History of the world will include events from 18th century such as industrial revolution, world wars, redrawing

of national
boundaries, colonization, decolonization, political philosophies like communism, capitalism, socialism etc.- their forms and
effect on the society.

Industrial Revolution

Capitalism and Colonization

 Capitalism promoted colonialism - discovery of new lands led to expansion of trade and accumulation of wealth
by merchants

 Led to Slave Trade in Africa, impoverishment of colonies - eg Aztec civilizations (Mexican) were plundered by
the Spaniards.

 Large scale exploitation of natives- eg in mines, plantation

 Taking over of local government and plunder of wealth, eg, Bengal

Industrial revolution

 Mechanized low cost production to fuel capitalism, began in 1750 England. Why?

1. Capital: Vast profits through overseas trade, slave trade

2. Colonies to supply raw material for Industrial revolution

3. Disappearance of serfdom - no shortage of labor

4. Stable government as a result of 17th century revolution

5. Plenty of natural resources such as iron and coal, necessary of IR

6. Large shipping industry to transport finished goods

 Machines such as plough, air-pump, printing press and spinning wheel existed even before but IR speeded up the
process of mechanization

 Factory System: Production no longer happened in homes. Factories managed by capitalist, workers worked for
wages and produce belonged to owner of factory

 Textile Revolution-

o England used to import cotton textile from India, but machines made possible to make finer and
cheaper thread and finally powerlooms running initially by horses/bullocks and in factory by rivers and
canals

o Cotton Gin - 300 times faster removal of seed from cotton

o Steam Engine - led to trade thus allowed cotton import and finished product export

 Blast Furnace - to utilize iron

 Transport Revolution - Railways 1814, Macadamized road, Canals were built

 Postal Revolution

 Agriculture Revolution -

1. Farm Mechanization = Steel Plough, harrow, mechanical drill for seeding, horse drawn cultivator,
thresher, reaper

2. Crop Rotation - Manuring

3. Land Consolidation
Industrial Revolution in Other Countries

 Unstable government and unrest among people slowed down IR in these countries

 France - had to import both iron and coal

 Germany - catched up after 1870 unification

 Russia - Last of big EU Power to have an IR. Rich in mineral but lacked capital and free labour

 United States - started after gaining independence from England, American industry grew very rapidly after 1870

 Japan - First Asian country to industrilize

Consequences -

 Race for raw material

 Urbanisation - related social impacts

 Industrial Capitalism -

1. Concentration of Economic power - social effects

2. Labor became dependent and was exploited - social effects

3. Class inequalities

4. Exploitation of women and children

5. Poor housing, No Social Security, No Labor Laws - 1802 first Factory Act, 1819 law forbade employment
of children under nine

6. Trade Union - Chartist Movement was for giving right to vote for workers

7. Laissez faire

American Revolution

Nation State Emergence

1. Feudalism to Nation States

o Feudalism - division of societies into classes based on birth - feudal lords and serfs

o Non democratic, kings claimed divine rights, non contiguous boundaries, multiple nationalities within,
division of same nationality some under local ruler others under church

o Revolt of serfs in different parts of Europe

2. Emergence of Middle Class - demanded change in political system

3. First overthrow of monarch took place in England in 17th century

4. Renaissance in Europe - questioning every aspect of thought and belief after 16th century, scientific revolution
that undermined existing beliefs, 18th century is known as age of enlightenment

5. Liberty, Equality and Fraternity - nationalism and unity

Settlements in America

 16th century - by France, Holland, Spain, England

  1607 - English settlement in Virginia on eastern boundary of NA

 18th century - England drove France out of eastern part of continent and Canada, by middle of 18th century
England had 13 colonies on Atlantic side

 Landless peasants, people seeking religious freedom, traders and profiteers had settled there. Population
consisted of independent farmers, Infant industries had developed too

 In North - fishing and ship building, In South - tobacco and cotton plantation

 Every Colony had a local assembly elected by qualified voters - power to enact laws concerning local matters,
levied taxes but subordinate to England

Causes of War of American Independence

 Economic:

o England's policies prevented American Colonies from developing their own economies

i. Forbade use of non British ships in their trade

ii. Certain products, such as tobacco, cotton and sugar - exported only to Britain

iii. Heavy Duty on imports from other colonies

iv. Forbidden to start iron works, textile industries - import dependent on Britain

o Rent: They prevent colonists to move west and continue to provide rent to English aristocrat

o Taxes to Finance wars in Europe - 1765 Stamp Act - English Parliament had no representatives from the
colonies, it had no right to levy taxes on them

 Philosophers - Jefferson inspired by French philosophy, Thomas Paine had come to America after detesting
inequalities in English society

 Political - No taxation without representation by Massachusetts Assembly. They threatened to stop the import of
British goods. The threat led English to repeal the Stamp Act, but Parliament still insisted that it had the right to
levy taxes. Then Parliament imposed a tax on consumer goods coming into the colonies, such as paper, glass, tea
and paint.

 Boston Tea Party: tax on tea. 1773 - several colonies refused to unload tea from English ships. English Govt closed
the port. Immediate cause of revolution

 Declaration of Independence - First Continental - Congress at Philadelphia in 1774- appealed English king to
remove restrictions on industries, trade, tax

 Declaration perceived as mutiny and soldiers were sent to suppress it. Second Continental - 4July1776 -
declaration that 'all men are born equal'

 People are the source of authority - colonies have right to be free. They were no longer fighting as Englishmen by
as Americans

The War of Independence

 George Washington - commander of American Force

 France helped with troops, Spain and Holland started fighting elsewhere with English

 Threat of rebellion in Ireland

 Parliament opposing the war with the colonist

  War ended after Cornwallis surrendered in 1781 - Treaty of Paris in 1783

 Expansion

o Purchased territories from France (Louisiana), Spain (Florida)

o War with Mexico- extended its territory till Pacific

o Civil war 1861-65 when slave owning states of south seceded from Union

Significance of American Revolution:

 American Constitution:

o States (colonies) were united

o Republican form of government- 1st written republication constitution

o Federal system

o Bill of Rights - freedom of speech, press and religion and justice under law

 Inspiration to many revolution: 'equality of all men' and the ‘inalienable rights’ of man electrified the atmosphere
in America and outside. Many American Revolutionaries also participated in French Revolution eg, Thomas Paine,
Lafayette (French General). Also Spanish and Portuguese colonies rebelled

