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ASEAN Journal of Science and Engineering 5(1) (2025) 1-30

ASEAN Journal of Science and Engineering

Journal homepage: http://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/AJSE/

Comprehensive Review on Wastewater Treatment using

Nanoparticles: Synthesis of Iron Oxide Magnetic Nanoparticles,
Publication Trends via Bibliometric Analysis, Applications,
Enhanced Support Strategies, and Future Perspectives
M. N. Mohammed1, Oday I. Abdullah1,2,3,*, Muhsin Jaber Jweeg4, H. S. S. Aljibori5 , Thamer Adnan Abdullah6,
Nabil Majd Alawi3, Rashed T. Rasheed6, Faiza Meharban7, Husam Talib Hamzah8, Qusay Al-Obaidi6

1Gulf University, Bahrain

2AlNaji University, Baghdad, Iraq
3University of Baghdad, Iraq
4Al-Farahidi University, Iraq
5University of Warith Al-Anbiyaa, Iraq
6University of Technology, Iraq
7Donghua University, China
8Andhra University, India

*Correspondence: E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT ARTICLE INFO

This article explored the effectiveness of Iron oxide magnetic Article History:
nanoparticles (IONPs) in removing pollutants from wastewater Submitted/Received 19 Oct 2024
First revised 23 Nov 2024
generated by various industrial and agricultural sources. We
Accepted 07 Jan 2025
explained the synthesis methods for superparamagnetic IONPs and First available online 08 Jan 2025
supported IONPs, providing recent examples from the literature that Publication date 01 Mar 2025
illustrate their efficacy in producing nanoparticles suitable for ____________________
wastewater treatment. We also discussed the application of these Keyword:
magnetic nanoparticles in removing a range of pollutants, including Bibliometric,
dyes, heavy metals, pharmaceuticals, and small organic molecules, Developed treatments,
highlighting the potential of various types of IONPs in wastewater Iron oxide magnetic
nanoparticles,
remediation. Bibliometric analysis was also used, helping us
Wastewater.
understand the developmental nuances of a specific field and
highlights emerging areas. Furthermore, we investigated
modifications to IONPs and the creation of composites with organic
and metal supports to enhance their adsorption capacity and
recyclability. Lastly, we addressed the environmental impact and
safety considerations associated with using IONPs in wastewater
treatment, emphasizing the need for further research to tackle these
issues. Overall, this comprehensive review provides valuable insights
into applying IONPs in wastewater treatment, from the direct use of
IONPs to enhanced supported IONPs, paving the way for sustainable
and efficient water purification to promote a healthier environment.
© 2025 Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
 Mohammed et al.., Comprehensive Review on Wastewater Treatment using Nanoparticles: … | 2

1. INTRODUCTION

Since the beginning of the era of the Industrial Revolution which is a double-edged sword,
the scarcity of pure water for drinking and other amenities made it challenging to provide
people with clean water [1]. One of the main causes of water pollution is the improper
dumping of industrial-contaminated water in mainstream water bodies, this water contains
radionuclides, organic dyes, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), heavy metals, poly acyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), pharmaceutical chemicals, pesticides, etc. [2]. Some of these
are biodegradable while others are non-biodegradable pollutants and pose serious health
risks for human health. The majority of these pollutants are carcinogens, genotoxins,
teratogens, or hepatotoxins which is the major concern for children as well as adults.
Consequently, remediation of water pollution is necessary to ensure public health and
environmental stability [3, 4].
Many reports regarding water treatment have been well-documented (Table 1).
Membrane filtration, precipitation, chemical processing, coagulation and flocculation, ion
exchange, biological methods, and adsorption are among the most common technologies
employed for wastewater treatment (WWT) [5, 6]. However, adsorption is one of the most
suitable techniques to target various contaminants in wastewater. Researchers are on a
continuous quest to mitigate the challenges associated with WWT, such as disposing of
massive waste generated in precipitation, getting rid of secondary metabolites as a product
of chemical processing, dealing with noxious sludge obtained during coagulation, fouling
during membrane filtration, lacking affinity in biological methods, and cost competency of the
processes [7]. Numerous advanced composite materials comprising silica, clay, carbon,
zeolite, and magnetic oxide nanoparticles have been recently employed for WWT as
adsorbents. The utilization of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) offers numerous advantages,
underscored by their distinctive properties and versatile responses. MNPs especially
superparamagnetic iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles (SPIONPs) exhibit a high specific
surface area, facilitating strong interactions with molecules and ions due to their favorable
surface-to-volume ratio [8, 9]. These characteristics, coupled with their high absorption
efficiency, render them highly effective in WWT applications. Furthermore, SPIONPs have
penetration resistance, attributed to their ability to eliminate internal absorption surfaces in
porous adsorbents, ultimately enhancing their efficacy in adsorption processes, especially in
WWT. Additionally, iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles (IONPs) can be efficiently removed
from water post-treatment due to their magnetic character through the application of
magnets, enabling easy separation and reuse of these IONPs [10, 11].
Table 1. Previous studies relating to water treatment.
No Title Technique used for Ref
wastewater treatment
1 Membrane bioreactor for domestic wastewater treatment: Domestic wastewater [12]
Principles, challenges, and future research directions. treatment
2 Changes of heavy metal concentrations in Shitalakhya river Seasonal heavy metal [13]
water of Bangladesh with seasons. changes
3 Monitoring heavy metal contamination levels and Heavy metal [14]
microbiological pollution in seawater of Agadir coastal zones.
contamination
4 The comparison of electrodialysis and nanofiltration in nitrate
Nitrate removal methods [15]
removal from groundwater.
5 Performance and energy consumption evaluation of Energy use in wastewater [16]
rotating biological contactor for domestic wastewater treatment
treatment.
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Table 1 (continue). Previous studies relating to water treatment.

