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Unit 1. Introduction to data

communications and networking

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NETWORKING FUNDAMENTALS

Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Data & Information
1.3 Data Communication
1.3.1 Characteristics of Data Communication
1.3.2 Components of Data Communication
1.4 Data Representation
1.5 Data Flow
1.5.1. Simplex
1.52. Half Duplex
1.5.3. Full Duplex
1.6 Computer Network
1.6.1 Categories of a network
1.7 Protocol
1.7.1 Elements of a Protocol
1.8 Standards In Networking
1.8.1 Concept of Standard
1.8.2 Standard Organizations in field of Networking
1.9 Review Questions
1.10 References

1.0 OBJECTIVES:

 Introduce the readers to data communication and its

fundamentals
 Define networks
 Define protocols
 Standards in networking
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1.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides an introduction to Computer networks and

covers fundamental topics like data, information to the definition
of communication and computer networks.
The main objective of data communication and networking is to
enable seamless exchange of data between any two points in
the world.
This exchange of data takes place over a computer network.

1.2 DATA & INFORMATION

Data refers to the raw facts that are collected while information
refers to processed data that enables us to take decisions.
Ex. When result of a particular test is declared it contains data
of all students, when you find the marks you have scored you
have the information that lets you know whether you have
passed or failed.
The word data refers to any information which is presented in a
form that is agreed and accepted upon by is creators and users.

1.3 DATA COMMUNICATION

Data Communication is a process of exchanging data or

information
In case of computer networks this exchange is done between
two devices over a transmission medium.
This process involves a communication system which is made
up of hardware and software. The hardware part involves the
sender and receiver devices and the intermediate devices
through which the data passes. The software part involves
certain rules which specify what is to be communicated, how it
is to be communicated and when. It is also called as a Protocol.
The following sections describes the fundamental
characteristics that are important for the effective working of
data communication process and is followed by the components
that make up a data communications system.

1.3.1 Characteristics of Data Communication

The effectiveness of any data communications system depends

upon the following four fundamental characteristics:
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1. Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct

destination and correct user.
2. Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data
accurately, without introducing any errors. The data may get
corrupted during transmission affecting the accuracy of the
delivered data.
3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a
timely manner without any delay; such a data delivery is called
real time transmission of data.
4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter
may affect the timeliness of data being transmitted.

1.3.2 Components of Data Communication

A Data Communication system has five components as

shown in the diagram below:

Fig. Components of a Data Communication System

1. Message
Message is the information to be communicated by the sender to
the receiver.

2. Sender
The sender is any device that is capable of sending the data
(message).

3. Receiver
The receiver is a device that the sender wants to communicate the
data (message).

4. Transmission Medium
It is the path by which the message travels from sender to receiver.
It can be wired or wireless and many subtypes in both.
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5. Protocol
It is an agreed upon set or rules used by the sender and
receiver to communicate data.
A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication.
A Protocol is a necessity in data communications without
which the communicating entities are like two persons trying
to talk to each other in a different language without know the
other language.

1.4 DATA REPRESENTATION

Data is collection of raw facts which is processed to deduce

information.

There may be different forms in which data may be represented.

Some of the forms of data used in communications are as follows:

1. Text
Text includes combination of alphabets in small case as well
as upper case.
It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system :
ASCII, Unicode

2. Numbers
Numbers include combination of digits from 0 to 9.
It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system :
ASCII, Unicode
3. Images
―An image is worth a thousand words‖ is a very famous saying.
In computers images are digitally stored.
A Pixel is the smallest element of an image. To put it in simple
terms, a picture or image is a matrix of pixel elements.
The pixels are represented in the form of bits. Depending upon
the type of image (black n white or color) each pixel would
require different number of bits to represent the value of a pixel.
The size of an image depends upon the number of pixels (also
called resolution) and the bit pattern used to indicate the value
of each pixel.
Example: if an image is purely black and white (two color) each
pixel can be represented by a value either 0 or 1, so an image
made up of 10 x 10 pixel elements would require only 100 bits in
memory to be stored.
On the other hand an image that includes gray may require 2
bits to represent every pixel value (00 - black, 01 – dark gray, 10
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– light gray, 11 –white). So the same 10 x 10 pixel image would

now require 200 bits of memory to be stored.

Commonly used Image formats : jpg, png, bmp, etc

4. Audio
Data can also be in the form of sound which can be recorded
and broadcasted. Example: What we hear on the radio is a
source of data or information.
Audio data is continuous, not discrete.

5. Video
Video refers to broadcasting of data in form of picture or movie

1.5 DATA FLOW

wo devices communicate with each other by sending and

receiving data. The data can flow between the two devices in the
following ways.
1. Simplex
2. Half Duplex
3. Full Duplex

1.5.1 Simplex

Figure: Simplex mode of communication

In Simplex, communication is unidirectional

Only one of the devices sends the data and the other one
only receives the data.
Example: in the above diagram: a cpu send data while a
monitor only receives data.