 Biggest achievement- establishment of republic. Men of property could vote

 American Indians were drove out of their territories and reduced in numbers

French Revolution

Causes

 Social Structure -

Privileged class Also known as Population

Clergy First estate 1.3 lakh clerics

Nobility Second estate 80 thousand families

o First and Second Estate were exempted from taxes and controlled administration

o These owned about 40% of land in France (5% of population)

o Extravagance and luxury

o Monarchy - Louis XVI - absolute monarch, mediocre intelligence, indifferent

o Financial troubles at the time of revolution

 The Third Estate-

o Peasants - almost 80% of population, they were free unlike serfs but great majority were landless. Huge
rents extracted from tenants ~3/4th. Taxes, forced labour, starvation

o Middle Class- Artisans, workers and poor in towns and cities. Also had educated writers, doctors, judges,
lawyers, teachers, civil servants, and rich merchants, bankers and manufacturers. Economically most
important class as they were builders of industries. This class had developed trade contacts with
 America and as they were rich, the clergy and nobility were indebted to them but they had no political
rights

o Artisans and City Workers - Bourgeoise - inhuman, inferior creatures, no shift in employment without
employee consent and certificate of good conduct, long working hours, heavy taxes, formed secret
societies

 Intellectual Movement -

o Rationalism - Kant

o Attack on Church, Clergy - Scientific Revolution, Renaissance, Voltaire

o Physiocrats (or French Economist of that time) - laissez faire, tax should be levied with consent of taxed

o Democracy - Rousseau asserted popular sovereignty. A new social contract that guarantee freedom,
equality and happiness. Consent of governed

The Revolution

 Fall of Bastille (prison in Paris) started the revolution which spread to other cities and towns and finally to
countryside

 The National Assembly enacted laws - Rights of Man and Citizen - equality before law, eligibility to hold public
offices, freedom from arrest without proven cause, freedom of speech and press, equitable distribution of
burden of taxation, rights to private property

 Clergy and Nobles asked for foreign support against revolution eg, Austrian emperor. Legislative Assembly
replaced National Assembly and declared war against Austria, Prussia, Savoy in Italy, Britain, Holland, Spain and
Hungary supported by army of French exiles. Legislative assembly also offered 'fraternity and assistance' to all
people wishing to destroy the old order in their country

 Jacobian - radical group believed in direct democracy, executed opponents on revolution - "Reign of Terror".

 Army became increasingly powerful - rise of Napoleon

Napoleonic Wars (1792-1815)

 Between 1793-96, French army conquered almost all of western Europe

 Napoleon pressed on Malta, Egypt and Syria, the french were ousted from Italy

 Napoleon became Emperor - defeated Austria, Prussia, Russia

 Could not lead sea front as Royal Navy was powerful due to steam engine

 Alliance of almost all Europeans defeated France in Leipzig in 1813. These allied forces later occupied Paris, and
Napoleon was defeated. His attempt at recovery was foiled at the battle of Waterloo in June 1815. The peace
settlement, which involved all Europe, took place at the Congress of Vienna.

 the old ruling dynasty of France was restored to power

 In 1830, there was another outbreak of revolution.

 In 1848, the monarchy was again overthrown though it soon reappeared.

 Finally, in 1871, the Republic was again proclaimed.

Consequences of the Revolution

  Destruction of Feudalism in France. Privileged class abolished. Lands of nobles were confiscated

 Napoleonic Code 1804 - legal equality and religious and economic freedom, rule of law, laws based on reason and
common sense, abolition of nobility, separation of church and state, freedom of occupation - flaws: gender
inequality, children and unmarried women had few rights

 Capitalism

 Nation state got its modern meaning

 Idea of popular sovereignty - Napoleon was Emperor of French Republic

 Right to vote under Jacobin Constitution

 Abolished slavery in all French Colonies

 For the first time in history, workers, peasants and other non-propertied classes were given equal political rights

 The equality didn’t solve much of the problems of peasants and workers as they wanted economic equality -
ideas of social equality, socialism, originated

Impact of French Revolution on world

 Inspired revolution in almost every country of Europe, South and Central America

 Idea that Nobility had no divine power

 Autocratic government found increasingly difficult to rule people

 Some changes in EU and AM were direct consequences of Napoleonic wars

 French occupation during Napoleonic wars spread idea of equality, liberty and F

 Serfdom abolished in their territory

 Slavery abolished in Haiti (French colony of Black)- it became a republic

 Spain was occupied by France and Portugal was on war with it, their colonies in south America were cutoff and
they became independent. By 1830, almost entire Central and South America had been liberated and slavery was
abolished

Holy Alliance

 1815 - rulers of Austria, Britain, Russia and Prussia also joined by ruler of France

 Opposed democratic ideas eg Austria sent armies into Naples

 1830- revolution broke out in many countries France, Belgium, Holland, Italy and Germany and in Poland -
suppressed

 Greece and Belgium emerged as nation state

 1848 - in almost every country of Europe - end of Holy Alliance

o French ruler Louis Phillipe (1830) was replaced by Napoleon III after an interval of republic state. Finally
in 1871 republic established

o Rulers of many german state including Prussia agreed to introduce reforms

o Austrian empire shaken - revolts in Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Poland, Yugoslavia and
many other areas
 o Workers were major force of these revolution

 Growth of Democracy in England -

o Parliament at times was not truly democratic, right to vote limited

o Until 1832, representation was based on election districts- counties and boroughs and not population

o Act of 1832, unpopulated areas or 'rotten boroughs' were abolished and their seats were given to new
towns and cities

o Right to vote extended to 10% of the population

o Chartist Movement - right to worker movement. By 1929, all citizen were franchised

Unification of Germany

 At the end of Napoleonic wars, there were around 38 independent states in Germany (previously there were
many more). Major - Prussia, Wurttemberg, Saxony, Bavaria

 Big landlords, Junkers, formed dominant section in Prussian society

 Reasons for unification -

1. Economic development

2. Social and political system were also backward

3. Growth of National Consciousness after French Revolution

4. 1815, a German confederation of german states and Austria but this was not willing for major reforms

5. 1848 movement was supressed - Frankfurt Assembly - first freely elected assembly in 1848 - proposed
the unification of Germany as constitutional monarchy under King of Prussia - who declined the offer on
the ground that the constitution abridged the rights of princes of different German states. This was
followed by repression. It is interesting to note that several ideas of the Frankfurt Constitution were
incorporated in Weimer constitution in 1919.

 Bismark: Policy of blood and iron - policy of war

o wanted to preserve the predominance of the landed aristocrats and the army in the united German
state and to achieve the unification of Germany under the leadership of the Prussian monarchy.

o Austria not to be part of this confederation -

 aligned with Austria in a war against Denmark over the possession of Schleswig and Holstein.