No Title Technique used for Ref
wastewater treatment
6 Physico-chemical investigation of wastewater from the Textile wastewater analysis [17]
Sebdou-Tlemcen textile complex in North-West Algeria.
7 Assessment of iron contamination in groundwater of Iron contamination in [18]
catchment area water. groundwater
8 Step-by-step fabrication of PVDF-TiO2 hollow fiber Desalination membrane [19]
membrane and its application desalination of wetland fabrication
saline water via pervaporation
9 Effect of water regime and soil maintenance mode on Peach tree growth factors [20]
vegetative growth and peach tree production
10 Real time water quality monitoring system for smart city in Real-time water monitoring [21]
Malaysia.
11 Assessment and optimization of coagulation process in Water coagulation [22]
water treatment plant: A review. optimization
12 Effect of substrate and water on cultivation of Sumba Seaworm cultivation [23]
seaworm (nyale) and experimental practicum design for methods
improving critical and creative thinking skills of prospective
science teacher in biology and supporting sustainable
development goals (SDGs).
13 Design-construction of a solar cell energy water pump as a Solar water pump design [24]
clean water source for people in Sirnajaya village,
Gununghalu district.
14 Design of micro-controlled swimming pool water quality Pool water monitoring [25]
monitoring system with SMS notification for educational system
purposes with cost analysis.
15 A step-by-step experimental procedure for water quality Water quality teaching model [26]
assessment of blue lagoon: Comparison to socio-
demographic and economic profile for a teaching model.
16 Improvement of the technology of industrial wastewater Industrial wastewater [27]
treatment in the mining industry. treatment
17 Plastic in water and its implications in human and biological Plastic impact on water [28]
systems.
18 Education of dietary habit and drinking water quality to Dietary habits and immunity [29]
increase body immunity for elementary school.
19 Performance investigation of surface modified ceramic Ceramic membrane [30]
microfiltration membranes of ionic water treatment. performance
20 Emulsion liquid membrane (ELM) enhanced by Vanadium extraction with [31]
nanoparticles and ionic liquid for extracting vanadium ions ELM
from wastewater.
21 A comprehensive analysis of the hydrogen generation Hydrogen generation via [32]
technology through electrochemical water and industrial electrolysis
wastewater electrolysis.
22 Biodegradability enhancement of oily wastewater by an Enhancing oily wastewater [33]
SBR treatment methods. biodegradability
23 Anticancer properties of titanium dioxide (TiO2) TiO2 nanoparticles’ [34]
nanoparticles obtained from Quercus anticancer properties
infectoria plant extract.
24 Effect of magnesium oxide nanoparticles (Mgo) on MgO in wastewater [35]
wastewater treatment and electric current generation treatment
using microbial fuel cell technology.

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Different iron oxides particularly magnetite (Fe3O4) have been extensively explored as a
remediation agent in advanced oxidation processes for small organic molecules, magnetized
coagulation, and as an effective adsorbent for the removal of pollutants from wastewater.
Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) composed of magnetite have been investigated extensively
for their size and shape control, as well as their non-toxic properties after the treatment.
Magnetite which is a combination of Fe(II) and Fe(III) salts during co-precipitation under basic
conditions results in unique magnetic characteristics and exceptional absorption capabilities
for pollutants [36] As one of the most abundant oxides in iron ores, magnetite's utilization
offers a sustainable and cost-effective alternative in WWT, leveraging iron's abundance as the
most prevalent transition metal for the synthesis of adsorbents to remove pollutants from
water [37]. IONPs magnetic properties, along with their ability to serve as a recyclable
heterogeneous catalyst/adsorbent, not only facilitate toxin absorption and removal but also
enable the conversion of toxins into value-added products for after-use [38, 39]. While pure
IONPs without the addition of any supports or other metal referred to as SPIONPs have been
extensively studied WWT, they often exhibit lower activity compared to other metal
nanoparticles or hybrid systems. To address this issue, various immobilization/modification
methods have been developed to anchor active metals onto the surface of the magnetic
nanoparticles or to mix the IONPs with other metals. By using IONPs as a core and
immobilizing active metals on the surface or the other way around, adsorption ability can be
enhanced. Furthermore, employing IONPs as supports can enhance the stability and
recyclability of previously unstable nanoparticles that were very effective but lacked effective
recyclability [40, 41]. Additionally, IONPs' precise size and shape control, along with their non-
toxic and inert nature, make them a preferred catalyst support in various photocatalytic
applications [42].
The purpose of writing this review paper is to extensively explore applications of IONPs in
wastewater treatment through in-depth analysis of various recently published research. This
work aims to elucidate the effectiveness of IONPs in the removal of different pollutants,
including organic/inorganic dyes, heavy metals, pharmaceuticals, and small organic
molecules. Additionally, this review highlights the importance of modifications in IONPs in
enhancing the adsorption capacity and recyclability by coupling them with other metals or
composite materials. By addressing these concerns associated with WWT and providing
insights into the potential of IONPs-based WWT, this paper contributes to the advancement
of sustainable solutions for water purification by reviewing the most recent progress in the
field.
This paper is important, as shown by excellent trends in publication (see Figure 1). Detailed
information on how to get bibliometric analysis data using Scopus is explained elsewhere [43].
Bibliometric is important [44-46]. Previous studies relating to bibliometrics are explained in
Table 2 and Figure 1 [44].
Table 2. Previous reports on bibliometric analysis.
No Title Focusing Research & Ref
Objectives
1 The latest report on the advantages and disadvantages of pure Impact of Pure Biodiesel [47]
biodiesel (B100) on engine performance: Literature review and (B100) on Engine
bibliometric analysis Performance
2 A bibliometric analysis of management bioenergy research Bioenergy Research [48]
using vosviewer application Management

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Table 2 (continue). Previous reports on bibliometric analysis.