1.5.2 Half Duplex

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Figure: Half Duplex Mode of Communication

In half duplex both the stations can transmit as well as receive

but not at the same time.
When one device is sending other can only receive and vice-
versa (as shown in figure above.)
Example: A walkie-talkie.

1.5.3 Full Duplex

Figure: Full Duplex Mode of Communication

In Full duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive

at the same time.
Example: mobile phones

1.6 COMPUTER NETWORK

Computer Networks are used for data communications

Definition:
A computer network can be defined as a collection of nodes.
A node can be any device capable of transmitting or
receiving data.
The communicating nodes have to be connected by
communication links.

A Compute network should ensure

reliability of the data communication process, should c
security of the data
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performance by achieving higher throughput and smaller

delay times

1.6.1 Categories of Network

Networks are categorized on the basis of their size. The
three basic categories of computer networks are:

A. Local Area Networks (LAN) is usually limited to a few

kilometers of area. It may be privately owned and could be
a network inside an office on one of the floor of a building
or a LAN could be a network consisting of the computers in
a entire building.

B. Wide Area Network (WAN) is made of all the networks in a

(geographically) large area. The network in the entire state
of Maharashtra could be a WAN

C. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is of size between

LAN & WAN. It is larger than LAN but smaller than WAN. It
may comprise the entire network in a city like Mumbai.

1.7 PROTOCOL

A Protocol is one of the components of a data

communications system. Without protocol communication
cannot occur. The sending device cannot just send the data
and expect the receiving device to receive and further
interpret it correctly.

When the sender sends a message it may consist of text,

number, images, etc. which are converted into bits and
grouped into blocks to be transmitted and often certain
additional information called control information is also
added to help the receiver interpret the data.

For successful communication to occur, the sender and

receiver must agree upon certain rules called protocol.

A Protocol is defined as a set of rules that governs data

communications.

A protocol defines what is to be communicated, how it is to

be communicated and when it is to be communicated.

1.7.1 Elements of a Protocol

There are three key elements of a protocol:
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A. Syntax
It means the structure or format of the data.
It is the arrangement of data in a particular order.

B. Semantics
It tells the meaning of each section of bits and
indicates the interpretation of each section.
It also tells what action/decision is to be taken based
on the interpretation.

C. Timing
It tells the sender about the readiness of the receiver to
receive the data
It tells the sender at what rate the data should be sent
to the receiver to avoid overwhelming the receiver.

1.7 STANDARDS IN NETWORKING

Standards are necessary in networking to ensure

interconnectivity and interoperability between various
networking hardware and software components.

Without standards we would have proprietary products

creating isolated islands of users which cannot interconnect.

1.7.1 Concept of Standard

Standards provide guidelines to product manufacturers and
vendors to ensure national and international
interconnectivity.

Data communications standards are classified into two

categories:

1. De facto Standard
o These are the standards that have been traditionally
used and mean by fact or by convention
o These standards are not approved by any organized
body but are adopted by widespread use.

2. De jure standard
o It means by law or by regulation.
o These standards are legislated and approved by
an body that is officially recognized.

1.7.2 Standard Organizations in field of Networking

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o Standards are created by standards creation committees,

forums, and government regulatory agencies.

o Examples of Standard Creation Committees :

1. International Organization for Standardization(ISO)
2. International Telecommunications Union –
Telecommunications Standard (ITU-T)
3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
4. Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers
(IEEE)
5. Electronic Industries Associates (EIA)

o Examples of Forums
1. ATM Forum
2. MPLS Forum
3. Frame Relay Forum

o Examples of Regulatory Agencies:

1. Federal Communications Committee (FCC)

1.8 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate between data & information. What are the different

forms in which data can be represented?
2. What are the characteristics of data communication?
3. What are the components of a data communication system?
4. Define computer network and categorize.
5. Explain protocols in details

1.9 REFERENCES

1. Data Communication & Networking – Behrouz Forouzan

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Unit 1 Introduction to data

communications and networking

2
Signals

Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Data & Signals
2.2.1 Data –types
2.2.2 Signal – types
2.2.3 Periodic & Non Periodic Signals
2.3 Analog Signal
2.3.1 Characteristics of Analog Signal
2.3.1.1 Peak Amplitude
2.3.1.2 Frequency
2.3.1.3 Phase
2.3.2 Relation between Frequency & Period
2.3.3 Wavelength
2.3.4 Time & Frequency Domain Representation of a signal
2.3.5 Composite Signal
2.4 Digital Signal
2.4.1 Definition
2.4.2 Level
2.4.3 Bit lenght or Bit Interval
2.4.4 Bit Rate
2.4.5 Baud Rate
2.5 Types of Channel
2.5.1 Lowpass Channel
2.5.2 Bandpass Channel
2.6 Transmission of Digital signal
2.6.1 Baseband Transmission
2.6.2 Broadband Transmission
2.7 Review Questions
2.8 References
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2.0 OBJECTIVES

 Introduce the readers to fundamentals of data & signal

 Types of data & signal
 Characteristics and nature of analog & digital signal
 Representation of signal
 Transmission of digital signals

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Computer networks are designed to transfer data from one

point to another. During transit data is in the form of
electromagnetic signals. Hence it is important to study data and
signals before we move to further concepts in data communication.