 After Denmark’s defeat, he entered into an alliance with Italy against Austria, defeated Austria
and dissolved the Germanic Confederation.

o he united 22 states of Germany into North German Confederation in 1866.

o The constitution of this Confederation made the king of Prussia the hereditary head of the
Confederation.

o The unification of Germany was completed as a result of a war between Prussia and France - 1870

o Germany emerged as a very strong power in Europe. It underwent heavy industrialization in a very
short period and soon joined the scramble for colonies.
Unification of Italy

 Like Germany, divided into many states, Sardinia, Venetia, Kingdom of two Sicilies

 Sardinia = most powerful, Venetia and Lombardy under Austrian occupation

 Young Italy Movement - founded in 1831 by Mazzini and Garibaldi - independence and Unification

 1848 revolution - Sardinia introduced political reforms, and its PM took initiative of uniting Italy under his
leadership. 1859 - alliance with Napoleon III and war with Austria - Lombardy was taken over by Sardinia

 Many other northern states also joined Sardinia

 Uprising in Sicilies - Garibaldi liberated Sicily and Naples

 King of Sardinia declared as King of Italy in 1861

 Rome was ruled by Pope with the support of Napoleon III till 1870 when it became capital of Italy

 Comments of both unification -

o Finally emerged as monarchy and not democracy

o Forces still being felt everywhere transforming political, social, and economic life
 o Gradual start towards democracy

o Also led to cut throat competition for colonies

o 1857 in India, Taiping rebellion in China

Socialism

 Babeuf Conspiracy - French Philosopher who participated in French Revolution. He planned a socialist overthrow
of government in 1796 but failed and executed

 Utopian Socialists - Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, Robert Owen - from each according to his capacity, to each
according to his work

 Communist League - 1847, Marx and Engles drafted a manifesto

 Marxian Socialism - scientific socialism

1. Workers produce more than the wage they get = profit by capitalists

2. Interests of workers and capitalists are irreconcilable

3. Economic crisis are inevitable in capitalism because of the discrepancy between the purchasing power
of workers and total production

 Important feature of Socialist movements was their international character

 First International, 1864, meeting took place in London and attended by delegates from Britain, France, Italy,
Germany, Poland and Switzerland - emancipation of working class must be won by themselves. It was declared
illegal by many countries. But in short span, it created international worker's solidarity, eg, during French Prussian
war in 1870 the workers sent messages of good wishes and solidarity

 The Paris Commune, 1871 - After defeat by Prussia, France was declared a republic and the government agreed to
pay for war indemnity. This was opposed by workers. The government asked German help to crush them. Workers
organised themselves as Paris Commune, leader elected by universal adult franchise. French government
established headquarter in Versailles and attacked Paris with huge army. Thousands of workers killed, deported,
imprisoned. It is regarded as first workers' revolution in history

 Above event led to crackdown on First International in all countries

 Second International, 1889 - more successful than first because -

1. In 1870s, 80s there were socialist parties in almost every European country. They participated in
national elections and had gained large parliamentary power in a few. Eg, In Britain Social Democratic
Federation, The Socialist League, the Fabian Society

2. Strength of trade union also grew

3. Socialist began to take root in Japan in 1890s

4. Though the First International was dissolved, socialism became a mass movement globally

o Formed at Paris on Catenary of French Revolution - 1889.

o Period after this saw steady increase in the power of socialist parties and trade unions

o Achievements -

i. Campaign against militarism and war - Capitalism was root cause. During 1904 Russo-
Japanese war, socialist leaders of Japan and Russia were made joint president of Second
International.

ii. Assertion of the principle of basic equality of all peoples

 iii. Right to freedom and National independence - 1904 congress was attended by Dadabhai
Naroji

o Limitations -

i. Unlike First International, it was a loose organisation - when socialist parties in many
countries became mass parties, basic differences had arisen among them

ii. Some were radical others were Fabian

iii. On question of war many socialist parties feared they would be crushed it they oppose war.
When 1st world war broke out, many socialist parties extended their support to the
government

Imperialism

Conditions that motivated Imperialist powers

1. Demands created by Industrial Revolution - new market for goods, raw material, Capital Reinvestment
opportunities - India, Egypt= cotton, Congo, East Indies= rubber. It required changing pattern of production in
these countries. Food grains, tea, coffee, indigo, tobacco, sugar.

2. Improvement in Transportation and Communication

3. Extreme Nationalism - Chauvinism - Germany, Italy enter into play

4. Acquiring a colony also had a chain reaction If a county acquired a colony, it needed another to protect it and so
on

5. White Men's Burden - Civilizing Mission- Oriental are backward, Christianity

6. Explorers and adventurers

Conditions in Asia and Africa that favored imperialism

1. Absence of IR

2. Militarily inferior

3. Weak and short sighted rulers

Effects of Imperialism

1. Economic Backwardness

2. Racism

3. Struggle against imperialism

Conquest of Asia

 China - began with Opium wars.

o Before these wars, only two ports were open to foreign traders

o British has import dependency for tea, silk with no major export to China
o This led to Opium smuggling - physical and moral damage. Chinese destroyed Opium cargo and war
broke in which China lost.

o Heavy war indemnity, opening of ports to British traders, extraterritorial rights of British in these ports,
no tariffs, Hong Kong to Britain.

o The First Opium War, during 1839–1842, was concluded by the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842.

o Soon France entered into similar unequal treaty when its missionary was killed - 1843-44

o 2nd Opium War-1856–1860, British forces fought towards legalization of the opium trade, to
expand coolie trade, to open all of China to British merchants, and to exempt foreign imports
from internal transit duties.

o 1894- Japan attacked Korea which was under Chinese overlordship and won. Korea got independence
and Japan got Formosa. China to pay for war damages

o Borrowed from France, Russia, Britain, Germany and they divided China into sphere of influence

o 1899- Open Door Policy of US - All countries would have equal rights to trade anywhere with China.
British supported fearing Russian, Japanese invasion of mainland China

o Boxer Rebellion - to put an end to such privilege. Failed. More punishment. Boxer Uprising or Yihetuan
Movement, was a violent anti-foreign, anti-colonial, and anti-Christian uprising that took place in China
between 1899 and 1901, towards the end of the Qing dynasty. It was initiated by the Militia United in
Righteousness (Yihetuan), known in English as the "Boxers", and was motivated by proto-nationalist
sentiments and opposition to Western colonialism and associated Christian missionary activity.

o


 Burma, Afghanistan - Rajiv Ahir

 Japan as imperialist power -

 o 1853 American warships, compelled the Japanese to open their country to American shipping and
trade

o This was followed by similar agreements by Japan with Britain, Holland, France and Russia.

o However, Japan escaped the experience and fate of other Asian countries.

o In 1867, after a change in government, known as Meiji Restoration, Japan began to modernize her
economy and became one of the most industrialized countries of the world.

o Same forces as in Europe made Japan imperialist

o The Anglo Japanese Treaty of 1902 - safeguarding interests in China - recognized her as a power of
equal standing with the great European powers.

o 1904-05 she defeated Russia. Got territory and ports,

o Korea became a colony of Japan.

o Shows that Imperialism was the result of greed for economic and political power which could distort
the policy of any country regardless of its race or cultural claims.