No Title Focusing Research & Ref
Objectives
3 Oil palm empty fruit bunch waste pretreatment with Biomass Pretreatment [49]
benzotriazolium-based ionic liquids for cellulose conversion to and Cellulose Conversion
glucose: Experiments with computational bibliometric analysis
4 Research mapping in the use of technology for fake news Fake News Detection [50]
detection: Bibliometric analysis from 2011 to 2021 Technologies
5 Research mapping in the use of technology for fake news Fake News Detection [51]
detection: Bibliometric analysis from 2011 to 2021 Technologies
6 Management information systems: bibliometric analysis and its Impact of MIS on [52]
effect on decision making Decision Making
7 Phytochemical profile and biological activities of ethylacetate Phytochemicals and [53]
extract of peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) stems: In-vitro and in- Biological Activity
silico studies with bibliometric analysis.
8 Biomass-based supercapacitors electrodes for electrical energy Biomass-Based [54]
storage systems activated using chemical activation method: A Supercapacitors for
literature review and bibliometric analysis Energy Storage
9 Antiangiogenesis activity of Indonesian local black garlic (Allium Antiangiogenesis [55]
Sativum ‘Solo): Experiments and bibliometric analysis Properties of Black Garlic
10 Dental suction aerosol: Bibliometric analysis Dental Aerosol Studies [56]
11 Bibliometric analysis of nano metal-organic frameworks Nano Metal-Organic [57]
synthesis research in medical science using VOSviewer Frameworks in Medicine
12 Research trends from the Scopus database using keyword water Water Hyacinth and [58]
hyacinth and ecosystem: A bibliometric literature review Ecosystem Research
13 Chatbot artificial intelligence as educational tools in science and Chatbots in Science and [59]
engineering education: A literature review and bibliometric Engineering Education
mapping analysis with its advantages and disadvantages.
14 Sustainable Production-inventory model with multimaterial, bibliometric analysis [60]
quality degradation, and probabilistic demand: From
bibliometric analysis to a robust model
15 How technology can change educational research? Definition, Technology in [61]
factors for improving quality of education, and computational Educational Research
bibliometric analysis
16 Effects of sustained deficit irrigation on vegetative growth and Impact of Deficit [62]
yield of plum trees under the semi-arid conditions: Experiments Irrigation on Plum Trees
and review with bibliometric analysis
17 Hydroxyapatite as Delivery and Carrier Material: Systematic Hydroxyapatite in Drug [63]
Literature Review with Bibliometric Analysis Delivery
18 Development of intelligent tutoring system model in the Intelligent Tutoring [64]
learning system of the Indonesian national armed forces Systems in Military
completed with bibliometric analysis. Education
19 Artificial intelligence (AI)-based learning media: Definition, AI-Based Learning Media [65]
bibliometric, classification, and issues for enhancing creative in Education
thinking in education
21 Bibliometric analysis of high school keyword using VOSviewer High School Education [66]
indexed by Google Scholar Research Trends
22 Use of blockchain technology for the exchange and secure blockchain technology [67]
transmission of medical images in the cloud: Systematic review
with bibliometric analysis
23 The use of mobile learning in schools as a learning media: Bibliometric analysis [68]
Bibliometric analysis

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Figure 1. Research trend using keywords “iron oxide nanoparticle wastewater” taken on
October 2024.
2. METHODS

To conduct this review, a comprehensive literature survey was performed, focusing on

publications related to Iron Oxide Magnetic Nanoparticles (IONPs) and their applications in
wastewater treatment. The search was conducted using various academic databases,
including Scopus, Google Scholar, and Web of Science, to ensure a broad coverage of relevant
studies. The review encompassed literature published from 2010 to 2024, capturing
significant advancements and trends in the field. Keywords such as "Iron Oxide
Nanoparticles," "wastewater treatment," and "synthesis methods" were utilized to filter the
most pertinent articles. This systematic approach allowed for the identification of key
research themes, methodologies, and outcomes, providing a solid foundation for
understanding the current state of research on IONPs. The findings were then analyzed to
highlight gaps in the literature and suggest future research directions.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Synthesis Methods for SPIONPs
To clarify before starting to discuss different methods, where SPIONPs only contain iron
and no other supporting metal oxides or materials. Different synthetic approaches have been
reported for the preparation of SPIONPs which include chemical, physical, and biological
methods. Iron-based nanoparticles can be synthesized in various forms, including magnetite
(Fe3O4), maghemite (γ-Fe2O3), hematite (α-Fe2O3), iron oxy-hydroxide (FeOOH), and metallic
zerovalent iron (ZVI). Chemical synthesis is favored for its precise control over nanoparticle
shape and size. The most commonly used chemical synthesis methods include co-
precipitation, hydrothermal, thermal decomposition, microemulsion, and sol-gel technology.
Synthesizing SPIONPs is a meticulous and multistep process requiring optimization from the
initial design phase, as even minor variations in production parameters can significantly
impact the final product [69]. Hence, strict control over both physical and chemical properties
is essential to meet diverse application requirements. Figure 2 provides an overview of some
of the commonly used methods to prepare SPIONPs. Table 3 represents some of the IONPS
and their respective synthesis methods and final applications in different industries.

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Figure 2. Synthesis methods for Magnetic Iron oxide nanoparticles (MIONPs).