2.2 DATA & SIGNALS

To be transmitted, data must be transformed to

electromagnetic signals.

2.2.1. Data can be Analog or Digital.

1. Analog data refers to information that is continuous; ex.

sounds made by a human voice
2. Digital data refers to information that has discrete states.
Digital data take on discrete values.
3. For example, data are stored in computer memory in the
form of Os and 1s

2.2.2. Signals can be of two types:

1. Analog Signal: They have infinite values in a range.
2. Digital Signal: They have limited number of defined
values

Figure: a. Analog Signal b. Digital Signal*

2.2.3. Periodic & Non Periodic Signals
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Signals which repeat itself after a fixed time period are called
Periodic Signals.
Signals which do not repeat itself after a fixed time period
are called Non-Periodic Signals.
In data communications, we commonly use periodic
analog signals and non-periodic digital signals.

2.3 ANALOG SIGNAL

An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over a

period of time.
As the wave moves from value A to value B, it passes
through and includes an infinite number of values along its
path as it can be seen in the figure below.
A simple analog signal is a sine wave that cannot be further
decomposed into simpler signals.

Fig. Sine wave

A sine wave is characterized by three parameters:

1. Peak Amplitude
2. Frequency
3. Phase

2.3.1 Characteristics of an Analog Signal

2.3.1.1 Peak Amplitude

The amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its
intensity at time t
The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of
the highest intensity.
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The amplitude of a signal is proportional to the energy

carried by the signal

Fig. Amplitude of a sine wave

2.3.1.2. Frequency
Frequency refers to the number of cycles completed by the
wave in one second.
Period refers to the time taken by the wave to complete one
second.

Fig: Frequency & Period of a sine wave

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2.3.1.3. Phase
Phase describes the position of the waveform with respect to time
(specifically relative to time O).

Fig: Phase of a sine wave*

Phase indicates the forward or backward shift of the

waveform from the axis
It is measured in degrees or radian
The figure above shows the sine waves with same amplitude
and frequency but different phases

2.3.2 Relation between Frequency & Period

Frequency & Period are inverse of each other.

It is indicated by the following formula:
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Example1. A wave has a frequency of 100hz. Its period(T) is given

by
T = 1/ F = 1/ 100 = 0.01 sec

Example2. A wave completes its one cycle in 0.25 seconds. Its

frequency is given by
F = 1 / T = 1 / 0.25 = 4 Hz

2.3.3 Wavelength
The wavelength of a signal refers to the relationship between
frequency (or period) and propagation speed of the wave
through a medium.
The wavelength is the distance a signal travels in one
period.
It is given by
Wavelength = Propagation Speed X Period
OR
Wavelength =Propagation Speed X 1 a
Frequency
It is represented by the symbol : λ (pronounced as lamda)
It is measured in micrometers
It varies from one medium to another.

2.3.4. Time Domain and Frequency domain representation of

signals

A sine wave can be represented either in the time domain or

frequency domain.
The time-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude
with respect to time. It indicates time and amplitude relation
of a signal.
The frequency-domain plot shows signal frequency and
peak amplitude.
The figure below show time and frequency domain plots of
three sine waves.
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Fig: Time domain and frequency domain plots of three sine

waves*

A complete sine wave in the time domain can be

represented by one single spike in the frequency domain

2.3.5. Composite Signal

A composite signal is a combination of two or more simple
sine waves with different frequency, phase and amplitude.
If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives a
series of signals with discrete frequencies; if the composite
signal is non-periodic, the decomposition gives a
combination of sine waves with continuous frequencies.

Fig: A Composite signal with three component signals

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For data communication a simple sine wave is not useful,

what is used is a composite signal which is a combination of
many simple sine waves.

According to French Mathematician, Jean Baptist, any

composite signal is a combination of simple sine waves with
different amplitudes and frequencies and phases.

Composite signals can be periodic or non periodic.

A periodic composite signal can be decomposed into a

series of signals with discrete frequencies.

A non-periodic signal when decomposed gives a

combination of sine waves with continuous frequencies.