Conquest of Africa

 Slave Trade - even before imperialism started-

1. The Spanish rule in the Americas had resulted in the large-scale extermination of the original
inhabitants of the Americas

2. The Portuguese had established a slave market in Lisbon and the Spaniards bought slaves from there
and took them to their colonies in the Americas to work there.

3. African villages were raided by slave traders and people were captured and handed over to the
European traders

4. Earlier, the Arabs had dominated the slave trade, Subsequently, some African chiefs also took part in
the slave trade by trading slaves in exchange for firearms which the European traders sold to them

5. The Europeans themselves also raided the villages and enslaved the people, who were then
transported.

6. When the demand for slaves in America increased, they were sent directly from Africa by the traders

7. Transported in inhuman conditions, Lakhs of them died during the long journey.

8. Inhuman work conditions

9. Triangular trade refers to trade of manufactured goods from Britain (EU) to Africa, Trade of slaves from
Africa to America and trade of raw material from America to Britain

 Mainland Africa-

1. Only coastal regions occupied until middle of 19th century by naval powers Porguguese, Dutch, English,
French.

2. South Africa was initially occupied by Dutch, aka Boers (aka "Afrikaners"), and later by English to secure
trading route to India -

 Boer Wars 1899- Boers owned large farms and plantations, British took over Cape Colony and
abolished slavery. Boers revolted after migrating to Transvaal and Orange Free State and set
up "Afrikaners Republic". Transvaal = rich in gold so British overthrew Boer government. This
led to Boer war and they got defeated but allowed to live there
  Gandhi served from British side, as an assistant superintendent of the Indian Volunteer
stretcher-bearer corps. He was awarded Boer medal. Though he was with Boer morally but he
found himself bound by his duty to serve British because if he enjoys rights granted by them it
is his duty to serve their interest. It was an ambulance service.

 Union of South Africa was formed consisting of Cape, Natal, Transvaal and Orange River
Colony, ruled by white minority

3. Explorers, traders and missionaries

4. Africa did not have resources to fight imperialists - axes, knives vs guns

5. As a result of conflicts boundaries were often changing and this scramble created rivalries among
Europeans eg, Anglo German rivalry in East Africa

6. Conference in Berlin to share Africa 'effectively' - not a single African representative

7. Fraudulent treaties with local African Chieftens - request for support during aggression was taken as
acceptance of protectorate state

8. Partition was nearly complete by 19th century end - aka 'paper partition' - as actual partition took much
longer. 30% of boundaries were straight lines

 Egypt -

1. Province of Ottoman - ruled by Pasha since the time of Napoleon

2. France got permission to dig Suez canal from Ismail Pasha - 1869

3. British bought shares from Pasha of canal

4. Financial troubles led to increased Anglo-French control of Egypt

5. Resistance led to overthrow of governor,

6. 1882, British army took over, 1914 British announced Egypt is no longer part of Ottoman empire.

7. Paris Peace conference to plead Egypt's case against British - arrested

8. 1922 - Britain retained rights of Suez Canal but forced to recognize it as an independent sovereign state

9. Sudan was jointly exploited by Egypt and Britain. There was a rebellion in Sudan which ultimately led to
British occupation of Sudan

Panama Canal

 French company started construction and US took over by paying $40 million and entered into an agreement with
government of Columbia

 Giving perpetual rights to six mile wide 'canal zone' across her territory in exchange for $10 million and an annual
rent

 The agreement was completely against the interests of Colombia and Colombia’s Parliament refused to ratify it

 In 1903, the United States financed and organized a revolt in Panama and landed her troops there.

 Soon after, the United States recognized Panama as an independent state

 The government of Panama signed a new agreement with the United States according to which the amount of
compensation remained the same but instead of the six mile wide canal zone, ten mile canal zone was granted to
the United States
World War I

Causes

1. Imperialism

2. Militarism - armies of both France and Germany doubled between 1870-1914

3. Nationalism - Germany, Italy emerging as powers

4. Incidents preceding war:

1. Moroccan Crisis, 1904- Morocco given to France by Britain but they wanted independence. Germany
protested against this possession. Britain supported France and Germany was pacified by giving a part
of French Congo

2. Bosnian Crisis- 1908 Austria-Hungary took over former Turkish province of Bosnia. Angered Serbians
who wanted this province themselves. Germans backed Austria-Hungary and threatened Russian which
backed off. But again during Balkan wars 1911-12 Austria-Hungary took over some territory that Serbia
wanted.

5. Alliances - Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Balkan states on one side and Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman empire
on other side made war inevitable

War

1. Outbreak of War - Archduke of Austria-Hungary, heir to throne was assassinated. Final nail in the coffin. Austria
blamed Serbia for this.

2. Course of war - new strategies -

1. Digging trenches- fighting in open almost disappeared

2. Labor from colonies used to dig trenches

3. New weapons - machine gun, liquid fire, Aircrafts to bomb civilian population, tanks introduced by
Britain

4. Blockade of each other food supply, manufactures and arms

5. Sea warfare, Submarine called U-boats were used by Germany to not only destroy enemy ships but also
neutral heading to Britain - This killed Americans, who were major suppliers of arms, also entered war
against Germany

6. Chemical weapons - poison gas

7. Russian Revolution - the new government accepted harsh terms imposed by German and withdrew
from war

3. End of War -

1. Wilson’s Fourteen Points. These included the conduct of neotiations between states openly, freedom of
navigation, reduction of armaments, independence of Belgium, restoration of Alsace Lorraine to France,
creation of independent states in Europe, formation of an international organization to guarantee the
independence of all states, etc. Some of these points were accepted when the peace treaties were
signed at the end of the war.

2. Britain, France and USA launched a military offensive in July 1918

3. Austria, Ottoman surrendered, In Germany revolution broke out. Germany became a republic

4. Treaty of Versailles -

1. republican government of Germany - compelled to sign - under the threat of invasion.

 2. Declared Germany guilty of aggression.

3. Alsace Lorraine was returned to France and coal mines in the German area called Saar were ceded to
France for 15 years while that area was to be governed by the League of Nations.