3.1.1. Co-precipitation Method
The co-precipitation method stands out as a widely used approach for synthesizing IONPs,
owing to the non-toxic nature of the starting materials typically used. This method exploits
the phenomenon of co-precipitation, where a precipitate carries down one or more
substances that are typically soluble under these conditions through nucleation and
subsequent grain growth. Notably, IONPs can be synthesized using this method under an inert
nitrogen (N2) atmosphere. Co-precipitation synthesis yields IONPs with a broad distribution
around diameter ranging from 5 to 40 nm [70, 71]. The physical properties of the resultant
IONPs are dependent on various reaction conditions like which type of salts are employed
and at what pH the reaction is carried. Shabani et al. synthesized Fe3O4 nanoparticles (NPs)
utilizing the co-precipitation method and studied their coagulation efficiency in WWT. The
synthesized IONPs exhibited purity, with sizes in the range of 22 to 32 nm, and a surface area
of 99.6 m2/g with a pore diameter of 10.6 nm. The application of 0.2 g of synthetic IONPs
effectively reduced water turbidity to 100% from an initial turbidity of about 17 NTU at a pH
6 [72]. In another study, Nguyen et al., utilized the unique ultrasound-assisted co-
precipitation method to prepare magnetite NPs, this method yielded spherical particles with
sizes in the range of 10 to 15 nm. These IONP were employed as a magnetic adsorbent for the
removal of congo red dye from aqueous solutions [73]. Al-Madhagi et al., reviewed various
methods for the synthesis of IONPs, utilizing different iron precursors and reaction conditions
coupled with surface modifications, aimed at achieving mono-dispersity and superpara-
magnetism with diameters less than 30 nm [74].
3.1.2. Thermal Decomposition
Thermal decomposition is a highly effective method for producing magnetic IONPs with
narrow size distributions which offer precise control of the mean diameter of particles. This
process consists of two main approaches which are; (i) heating-up and (ii) hot-injection. In the
heating-up approach, a pre-mixed solution of metal precursor, surfactants, and the solvent is
heated until NPs begin to form clusters and grow [75]. In the second approach, hot-injection
induces rapid and uniform nucleation by injecting reagents into a hot surfactant solution
which is followed by controlled growth. Both these approaches involve heating a precursor
mixture in the presence of organic solvents and surfactants. Iron carbonyls and
acetylacetonates are commonly used non-magnetic precursors, while mostly fatty acids serve
as surfactants, excluding oleic acid. Argon/Nitrogen is essential for maintaining an inert
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atmosphere during the reaction [76]. The optimum temperature ranges from 100 °C to 350
°C, resulting in the production of crystalline IONPs with diameters of 4 to 30 nm [77]. Control
over temperature and reaction time is crucial for regulating the size of IONPs. Bhole et al.
used the thermal decomposition method to synthesize magnetite nanoparticles and named
as SS–Fe3O4-NPs using the extract of Sargassum spp. Which is a readily abundant marine
macroalgae found in the Western coastal region of India. These magnetite nanoparticles
demonstrated exceptional catalytic efficiency in degrading methylene blue dye, achieving a
remarkable 98% degradation within 25 minutes [78]. Effenberger et al., explored thermal
decomposition of iron (III) acetylacetonate in the presence of different surfactants to explain
their roles and find economically viable alternatives for synthesizing IONPs while controlling
their size and shape. It was discovered that certain affordable surfactants, such as 1,2-
octanediol and cyclohexanol can substitute the commonly used expensive 1,2-
hexadecanediol, offering a cost-effective pathway for producing high-quality magnetic
nanoparticles [76].
3.1.3. Hydrothermal Method
The hydrothermal method offers a versatile method for synthesizing a wide range of
IONPs. This method involves a system comprising solid metal oxides, precipitation agents and
a water-ethanol solution under high-temperature and high-pressure conditions.
Hydrothermal synthesis is conducted at temperatures around 100220°C and pressures
exceeding 107 Pa, with a total reaction duration of up to 72 hours [79]. Inside a Teflon-lined
stainless-steel autoclave, a temperature gradient is established which facilitates the
deposition of the mineral solute and growth of the desired NP. This technique yields NPs with
uniform shape and size which are adjustable from a few nanometers to several hundred
nanometers. Notably, NPs with small diameters are desirable for optimal magnetic
properties, the upper limit of formation of NPs is around 80 nm [80, 81]. Particle size and
distribution are greatly influenced by precursor concentration, reaction time, and
temperature [82]. Additionally, the hydrothermal Technique is eco-friendly and versatile,
requiring no organic solvents or post-treatments. Jesus et al., in a recent study comparatively
investigated the synthesis and magnetic characteristics of IONPs, examining two commonly
used synthesis methods; co-precipitation and hydrothermal using sucrose as a chelating
agent. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis reveals spherical-like particles with
an average size ranging from 3 to 10 nm in both cases with higher magnetic properties which
were tested for the dye removal from wastewater [83].
3.1.3. Micro-Emulsion Method
The microemulsion is a stable dispersion of two immiscible solvents in the presence of a
surfactant, forming a monolayer at the immiscible solvents interface exhibiting extremely low
interfacial tension between two layers. Within microemulsions, IONPs are synthesized via
intra-micellar nucleation and growth by following a standard procedure [84]. The
physicochemical properties of nanoparticles synthesized through this method primarily hinge
on the choice of surfactant. Typically, these nanoparticles exhibit a spherical shape, and near-
monodisperse distribution, with diameters ranging from 10 to 25 nm [85]. Water-in-Oil (W/O)
microemulsions are commonly used as reverse micelles in this method. Borad et al.,
synthesized maghemite NP within a water-in-oil microemulsion utilizing Sodium dioctyl
sulfosuccinate surfactant. The resulting IONPs were used as an adsorbent for hexavalent
chromium from water in a batch experiment [86].

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3.1.4. Sol-gel Method

This method of producing IONPs involves the hydroxylation and condensation of
precursors, leading to the formation of a colloidal solution known as the "sol" of NPs.
Subsequently, this sol is dried or "gelled" through solvent removal, resulting in the formation
of a three-dimensional network of iron oxide. Typically, water serves as the solvent in this
process, although acids or bases can also be employed to hydrolyze the precursors. The
reaction can be performed at room temperature and the size of the spherical IONPS can be
adjusted within the range of 15 to 50 nm [87, 88]. Khan et al., synthesized ε-Fe2O3 using the
sol-gel method. X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) indicated an amorphous state for the samples,
even after heat treatment up to 600 °C, at high temperatures, the formation of a fraction of
crystalline IO phases was seen. The presence of ε-Fe2O3 particles was found to be contingent
upon various factors, including particle size, annealing temperature, and initial iron
concentration in the chemicals. Optimized conditions for the synthesis of ε-Fe2O3-rich
samples were determined which resulted in the formation of approximately 90% of the ε-
Fe2O3 phase with a particle size of 15±0.6 nm [89]. Table 3 shows a Summarization of
Applications of Nanomaterials and different Synthesis methods.
Table 3. Applications of Nanomaterials and Synthesis methods.
Nanomaterials Synthesis methods Applications Ref
γ-Fe2O3 Crushing, sieving, solvent Water purification and environmental remediation [90]
extraction, and co-precipitation
Fe3O4 Thermal decomposition and Biomedicine and cancer treatment [91]
magnetic resonance
Fe3O4@AuNPs Sonochemical method Breast cancer treatment [92]
Fe3O4NPs A simple rapid stabilization Breast cancer treatment [92]
method
Fe3O4@AuNPs Sonochemical method Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and CT scan [93]
Fe3O4@AuCS Rapid sonochemical synthesis Cancer cell eradication and biomedical applications [94]
Fe3O4NPs, Sonochemical method and Drug delivery, MRI, and Biomedical applications [95]
AuNPs & Response Surface
Fe3O4@AuNPs
Fe2O3; Humic acid leaching and Subsurface water and soil treatment [96]
Suspension absorption process
FeOx film tailing Sputtering and Plasma Magnetic storage, electric devices, and iron ore [97]
emission monitoring tailing
applications
α-Fe2O3 and γ- Laser ablation Hyperthermia application [98]
Fe2O3
Fe3O4 thermal decomposition Magnetic storage, electric devices, and iron ore [99]
tailingapplications
Fe(CO3) thermal decomposition X-ray scattering, Magnetic data storage Magnetic [100]
Reso-nance Imaging (MRI)
Fe3O4; Magnetic Biosynthesis Tumor malignant detention and Vivo-Magnetic [101]
Hydrophobic ResonanceImaging (MRI) process
Fe2O3 and Fe3O4 Chemical co-precipitation Biomedical and Magnetic Resonance Imaging [102]
SPION (MRI) andMagnetic Particle Imaging (MPI)
Fe2O3 Biosynthesis Antimicrobial agents and Drug delivery systems [103]
AuFe3O4 Biosynthesis Antimicrobial testing, Prostate-specific and protein [104]
AgFe3O4 antigendetection
Fe3O4 Biosynthesis Photocatalytic degradation, Antibacterial agent, and [105]
Wastewater filtration
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3.2. Synthesis Methods for Supported Ionps

