may be faulty.