4. Germany ceded huge territories to different countries in Balkan region.

5. The area of the Rhine valley was to be demilitarized and Germany disarmed.

6. Limit the strength of army to 100,000 and no air force and submarines

7. Colonies were taken over by Allies.

8. Germany was also required to pay for the loss and damages suffered by the Allies during the war. The
amount of reparations was fixed at an enormous figure of $6,500,000,000.

5. Separate treaties with Austria-Hungary. Broken into several countries. Had to cede territory to Italy. Changes in
Balkan states

6. Treaty with Turkish - dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire. Britain got Palestine and Mesopotamia. France got
Syria. 'Mandatory' powers were to look after their interests. Turkey was reduced to a small state. A revolution
under leadership of Mustafa made it a republic

7. League of Nations created as per Wilson's 14 points. - economic and military action would be taken against any
country which committed aggression. It also bound its members to improve labour and social conditions in their
countries. For this the International Labour Organization. Germany and the Soviet Union — were not allowed to
become its members for many years while India, which was not independent, was made a member. US decided
not to join it. Didn’t prove of much use during 1930s.

8. Imperialist war in nature

9. Facts about uniqueness -

1. 9 million killed, several million injured

2. Epidemics, famines, airstrikes killed many civilians

3. Economy was destroyed

4. Treaties transformed political map of world Eu and Middle East in particular

5. Beginning of end of European supremacy

6. Soviet Union

7. Nationalism in Asian and African colonies

8. Believed to be a war to end all wars, but didn’t prove to be that at all

Russian Revolution

Condition before Revolution

 With the outbreak of the First World War, however, the socialist movement in most countries of Europe suffered
a setback.

 Agrarian Distress under Feudal System- In the nineteenth century Europe, the rule of the old feudal aristocracies
had been replaced by that of the new middle classes. Russia was still living under the autocratic rule of the Czars.
Serfdom had been abolished in 1861, but it did not improve the condition of peasants-

1. small holdings of land with

2. no capital,
 3. had to pay heavy redemption dues for decades.

4. Land hunger of the peasants was a major social factor in the Russian society.

 Late Industrialization in Russia with more than half of the capital for investment came from foreign countries.
Workers were exploited.

 Lack of Support and inefficient bureaucracy- Czar was absolutist, with little support except for nobles. The
bureaucracy was top heavy, inflexible and inefficient with nepotism

 Expansionist Policy- Vast empire by conquest of diverse nationalities in Europe and Asia-

1. imposed Russian language

2. Cultural subjugation

3. Russia’s imperialist expansion brought new conflicts with other imperialist powers

Growth of Revolutionary Movements in Russia

 1904 - Russia suffered multiple defeats by Japan. 1905 Revolution broke out. A new form of organization
developed in this revolution which proved decisive in the upheaval of 1917. This was the ‘Soviet’, or the council of
workers’ representatives

 Consequence - Czar Manifesto

1. freedom of speech, press and association, and

2. conferred the power to make laws upon an elected body called the ‘Duma’

The Russian Revolution

 Hoping to capture parts of Ottoman empire, Russia failed miserably in First World War due to incapability to carry
out a modern warfare.

 Widespread discontent even within army

 Corruption

 Lenin called for a revolution to overthrow

o St Petersburg fell then Moscow fell

o Czar stepped down = aka February Revolution - not under Lenin

o Four demands of revolutionaries

i. peace,

ii. land to the tiller,

iii. control of industry by workers, and

iv. equal status for the non-Russian nationalities

o Outcomes of Feb Rev=

i. Czar abdicated,

ii. Provisional govt setup to draw constitution (Duma) although it failed,

iii. None of the above 4 demands were met

iv. Bolshevik took control after October revolution

 o These demands were fulfilled after October Revolution under Lenin leadership

o Russia withdrew from war, ceding territory to Germany

o October Revolution was completely Peaceful but soon after civil war broke out

 Consequences

1. overthrow of autocracy and the destruction of the aristocracy and the power of the church

2. Formation of USSR based on ideal- ‘from each according to his capacity, to each according to his work’

3. Private property abolished

4. Economic Planning

5. Right to work became constitutional right

6. Education given utmost priority

7. Equality of all nationalities

 Comintern

o formed for promoting revolutions on an international scale

o the formation of communist parties in many countries of the world with the objective of bringing about
revolution and following common policies was a major consequence of the Russian Revolution

o Socialist movement was divided into two sections - Socialist and Communist

o for democracy to be real, political rights without social and economic rights were not enough.

o The idea of the state playing an active role in regulating the economy and planning the economy to
improve the conditions of the people was accepted

o The universality and internationalism which were fundamental principles of socialist ideology from the
beginning were totally opposed to imperialism.

o USSR was looked as friend of colonies

Towards World War II

Italy- Fascism

 Features of Fascist movements - Hostility to democracy and socialism, and the aim of establishing dictatorships

 Cause -

o After unification, little was done to improve conditions of industrial workers and peasants

o Instead efforts were made to gain colonies

o 7lakh Italian soldiers died in WW1, and conditions of people worsened

o Mussolini organized armed gangs against socialists and communists in 1919

o The government was dominated by capitalists and landlords who supported Mussolini. A systematic
campaign of terrorism and murder was launched against socialist and communists but the government
showed little interest in curbing it

o 1921 election, hung assembly - no stable government - Mussolini fared poorly compared to Communist
and Socialists but he claimed seizing power
 o King of Italy invited Mussolini to join the government

o This followed by reign of terror. Killing/Jailing socialists

o 1926- all political parties except his own were banned. War preparation started

o Policy of expansion advocated. Therefore its neither a result of victory in elections nor of a popular
uprising

Germany- Fascism

 It became republic towards end of WWI but the forces behind monarchy, the industrialists, the big land owners
and officers of the army remained powerful

 These forces turned to Nazism to check socialist movement

 Hitler planned capture of power by marching in Berlin (similar to Mussolini) but was jailed. He was released
before his term was over

 He wrote a book while in jail glorifying use of force and brutality, rule by a great leader, ridiculed internationalism,
peace and democracy

 Blamed Jews for defeat of Germany in WWI and for all ills in Germany

 Glorified violent Nationalism and war

 Capitalized on Treaty of Versailles humiliation and post war economic misery.

 1929 - Great Depression - half of German population rendered unemployed

 Social Democratic Party and Communist Party failed to unite against Nazis

 It didn’t secure majority but SDP and CP didn’t come together thereby Hitler appointed Chancellor

 Reign of terror, assassination of opposition, Parliament set on fire, CP banned but still Nazi could not win
majority.