Various techniques exist for effectively immobilizing metal nanoparticles (NPs) onto the
surface. The selection of a specific method can significantly influence the stability,
morphology, and electron mobility of the resulting composite, making it a crucial
consideration in catalyst or absorbent design. In this review paper, we explored impregnation,
co-precipitation, coating, and grafting methods.
(i) Impregnation: Impregnation stands out as a widely utilized method for incorporating a
metal catalyst onto magnetic surfaces. It Is characterized by its simplicity and cost-
effectiveness, involving the direct precipitation or condensation of the metal NPs onto
the magnetic support (IONPs) [106]. However, this method does not use a stabilizer,
which can result in challenges related to reproducibility of shape and size. Consequently,
more intricate techniques have been explored to introduce greater control over the
impregnation process [107].
(ii) Co-Precipitation: Similar to the synthesis of SPIONPs using the co-precipitation method,
the IONPs with a support can also be prepared by using this method which involves
blending the active metal which can be titanium for photo-catalysis or any other metal
and supports (which in this case can be IONPS) to facilitate the formation and growth of
a solid precursor comprising both the active metal and support. This process involves
solvent evaporation which is followed by heat treatment, which results in well-
distributed metal oxide domains on the magnetic surface (IONPs). This one-step
approach can achieve very high loadings of active metal while maintaining a small
particle size, making it a favored choice for catalyst production with high loadings [108].
However, nucleation is sensitive to changes in reaction conditions, which can lead to non-
uniform growth or the precipitation of different phases within the NP cluster [109].
(iii) Coating: Coating serves as a widely adopted technique to address issues that arise with
bare magnetite (IONPs). The core is encapsulated and stabilized using some suitable
substances which is followed by the precipitation of the metal catalyst onto different
surfaces. Silica emerges as a prominent choice for coating magnetite due to its eco-
friendly nature, cost-effectiveness, and widespread availability [110]. Typically achieved
through the sol-gel method, this process involves applying a second layer containing an
active metal. While the addition of a stabilizer enhances the robustness of the catalyst,
it also leads to a significant increase in size, subsequently reducing the surface area-to-
volume ratio and impacting the activity of the magnetic nanoparticle [111].
(iv) Grafting: In addition to silica, customized ligands can serve as linkers between the IONPs
core and an active metal other than iron in the grafting method [112]. This approach is
designed to protect the IONP core from over-oxidation and enhance its stability.
Carefully chosen ligands can be used to fine-tune the selectivity, electron movement, and
activity of the IONPs. However, this technique does incur additional costs associated with
the production of these IONPs [113].
3.3. Wastewater treatment with IONPs
After assessing the primary methods for manufacturing superparamagnetic and supported
magnetic nanoparticles, this section delves into the removal of various organic and inorganic
pollutants from WW. Subsequent sections will present several studies where these SIONPs
have been utilized in treatment processes, including different removal methodologies like
adsorption and coagulation/flocculation [114]. Water and wastewater contaminants typically
fall into three main categories: pathogenic microorganisms, toxic organic compounds, and
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inorganic substances. Wastewater from diverse sources carries a multitude of potent

pollutants. For instance, non-biodegradable dyes originating from the textile, paint, and
leather industries are significant environmental pollutants. Heavy metals are also commonly
present in wastewater from various industries, posing potential toxicity and carcinogenic risks
to both humans and aquatic ecosystems [115, 116].
3.3.1. Dye Removal
Textile industry dyes such as methylene orange (MO), methylene blue (MB), and
Rhodamine B (RhB) pose significant environmental as well as health risks because of their
toxicity, mutagenic and carcinogenic effects. Their chemical and biological stability makes
them difficult to eliminate. However, Fe3O4 nanoparticles, synthesized through diverse
methods, have shown efficacy in degrading such organic compounds. Damasceno et al.
studied SPIONPs synthesized via chemical co-precipitation, followed by an investigation into
their adsorption performance for indigo carmine (IC) dye. Optimal parameters included for
dye removal were pH 4.0, contact time of about 150 mins, and dye concentration of 20 mg/L.
The maximum adsorption capacities (qm) were found to be 17.45 mg/g. These SPIONPs
exhibited significantly higher IC removal efficiency of around 87%. Following IC dye
desorption, the NP successfully recovered from the solution and reused up to 5 times without
any significant losses in efficiency (Figure 3) [117]. In another recent study, Raja et al.
synthesized SPIONPs via the chemical precipitation method, and its efficiency in removing
different dyes from aqueous solutions was assessed. Various parameters were investigated,
including dye and adsorbent concentrations, contact time, pH, and temperature on the
removal efficiency. Results showed rapid dye removal upon external adsorption influence.
Experimental data aligned well with Langmuir's isotherm and pseudo-second-order kinetics,
indicating a maximum qm of 394.5 mg/g [118].