Fig The time and frequency domains of a non-periodic

composite analog signal

2.4 Digital Signal

Information can also be explained in the form of a digital
signal.
A digital signal can be explained with the help of following
points:

2.4.1 Definition:-
A digital is a signal that has discrete values.
The signal will have value that is not continuous.

2.4.2 LEVEL
Information in a digital signal can be represented in the
form of voltage levels.
Ex. In the signal shown below, a ‗1‘ is represented by a
positive voltage and a ‗0‘ is represented by a Zero voltage.
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Fig: A digital signal with Two levels. „1‟ represented by a

positive voltage and „0‟ represented by a negative voltage
A Signal can have more than two levels

11 10 01 00 00 01 10 10
LEVEL
4
LEVEL
3
LEVEL
2
LEVEL
1

Fig: A digital signal with four levels

In general, if a signal has L levels then, each level need
Log2L bits
Example: Consider a digital Signal with four levels, how
many bits are required per level?
Answer: Number of bits per level = Log2L
= Log24
=2
Hence, 2 bits are required per level for a signal with four
levels.
2.4.3 BIT LENGTH or Bit Interval (Tb)
It is the time required to send one bit.
It is measured in seconds.
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2.4.4 BIT RATE

It is the number of bits transmitted in one second.
It is expressed as bits per second (bps).
Relation between bit rate and bit interval can be as follows
Bit rate = 1 / Bit interval

2.4.5 Baud Rate

It is the rate of Signal Speed, i.e the rate at which the signal
changes.
A digital signal with two levels ‗0‘ & ‗1‘ will have the same
baud rate and bit rate & bit rate.
The diagram below shows three signal of period (T) 1
second
a) Signal with a bit rate of 8 bits/ sec and baud rate of 8
baud/sec
b) Signal with a bit rate of 16 bits/ sec and baud rate of 8
baud/sec
c) Signal with a bit rate of 16 bits/ sec and baud rate of 4
baud/sec

Fig: Three signals with different bit rates and baud rates
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2.5 TYPES OF CHANNELS:

Each composite signal has a lowest possible(minimum)

frequency and a highest possible (maximum) frequency.

From the point of view of transmission, there are two types of

channels:

2.5.1 Low pass Channel

This channel has the lowest frequency as ‗0‘ and highest
frequency as some non-zero frequency ‗f1‘.
This channel can pass all the frequencies in the range 0 to f1.

2.5.2 Band pass channel

This channel has the lowest frequency as some non-zero
frequency ‗f1‘ and highest frequency as some non-zero
frequency ‗f2‘.
This channel can pass all the frequencies in the range f1 to f2.

Fig: Lowpass Channel & Bandpass Channel

2.6 Transmission of Digital signal

Digital signal can be transmitted in the following two ways:

2.6.1 Baseband Transmission

The signal is transmitted without making any change to it
(ie. Without modulation)
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In baseband transmission, the bandwidth of the signal to

be transmitted has to be less than the bandwidth of the
channel.

Ex. Consider a Baseband channel with lower frequency

0Hz and higher frequency 100Hz, hence its bandwidth is
100 (Bandwidth is calculated by getting the difference
between the highest and lowest frequency).

We can easily transmit a signal with frequency below

100Hz, such a channel whose bandwidth is more than
the bandwidth of the signal is called Wideband channel

Logically a signal with frequency say 120Hz will be

blocked resulting in loss of information, such a channel
whose bandwidth is less than the bandwidth of the signal
is called Narrowband channel

2.6.2 Broad band Transmission

Given a bandpass channel, a digital signal cannot be
transmitted directly through it

In broadband transmission we use modulation, i.e we

change the signal to analog signal before transmitting it.

The digital signal is first converted to an analog signal,

since we have a bandpass channel we cannot directly
send this signal through the available channel. Ex.
Consider the bandpass channel with lower frequency
50Hz and higher frequency 80Hz, and the signal to be
transmitted has frequency 10Hz.

To pass the analog signal through the bandpass channel,

the signal is modulated using a carrier frequency. Ex.
The analog signal (10Hz) is modulated by a carrier
frequency of 50Hz resulting in an signal of frequency
60Hz which can pass through our bandpass channel.

The signal is demodulated and again converted into an

digital signal at the other end as shown in the figure
below.
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Fig: Broadband Transmission Involving Modulation &

Demodulation

2.7 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Define analog and digital signals

2. Explain Composite analog signals.
3. Explain Time and Frequency Domain Representation of
signals
4. Explain the characteristics of an Analog signal
5. Explain the characteristics of an Digital signal
6. Explain the difference between
1. Lowpass and Bandpass channel
2. Narrowband and wideband channel
7. Explain why a digital signal requires to undergo a change
before transmitting it through a bandpass channel.

2.8 REFERENCES & FURTHER READING

Data Communication & Networking – Behrouz Forouzan

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