 Hitler assumed dictatorial power in 1934 and declared himself President

 Trade Unions were suppressed, mass extermination, destruction of intellectual work

 Jews were targeted, completely exterminated in few years

 War preparations started, Nazism was a calamity not only for Germany but for entire Europe and the world -
WWII

Britain, France

 Did not succumb to Fascism despite serious economic difficulties

 1931 - govt of conservative, Labour and Liberal parties was formed. Fascist movement tried gaining grounds after
Nazism but failed

 France - dominated by big bankers, industrialists. Hoped treaty of versailles will make it economically strong,
didn’t come true due to political instability, depression and rampant corruption. Fascist movements spread with
violence on streets but government comprising of Socialist, Radical Socialist and Communist was formed in 1936,
it lasted for 2 years and introduced many economic reforms

 They kept themselves democratic but their foreign policy was not conducive for other countries to remain
democratic.
US - strongest power

 WWI - decline in European supremacy and increase in influence of USA

 Richest and most powerful country by the end of WWI. Clear from its role in post war treaties. Made tremendous
Industrial progress, made heavy investments in Europe

 Great Depression

o Started in USA. After WWI, saw increase in production of goods in America. Huge income inequalities
led to collapse in economy starting with NYSE crash in 1929. During next 4 years, more than 9000 banks
closed and people lost their savings

o Spread to other European countries excluding Russia, as economies got closely connected particularly
dependent on American Banks. Colonies also got impacted

o Cause - Overproduction and cycle of unemployment - loss in purchasing power - more unemployment

o Consequences -

i. Large scale unemployment

ii. Loss of productivity

iii. Poverty and Starvation

iv. Political consequences - In USA alone more than 15 million were unemployed, Democratic
won and Roosevelt became the President in 1933, economic reconstruction and social welfare
started known as New Deal

o US Foreign policy was also similar to that of Britain and France

USSR

 By 1920, counterrevolutionary forces (Britain, France, US, Japan) were defeated

 Economy shattered - shortage of food

 Reforms -

o Peasants not allowed to sell in market, surplus was appropriated

o New Economic Policy, 1921 - peasants were allowed to sell their produce in open market, payment of
wages in cash was reintroduced and production of goods and their sale in some industries under private
control was permitted

o 1929 - adopted FYP and emerged as major industrial power despite economic boycott by US, other
countries

o Reforms in Agriculture - tractor farming, land consolidation, collective farming. By 1937 all lands were
brought under collectivization, initially through consent later by compulsion

o Differences in Communist Party after death of Lenin, Stalin emerged victorious and exercised dictatorial
power till his death in 1953 . Introduced many features which were contrary to humanistic ideal of
Marxism and of the revolution

o USSR was not recognized by other countries for a very long time

o Soviet pressed for action against Fascism but was not listened to

Colonies
  Arab countries - fought against Ottoman with Allies, were made 'mandates' and after immense oil wealth
discovery Britain and France refused to yield

 China -

o Power was passed into corrupt warlords after Boxer revolution.

o The national movement was aimed at overthrowing foreign domination and Unifying China by ending
rule of warlords.

o Founder of this movement was Dr Sun Yet Sen. He played important role in 1911 revolution and setup
up a government at Canton in South China in 1917. His party was called Koumintang.

o Influenced by Russian revolution and its support for its national movement (Russia ended all
unfavorable treaties with China). In 1921, Communist Party of China was formed which along with
Koumintang in 1924, led the revolutionary army with support of Soviet.

o Sun Yet Sen died in 1925, and coalition broke and civil war started

o 1930s, Japanese attack forced the coalition again where CP played important role in the war of
resistance

 PanAfrica movement-

o Asserted unity of Africans and claim for independence. 1912 African National Congress became leading
organisation of South African people. Ethiopians fought against Italian Invasion

Beginning of Fascist Aggression

 Germany, Italy and Japan formed Axis alliance to fight against communism

 Aggression against Soviet, Comintern called for an grand alliance of all anti fascist forces as such a failure had led
to Nazism in Germany. This led to formation of Popular Fronts in many countries eg, France, which led to anti-
imperialist forces coming together

 League of Nation which had admitted soviet in 1935, failed to respond to aggression due to western vested
interests (appeasing Hitler) and hoping that fascist would get rid of communists.

 Japanese invasion of China - Japan govt had also become more authoritarian. 1931 invaded China after a minor
incident involving a railway line in Manchuria

 China appealed to LoN but no response. Manchuria got annexed. US also kept calm

 Japan started seizing British and American property in China, but appeasement continued as it was thought that
Japanese can be used to weaken China and Soviet. Britain didn’t want to upset Japan and endanger its colonies in
Asia

 German invasion of Rhineland and violation of Treaty of Versailles

 Italian Invasion of Ethiopia

 Spanish Civil War-

o 1931 - Spain became Republic. 1936- Popular front comprising of socialist , communist and other anti
fascist parties came to power. Military revolted under General Franco with support of Italian and
German followed by their open interference in the subsequent civil war.

o On appeal for help by republican (govt of Spanish Republic), only Soviet came to rescue, others took a
non-interventionist approach

o Thousands of antifascist volunteers from many countries including many Germans, went to Spain to
fight alongside Spaniards and got killed. Finest example of Internationalism in history
 o Republicans got support from intellectuals.

o Civil war continued for three years. Nehru went to Spain to mark solidarity of the Indian Nationalist
movement with the Republicans

 The Munich Pact- the final act of appeasement

o Hitler occupied Austria, west didn’t protest.

o Czechoslovakia had strategic and economic significance for Germany

o Its territory Sudetenland (1/5th of Czechoslovakia) had substantial German population and Hitler
claimed it. In Munich pact, Britain and France agreed to Germany's terms without consent of
Czechoslovakia, few months later entire country was under German occupation

 Finally an alliance with Soviet was made but Soviet signed a non aggression pact with Germany shocking entire
antifascist world

 Britain and France promised to come to the aid of Poland, Greece, Rumania and Turkey in case their
independence was endangered.

World War II

 Hitler demanded part of Poland which was east Prussia territory prior to WWI, Britain refused => Invasion of
Poland and beginning of WWII after Britain and France declared war on Germany. Germany invaded Norway,
Denmark in what is known as 'Phoney War' as their was little resistance

 Soviet attacked East Poland and regained the territories that were ceded in WWI. Baltic states were also occupied
by Soviets

 Germany conquered Norway, Denmark, Holland, Belgium and France

 Only Britain Left which resisted

 German invaded Balkans, Italy failed in North Africa and Greece

 German invaded Soviet Union despite Non Aggression pact. Hitler always wanted vast territory and resources.
British, Soviet, American unity

 Japan attacked Pearl Harbour

 Battle of Stalingrad - United Nations Declarations signed by 26 nations including Britain, USA, USSR to cooperate
against common enemy. German attack in Moscow met with repulsion and they attacked southern Russia. In
1942, German troops reached Stalingrad and civilian population joined the soldiers in defense of the city. In 1943,
90k German soldiers surrendered. Turning point of the war.