Figure 3. Schematic illustration of Fe3O4@BTCA material adsorption towards Congo red dye
through H-bonding carboxylate anions.
While these SPIONPs demonstrate potential in WWT, performance can further be
enhanced through modification with carbon base supports or immobilization of additional
active metal catalysts on their surface. These supports can be laboratory-synthesized carbon
and silica supports, as well as recycled materials sourced from waste or agricultural sources.
Some of the laboratory-synthesized supports include montmorillonite (MMT), carbon
nanotubes (CNTs), activated carbon (AC), mesoporous carbon (MC), and silica serving as
supports for Fe3O4. Recently, Wang et al. synthesized an adsorbent composed of
CoFe2O4/chitosan (CS) and supported it onto alkalized MXene sheets using hydrothermal and
self-assembly methods. Batch experiments were conducted to evaluate the qm for
Rhodamine B (RhB), Congo Red (CR), and Malachite Green (MG) dyes. The incorporation of
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CoFe2O4/CS into alk-MXene support enhanced the qm for these dyes. Optimum parameters
for the best performance were 4-hour etching time which resulted in an ultra-high adsorption
capacity of 2095.9 mg/g, 1333.9 mg/g, and 537.6 mg/g for CR, RhB, and MG dyes,
respectively. Analysis of the adsorption mechanism showed synergistic effects of (i)
electrostatic interaction, (ii) π-π interaction, and (iii) hydrogen bonding which contributed to
the higher adsorption of the alk-MXene/CoFe2O4/CS [119]. In another recent study, Mohamad
et al., synthesized IONPs supported on activated carbon through the co-precipitation method
using commercial activated carbon. This nanocomposite was used as an adsorbent for the
removal of Mordant Violet 40 (MV40) dye from wastewater. Remarkably, CAC-IO achieved a
maximum removal efficiency of 99.92% for MV40 dye at a starting concentration of 100 mg/L,
adsorbent dose of 1.0 g/L, pH of about 2.07, and contact time of 3 hours. The adsorption of
MV40 dye followed the Freundlich isotherm model, indicating favorable adsorption behavior
[120].
3.3.2. Heavy Metal Removal
Pollutants posing significant threats to human health and food security include heavy
metals, which are discharged from various sources such as metallurgical operations, mining
activities, chemical plants, metal refineries, agricultural practices, and household wastewater.
These metals, including lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), molybdenum (Mo), chromium (Cr), zinc (Zn),
arsenic (As), and selenium (Se), among others, present serious health hazards. Exposure to
these pollutants can result in adverse health effects such as kidney failure, neurological
damage, cancer, respiratory issues, and other health complications [121]. Haris et al.,
synthesized SPIONs using a hydrothermal technique and utilized them for the removal of
arsenite (As(III)), both in their original form and when encapsulated in alginate beads (SPIONs-
Alg). The size of the SPIONs was determined to be around 25 nm with zero coercivity in the
magnetization curve, indicative of superparamagnetism. Optimal removal percentages of
99% and 90% were achieved for unsupported SPIONs and SPIONs-Alg, respectively at pH 7,
temperature 30°C, and 6.5 mg/L As(III) concentration. The equilibrium data was matched best
with the Langmuir isotherm model compared to the Freundlich model. Evaluation of the
As(III) qm yielded values of 11.89 mg/g for un-supported SPIONs and 240.081 mg/g for
SPIONs-Alg which was determined by the Langmuir adsorption isotherm [122].
Lei et al., synthesized Fe3O4@DA-DMSA through the functionalization IONPs using
dopamine (DA) and 2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) which is a detoxifying agent for
heavy metals. These nanoparticles demonstrated high adsorption capacities for Pb 2+, Cu2+,
and Cd2+ ions, with maximum adsorption capacities of 187.62, 63.01, and 49.46 mg/g,
respectively. FDDMs showed superior Pb2+ removal compared to the other reported IONPs.
In real wastewater and multi-component simulated water samples contaminated with Pb 2+,
Cu2+, and Cd2+, FDDMs exhibited robust removal capabilities for Pb2+ with minimal
interference from ionic strength and other ions, demonstrating excellent selectivity (Figure
4a) [123]. In another study, Sharif et al., synthesized chitosan-IONPs using the coprecipitation
method to effectively remove nickel (Ni) and cobalt (Co) from aqueous solutions. Adsorption
experiments showed that under optimal conditions of pH = 6, contact time = 2 h, and
adsorbent dosage = 2 g/l, these IONPs exhibited high qm of 30.03 mg/g for Ni2+ ion and 53.19
mg/g for Co2+ ion [124]. In a very recent breakthrough study, Kothavale et al., modified IONPs
with thiol (–SH) and carboxylic (–COOH) groups using meso-2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid
(DMSA). These IONPs-DMSA nano-adsorbent was employed for the simultaneous removal of
multiple metals such as Pb(II), Ni(II), and Cd(II) from water. These NPs with high mono-
disparity and with the size of 8.24 ± 1 nm exhibited the pure magnetite phase. The maximum

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qm for the removal of Pb(II), Ni(II), and Cd(II) in was found to be 64.5, 53.9, and 27.18 mg/g,
respectively. In separate metal systems, the qm values for Pb(II), Ni(II), and Cd(II) further
increased to 116.54, 102.73, and 75.48 mg/g, respectively as shown in Figure 4b and c [125].
In another study, IONPs@SiO2-(-NH2/-COOH) nanoparticles were synthesized for the removal
of Cd2+, Pb2+, and Zn2+ ions from water. Thorough characterization revealed that IONPs@SiO2-
(-NH2/-COOH) have a superparamagnetic core-shell structure. The surface of IONPs was
coated with silica and further modified with amino-carboxyl groups. This improved particle
dispersion and the surface area of IONPs@SiO2-(-NH2/-COOH) was about 67.8 m2/g. The qm
of IONPs@SiO2-(-NH2/-COOH) for these metals was in the order Pb2+ > Cd2+ > Zn2+ at
adsorption dose of about 0.8 g/L, temperature 30°C, and concentrations of metal ions in the
solution Pb2+, Cd2+, and Zn2+ around 120, 80, and 20 mg/L, respectively. The maximum qm for
Pb2+, Cd2+, and Zn2+ were 166.67, 84.03, and 80.43 mg/g, respectively (Figure 4d ) [126]. Some
heavy metal contaminants in the water and the IONPS used for their removal are shown in
Table 4.

Figure 4. Removal of heavy metals: (a) preparation of FDDMs and its process of removing
heavy-metal ions, (b) Effects of pH on the adsorption capacity (qe) of Pb(II), Cd(II), and Ni(II)
by MNP-DMSA nano adsorbents (initial metal ion concentration = 10 mg/L, adsorbent dose
= 0.1 g/L, and contact time = 60 min), (c) Effects of adsorbent dose on the adsorption
capacity (qe) and removal efficiency (R) of Pb(II), Cd(II), and Ni(II) by the MNP-DMSA nano
adsorbents (pH = 7, initial metal ion concentration = 10 mg/L, and contact time = 60 min),
(d)General structural information of the composition of Fe3O4@SiO2-(-NH2/-COOH).
Table 4. Studies using a variety of types of iron oxide in removing water contaminants.
Type of Particle Surface Saturation Wate Optimal Adsorpt Removal Ref
iron size area magnetizat r adsorption ion efficiency
oxide (nm) (SBET, ion cont conditions capacit (%)
m2/g) (emu/g) amin y
ant (mg/g)
Mixture 5.25 301.54 55 Cu pH = 2.5, 11.12 90 [127]
of γ- contaminant
Fe2O3 concentration = 50
and mg/ L, contact time
Fe3O4 = 10 min, adsorbent
dose = 1 g/L,
agitation speed =
200 rpm
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Table 4 (continue). Studies using a variety of types of iron oxide in removing water
contaminants.
Type of Particl Surface Saturation Wate Optimal Adsorpt Removal Ref
iron e size area magnetizat r adsorption ion efficiency
oxide (nm) (SBET, ion cont conditions capacit (%)
m2/g) (emu/g) amin y
ant (mg/g)
γ-Fe2O3 23.5 145.5 35.5 Arsen pH = 7.21, 12.74 95 [128]
ic contaminant
concentration = 40
mg/ L, contact time
= 3 h, adsorbent
dose = 0.2 g/ L
Fe3O4 10–25 46 83 Arsen pH = 5, contaminant 90 - [129]
ic concentration = 100
mg/ L, contact time
= 3 h, adsorbent
dose = 0.5 g/ L,
Temp = 25 ◦C
Fe3O4 30– 16.18 55.91 Cr pH = 4.61, 71.02 – [130]
modified 100 (VI) contaminant
with ions concentration = 120
sugarcane mg/ L, contact time
bagasse = 24 h, adsorbent
biochar dose = 1 g/L, Temp =
30 ◦C
Fe3O4 30–40 405.57 11.9 Cu contaminant 23.61 98 [131]
modified (II) concentration = 100
with PAC mg/ L, contact time
from = 24 h, adsorbent
pistachio dose = 10 g/L, Temp
waste = 25 ◦C, agitation
speed = 150 rpm
Fe3O4 83 - - Lead pH = 5.5, 64.2 98 [132]
modified (II) contaminant
with ions concentration = 300
carboxym mg/ L, contact time
ethyl- β- = 1 h, adsorbent
cyclodextr dose = 2.4 g/ L,
in polymer Temp = 25 ◦C,
α- 16–24 5.43 - Lead pHPZC = 6 solution 564 - [133]
Fe2O3mod (II) pH = 6, contaminant
ified with ions concentration = 0.2
sodium mg/
alganite