 Turning point 2: Japan failed to capture Australia, Hawaii. German, Italian ousted back in North Africa. Many
sections of Italians turned against Mussolini. Soviet made advances in Czechoslovakia

 Eastern Front on France was opened by Allies aka Second Front in 1942. Third Front was from Italy side in 1944

 Nuclear Bomb on Japan and war came to an end

 Resistance Movements - eg France, government didn’t offer resistance to German occupation but population did,
A french army was formed outside France under General de Gaulle. Similarly for other countries. Guerilla forces in
Yugoslavia, Greece. Even in Germany, Italy antifascist were fighting - killed, some operated from outside. Same
thing happened in China, Indo China, Philippines, Korea, Indonesia. Indian National Movement expressed itself
against Fascism.
Damage by WWII

 Most destructive, Holocaust, Gas Chambers, Factories that made goods from Human skin and bones. Experiments
on Humans by Japanese 'scientists'. Over 5crore people died

 Damage worth several trillions of dollars

 New Weapons - atom bomb,

Post WWII-Decolonization

Factors that Favoured Decolonisation

1. Cause for which Allies fought - democracy and freedom

2. Emergence of Soviet Union as a major force - and socialism in colonies

3. UN supported

4. Unity in freedom movement among various countriesA

Cold War

 USSR: suffered maximum in the war, lost 20m people, economy shattered, cities destroyed, factories destroyed.
But its power and prestige raised due to the crucial role it played in defeating Germany. It was next only to US in
power.

 Causes

1. Fear of communism by west - after PRC in 1949, US openly declared its anti communist policy. Massive
aid given to western Europe to contain Communism. Restriction imposed on liberties of the people in
US itself to contain communism. Freedom movement were looks upon suspiciously eg, in Vietnam, US
supported France

2. Military Blocs - NATO, SEATO (Pak, US , UK, France, Thailand, Philippines), Baghdad Pact (Britain, Turkey,
Iran, Iraq, Pakistan) later renamed as CENTO, Warsaw Pact - USSR, Poland Czechoslovakia, Hungary,
Romania, Bulgaria and German Democratic Republic. Warsaw pact countries didn’t have military bases
in other countries but had treaty of friendship and mutual assistance with China.

3. Arms Race - nuclear proliferation

 Peaks -

o 1962- Cuban Missile Crisis - USSR deploys nuclear missiles with hitting range covering Florida. Naval
blockade of Cuba by JFK. Soviet removed the missiles

o 1960-1975 - Vietnam war. Several thousands American troops died

o 1968 - Prague Spring - reform in Prague halted by Soviet troops

o 1979 - Afgan invasion by Soviet

o 1985 - Gorbachev's rise

o 1991 - fall of the Soviet Union

 Collapse of USSR -

o Attempts made to provide greater autonomy to republics

o Economic conditions worsened

 o Reforms introduced by Gorbachev since 1985 culminated in split

o Commonwealth of Independent States was created

o The attitude towards communists worsened throughout Europe

o Warsaw Pact was dissolved

 Non Alignment from other sources

Asia

 Chinese Revolution:

o Kuomintang under Chiang Kai-Shek represented interests of capitalists and landlords

o Communist Party under Mao Zedong represented workers and peasants

o In areas of CP control, lands of capitalists appropriated and redistributed

o It got major support base in China, it also organized PLA.

o After Japanese retreat, civil war broke out. USA aided Kuomintang but he lost and went to
Formosa(Taiwan) and established Republic of China

o It was a world shaking event. Imperialism was further weakened after communism in China

o People's Republic of China symbolized American defeat. And PRC was denied UN membership for two
decades.

 Korean War:

o After Japanese defeat, Korean peninsula was divided into two zones, northern under Soviet occupation
and southern under American occupation, to bring about surrender of Japanese troops

o Rhee (leader of South Korea) was anticommunist and wanted alliance with Chiang Kai-shek to prevent
spread of communism

o US sent troops to help South Korea in 1950 after PLA involvement

Africa and Middle East

 French tried to consolidate again in Syria, Lebanon but global opinion and internal resistance in these countries
stopped it

 There was similar movements in other Arab countries, which led to formation of Arab League comprising of all
Arab states

 Israel: Palestine became British 'mandate' after WWI, the British troops again occupied the country in 1945.
Zionist movement claimed that Palestine was homeland of all the Jews. UN passed a resolution to divide Palestine
into an Arab and a Jewish state. However in 1948, British troops were withdrawn and Israel was recognized. Arab
states went on war with Israel and lost. In 1956 Israel, France and Britain invaded Egypt and won. In 1964 PLO was
formed.

 Egypt: declared independent in 1922 but British troops continued to remain there. After WWII, there were strong
demand for their removal. Many Egyptians were killed as a result of clashes b/w them and soldiers. Revolution in
1952, when under General Naseer, the Egyptian army overthrew monarchy and declared republic. British troops
were withdrawn in 1956. Egypt was non aligned and nationalized Suez Canal which was previously under the
control of Britain and France. Later Israel invaded Egypt which was condemned by everyone including USA, and
USSR supported Egypt cause
  Kenya: Mau Mau rebellion in 1952, under Jomo Kenyatta, leader of Kenya African Union, against British. Many
Kenyans were killed and sent to concentration camps by British but failed to suppress the rebellion =>
Independence in 1963. Many African nations faced serious problems after independence because the imperial
power resorted to direct interventions and creating dissensions. Eg in Congo, Belgium brought about the
secession of the rich province of Katanga, on appeal of PM of Congo, UN troops were sent to bring about the
withdrawal of foreign troops. However PM was assassinated and country went into civil wars for years.

 South Africa: Union of South Africa since 1910 and Republic of South Africa since 1961- had been independent
but most oppressive regime of 20th century. Apartheid. Each Race had to live in different areas, different schools,
separate theatres, separate shopping centres, separate coaches in trains for whites, blacks and others. Sport
teams were formed on the bases of race. White minority ruled over 80% majority black and coloured. African
National Congress (1910) with aim of non racist democratic SA was setup and intensified movement began after
1950. Massacres of peaceful protestors by govt. ANC banned in 1960. India condemned. UN condemned. SA was
isolated, in 1980 western countries also imposed sanctions. The ban on ANC lifted, Nelson Mandela released after
26 years of imprisonment. 1994 he became the President.

Anti-Communism 1989-1992

Anti-communist movements in the period 1989-1992 in many nations – Poland, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary,
Romania, Russia and even China – toppled many of the authoritarian regimes in Europe, establishing capitalist, liberal
democracies. Most of the mass movements were non-violent. Romania was an exemption. The anti-communist movements
gained success in most countries, but it was suppressed in China.

Consequences-

1. Peaceful transfer of power to non-Communist governments in Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic and Slovakia
(breakup), Bulgaria, and Albania. German reunification.

2. Violent transfer of power to a non-Communist government in Romania.

3. Collapse of the Soviet Union. Formation of the Russian Federation. End of the Cold War.

4. Breakup of Yugoslavia: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.

5. Tiananmen Square protests of 1989: Violent suppression of the Chinese democracy movement.

6. Dissolution of the Warsaw Pact. All Soviet military troops withdraw from Afghanistan. Integration of most former
Warsaw Pact members into NATO.
 7. Intensification of the process of European integration.

8. Skepticism about Communism all over the world associated with decreasing support for communist parties,
especially in Europe.

9. Changes in dozens of other countries, especially involving the rise of consumerism. Yemeni reunification. Collapse
of Communism in Mongolia, Ethiopia and Yemen. Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia ends.

10. United States sphere of influence grows. New World Order. Spread of electoral democracy.

The American Civil War- 1861-65

When American won Independence from England in 1776, there were 13 colonies which formed a federal government.
Colonies expanded from east coast to west forming 34 states by 1861. There were difference between states in the north
and states in the south – which resulted in the American Civil War.

Causes-

1. Economic Disparity between Northern (industrialized) and Southern (agriculture). Northern states wanted tax on
imports from Britain while southern didn’t.

2. Difference over Slavery- Industrialized northern states preferred paid laborers while agricultural southern states
which had large plantations were dependent on slave labor. Slavery was abolished in northern states in 1804 and
they became ‘free states’.

3. Movement for the abolition of slavery-

a. A strong movement for the abolition of slavery began in the north. It called for the repeal of the
controversial Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 (this act had mandated the return of run-away slaves to their
masters).

4. The fear of reforms by Abraham Lincoln and Republican party

 a. The immediate cause of the civil war was the American Presidential election in which
the Republican Party candidate, Abraham Lincoln, won (1860).

b. Lincoln stood for freedom of slaves.

Course of the American Civil War

1. Seven southern states declared their secession from the Union and established a Southern government –
the Confederate States of America on February 9, 1861. The Confederacy adopted its own Constitution. Jefferson
Davis was its President.

2. War broke out in April 1861 when the Confederates attacked a U.S. fortress (Fort Sumter) at South Carolina. 4
more states joined confederacy, making the total number of states 11.

3. In September 1862, Lincoln issued the Proclamation of Emancipation, which freed millions of slaves. Lincoln gave
the famous Gettysberg Address – where he set before the nation the task of preserving the Union and democracy.
His vision was a government of the people, by the people and for the people.

4. The war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the collapse of Confederate government in
1865

Significance

1. Social- End of slavery.

2. Political- Abolished the secession of states for all times to come.

3. Economic- Growth of large scale manufacturing industries. Regulation of banking system ((National Banking Act)
and use of paper currency contributed to the growth of nationwide business. Improvement in transport and
communication. More area came under cultivation – particularly in the west regions on North America.

4. Military- New weapons were used.

5. Philosophical- While the Revolution of 1776-1783 created the United States, the Civil War of 1861-1865
determined what kind of nation it would be.

Fall of Berlin Wall

1961-1989- The construction stop flood of refugees from East to West. It was constructed by East Germany.

Reasons-

1. Disappointment with Communism

2. Reforms by Gorbachev

Consequences-

1. Unification of Germany

2. Ripple Effect- in other socialist countries, Marked the end of Soviet supported authoritarian regimes in Eastern
Europe. and finally the collapse of Soviet Union itself in 1991.

3. Political and Economic Shifts- Liberal, capitalist and democratic system emerged as the major doctrine across the
world.

4. Strategic realignment- Some of these countries have become members of Western institutions and organizations
like the European Union (EU), North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD).
Collapse of USSR

Reason for Collapse-

1. Economic Weakness- The weakness of the economy was the major cause of dissatisfaction among the people in
USSR. There was severe shortage of consumer items. The reason for economics weakness were the following.

1. Huge military spending.

2. Maintenance of satellite states in Easter Europe.

3. Maintenance of the Central Asian Republics within the USSR.

2. Political Un-accountability- The communist party regime (single party rule) for around 70 years turned
authoritarian. There was widespread corruption, nepotism and lack of transparency. Gorbachev’s decision to
allow elections with a multi-party system and create a presidency for the Soviet Union began a slow process of
democratization that eventually destabilized Communist control and contributed to the collapse of the Soviet
Union.

3. Gorbachev’s reforms- Once people started to enjoy freedom under Michael Gorbachev’s reforms, they
demanded more. The demand grew into a big force which turned difficult to control. The people wanted to catch
up with the west quickly.

o Perestroika- was a political reform movement within Communist Party of Soviet Union during 1980s led
by Mikhail Gorbachev and his glasnost (openness) policy reform.

o Perestroika allowed more independent actions from various ministries and introduced some market-like
reforms. The goal of perestroika, however, was not to end the command economy but rather to
make socialism work more efficiently to better meet the needs of Soviet citizens

o It exacerbated already existing political, social, and economic tensions within the Soviet Union

o It involved relaxation of price control, LQP raj equivalency, trade liberalization. This upset
bureaucracy. Food prices rose sharply.

o Glasnost political reform- A free election was conducted for the first time since 1917. Many communist
hardliners lost.

o Relationship rebalancing with western powers including Britain, USA.

o Failed coup in 1991 finally resulted in collapse of soviet union.

4. Rise of nationalism- Rise of nationalism among countries like Russia, Baltic republics (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania),
Ukraine, Georgia etc is the most important and immediate cause of disintegration of the USSR. The national
feeling was strong among the more prosperous areas in USSR and not in Central Asian republics. Ordinary people
among prosperous republics didn’t like to pay big price to uplift the backward Central Asian republics.

Consequences-

1. The fall of second world.

2. The period marked the end of many communist regimes in response to mass protests.

3. End of cold war: End of arms race, end of ideological confrontations.

4. Change in power equations: Unipolar world, capitalist ideology, IMF, World Bank etc.

5. Emergence of new countries and new alliances – Eg: Baltic countries aligned with NATO.