3.3.3. Pharmaceutical Removal

Pharmaceuticals and by-products of the pharmaceutical industry are prevalent pollutants
in water, primarily stemming from household disposal practices or industrial processing as
shown in Figure 5. Their presence poses significant concerns due to their potential long-term
exposure, linked to adverse health effects such as behavioral alterations, cell proliferation
inhibition, and reproductive system damage. Additionally, pharmaceutical residues pose
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environmental risks by disrupting natural ecosystems, either by eliminating crucial

microorganisms or fostering the proliferation of drug-resistance in micro-organisms. Among
the common pharmaceutical pollutants are norfloxacin (NFX), ibuprofen (IBP),
carbamazepine (CBZ), acetaminophen (APAP), and pantoprazole [134]. These compounds
often evade conventional wastewater treatment methods, prompting research into
alternative removal or degradation strategies such as absorption or photocatalysis [135].
Notably, IONPS and supported IOPNS, owing to their magnetic properties, have emerged as
promising candidates for the removal of these pharmaceutical pollutants from wastewater.
Rocha et al., synthesized IONPs supported over activated carbon (AC) derived from primary
paper sludge. A fractional factorial design was employed to assess key impact of key variables
on IONPS/AC properties and its qm efficiency for pharmaceuticals; amoxicillin, CBZ, and
diclofenac from wastewater. Notably, four IONPS/AC variants exhibited high adsorption
capacities (61-84%) and efficient recovery using a permanent magnet at low IONPs/AC doses
(35 mg L−1) [136].
In a recent study conducted by Silva et al., synthesized magnetic beads using IONPs
comprising alginate/polypyrrole/ZnFe2O4 referred to as Alg/PPy/ZnFe2O4 and evaluated their
qm towards acetaminophen (ACT) and ibuprofen (IBU) under an external magnetic field
(EMF). Batch experiments demonstrated rapid adsorption kinetics, with Alg/PPy/ZnFe 2O4
achieving high qm for the ACT and IBU of 106.7 and 108.2 mg/g, respectively; within a short
time of 60-70 mins. The application of an EMF notably enhanced the adsorption capacity by
14% and 12% for ACT and IBU, respectively. Kinetic analysis indicated a pseudo-second-order
adsorption mechanism for both drugs on Alg/PPy/ZnFe2O4 [137]. A magnetic nanocomposite
comprising sugarcane bagasse-derived biochar (BC), nanoscale zerovalent iron (nZVI), and
chitosan (CS) was synthesized to assess its efficiency in removing aspirin and carbamazepine
(CBZ). Response Surface Methodology–Central Composite Design (RSM-CCD) optimization
was employed, considering five variables: adsorbent dose, pH, drug concentration, time, and
temperature. Under optimized conditions, ASA removal efficiency reached 97.8%, while CBZ
removal was up to 89.32%. Langmuir isotherm models demonstrated monolayer adsorption,
and kinetics followed pseudo-first- and pseudo-second-order models for ASA and CBZ,
respectively. The mechanism is described in Figure 5a. Based on isotherm and kinetic
analyses, the interaction mechanisms between BC-CS@nZVI surface and drug molecules are
elucidated. I. Hydrogen bonding occurs between drug molecules and the composite's surface
functional groups (e.g., carboxylic, hydroxyl). II. π-π interactions involve ASA's benzene ring
and CBZ's amino groups interacting with the composite surface's C=O, C=C groups. III. Pore
filling occurs as small ASA molecules diffuse into meso/macro pores. IV. Lewis’s acid-base
interaction involves CBZ's NH2 as Lewis base and BC-CS@nZVI's oxygen groups as Lewis acid.
These mechanisms collectively contribute to drug adsorption [138]. Surface-modified IONPs,
functionalized with chitosan (CHI) or diethylamino-ethyl dextran (DEAE-D), were investigated
for their interactions with pharmaceutical drugs and model cell membranes. Langmuir
isotherms and adsorption measurements using 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycerol-3-phosphate
(DSPA) phospholipid monolayers as cell membrane models revealed significant findings.
While diclofenac (DCFN) showed no absorption at the air-water interface, triflupromazine
(TFPZ) exhibited a maximum insertion pressure (MIP) of 35 mNm−1. Composite IONPs with
drugs displayed larger MIP values, indicating IONPs adsorption on the monolayer with the
drugs. Notably, IONPs@DEAE-D:DCFN showed an impressive MIP of 67 mNm−1. The
Maximum Insertion Pressure experiments were conducted using a Teflon mini trough
equipped with a constant surface area (A = 15.8 cm2). Initially, the trough was filled with 5 mL
of LiCl 10 mM solution. Lipids were then spread across the surface to achieve a surface

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pressure ranging from 8 to 30 mN m−1. Subsequently, injections of HTFPZ+ or DCFN− and

MNPs:HTFPZ+ or DCFN− were made beneath the lipid monolayer, as illustrated in Figure 5b
[139].

Figure 5. Removal of pharmaceutical components: (a) BC-CS@nZVI and ASA drug molecules,
(b) BC-CS@nZVI and CBZ drug molecules, (c) Schematic representation of (a) surface
pressure–area isotherm experiments, and (b) insertions experiments.
3.4. Removal of Small Organic Molecules
As discussed in the "Dye degradation" section, organic pollutants pose significant health
risks to both humans and the environment due to their resistance to conventional water
treatment methods and potential for bioaccumulation. These pollutants consist of polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), pesticides, and commercial oils. IONPs, characterized by their
high surface-to-volume ratio, robust absorption capacity, rapid kinetics, and magnetic
separability, offer an effective solution for organic matter removal. Moreover, these NPs can
be easily regenerated with minimal secondary waste generation after the WWT [140, 141]. In
a study by Ewa et al., the production of magnetic adsorbents with varying porosity
characteristics through the carbonization and steam activation of a mixture comprising
furfuryl alcohol and iron-containing compounds was demonstrated. The materials exhibit
magnetic properties, evidenced by weight loss increments in the neodymium magnet balance
test with increasing iron content. Sedimentation tests confirm the enhanced removal
efficiency of the used adsorbents facilitated by their magnetic properties. N 2 adsorption
isotherms at 77 K reveal distinct porosity differences, with ferrocene promoting mesoporosity
and iron(II) sulfate inducing microporosity. XRD measurements further confirmed the
presence of magnetite and hematite, with magnetite intensity correlating with saturation
magnetization. The PFA-IONPs exhibit high adsorption capacities for Congo red, phenol,
atrazine, and isoproturon, with adsorption strongly linked to adsorbent porosity as shown in
Figure 6a [142]. Pereira et al., synthesized two novel materials by impregnating functionalized
multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT–OH and MWCNT–COOH) with IONPs via solution
precipitation. Adsorption efficiency was evaluated using 2,4-D and Atrazine pollutants
present in the wastewater. Optimal adsorption occurred at pH 2 for 2,4-D and pH 6 for
Atrazine, with equilibrium reached within 30 minutes. MWCNT–OH–Mag exhibited superior
performance which is attributed to increased Fe-doped sites and favorable molecular
interactions (Figure 6b). The Sips model accurately described adsorption isotherms, with
MWCNT–OH–Mag showing the highest adsorption capacity at 51.4 and 47.7 mg g−1 for 2,4-
D and Atrazine, respectively. Leaching and regeneration tests demonstrated high stability in
aqueous solutions [143].

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A multidimensional highly efficient SPION@L-Tryptophan (LT)-Cu2+/Cu0 was synthesized

via co-precipitation method as illustrated in Figure 6c and investigated as nano-photocatalyst
for removing aromatic contaminants and azo dyes from WW. The catalytic efficacy of
SPION@LT-Cu2+/Cu0 was examined for nitrobenzene, 4-nitroaniline, 4-nitrophenol, MB, MO,
and CR in the presence of NaBH4 reducing agent. Moreover, the synthesized nano-
photocatalyst demonstrated high efficiency in degrading MB under visible light irradiation. Its
efficient catalytic activity, cost-effectiveness, and sustained reusability over multiple cycles
establish SPION@LT-Cu2+/C0 as a promising nano-photocatalyst for wastewater treatment
[144].

Figure 6. Removal of organic pollutants: (a) Single point adsorption capacity, (b) Plausible
mechanisms of interactions between 2,4-D and atrazine pesticides with the Fe atoms that
present Fe3+/Fe2+ cationic equilibrium behavior in the surface of the MWCNT adsorbents
functionalized with –OH or –COOH, (c) The schematic diagram for the synthesis of novel
SPION@L-tryptophan-Cu2+/Cu0 nano-photocatalyst.
3.5. Environmental Impact and Safety
Extensive use of IONPs presents a challenge to explore their econanotoxicity, particularly
at higher concentrations. IONPs naturally occur in volcanic eruptions or air pollution.
Magnetite and maghemite exist in industrial emissions, traffic smoke, and nanowastes in
chemical synthesis plants [145]. Malhotra et al. reported reduced toxicity of carbon-coated
Fe3O4NPs on both behavioral and biochemical responses in adult zebrafish models [146]. The
low toxicity can be attributed to the protective effect of carbon coating, decreasing the
oxidation and corrosion of IONPs. Conversely, high bioaccumulation of gluconic acid-
functionalized γ- Fe2O3 (GLA-IONPs) was described in the snail model [147]. Long-term
exposure to GLA-IONPs caused higher toxicity, behavioral impairments, and accumulation in
Biomphalaria glabrata. Henceforth, the ecotoxicological effects of IONPs in bare, coated, or
functionalized form must be investigated properly depending on the contaminants and final
fate of WWT. As mentioned above researches should emphasize the need to conduct more
studies in the area of environmental impact of MIONPs, when used for WWT. Klekotka, U. et
al. [148] critically discussed the ecotoxicological impact of magnetite NPs on terrestrial and
aquatic animals. However, we still lack the literature suggesting standards for using IONPs
alone or in combination with other materials for WWT [149].
4. CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the utilization of Iron Oxide Magnetic Nanoparticles (IONPs) holds great
promise for addressing the complex challenges associated with wastewater treatment.
Through various synthesis methods and surface modifications, IONPs have demonstrated
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remarkable efficiency in removing a wide range of pollutants, including organic dyes, heavy
metals, pharmaceuticals, and small organic molecules. Moreover, the development of IONPs
materials and with supports further enhanced the adsorption capacity and recyclability of
these IONPs which offer sustainable solutions for long-term water purification systems.
Despite these advancements, it is important to consider the environmental impact and safety
implications of using IONPs in wastewater treatment after their use. Further research is
needed to assess the econanotoxicity of these IONPs and establish standards for their use in
WWT applications.
Looking ahead, future research in the field of WWT utilizing IONPs should focus on several
key areas. Firstly, there is a great need for further exploration of novel synthesis methods and
surface modifications to optimize the performance of IONPs in pollutant removal with better
efficiency. Moreover, studies should also investigate the scalability and cost-effectiveness of
IONPs-based treatment technologies for large-scale utilization. Furthermore, interdisciplinary
research efforts are needed to understand the environmental effects and long-term effects
of IONPs in aquatic ecosystems for other water base species. Furthermore, the development
of multifunctional IONPs systems, such as photocatalytic or membrane-based approaches,
holds promise for achieving synergistic pollutant removal and water purification. Overall,
continued innovation and collaboration are necessary for harnessing the full potential of
IONPs in addressing the global challenges of wastewater pollution and ensuring access to
clean and safe water for all.
5. AUTHORS’ NOTE

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this
article. Authors confirmed that the paper was free of plagiarism.
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