UNIT-I

Data Communication - Definition, Components, Types, Channels

Transferring data over a transmission medium between two or more devices, systems,
or places is known as data communication.
Components of Data Communication
A communication system is made up of the following components:
1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one
person to another. It could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer,
mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.
3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer, telephone
mobile, workstation, etc.
4. Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication channels
are the medium that connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be
connected by either wired media or wireless media.
5. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be
understandable to the receiver also otherwise it is meaningless. For example,
Sonali sends a message to Chetan. If Sonali writes in Hindi and Chetan cannot
understand Hindi, it is a meaningless conversation.

Therefore, there are some set of rules (protocols) that is followed by every computer
connected to the internet and they are:
 TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is responsible for dividing messages
into packets on the source computer and reassembling the received packet at the
destination or recipient computer. It also makes sure that the packets have the
information about the source of the message data, the destination of the message
 data, the sequence in which the message data should be re-assembled, and checks
if the message has been sent correctly to the specific destination.
 IP(Internet Protocol): Do You ever wonder how computer determines which
packet belongs to which device. What happens if the message you sent to your
friend is received by your father? Scary Right. Well! IP is responsible for handling
the address of the destination computer so that each packet is sent to its proper
destination.
Type of data communication
The data communication is divided into three types:
1. Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or we can say that
unidirectional communication in which one device only receives and another
device only sends data and devices uses their entire capacity in transmission. For
example, IoT, entering data using a keyboard, listening music using a speaker, etc.
2. Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way communication, or we can say that
it is a bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send and receive
data but not at the same time. When one device is sending data then another device
is only receiving and vice-versa. For example, walkie-talkie.
3. Full-duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it
is a bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send and receive
data at the same time. For example, mobile phones, landlines, etc.
Communication Channels
Communication channels are the medium that connects two or more workstations.
Workstations can be connected by either wired media or wireless media. It is also
known as a transmission medium. The transmission medium or channel is a link that
carries messages between two or more devices. We can group the communication
media into two categories:
 Guided media transmission
 Unguided media transmission
1. Guided Media: In this transmission medium, the physical link is created using
wires or cables between two or more computers or devices, and then the data is
transmitted using these cables in terms of signals. Guided media transmission of the
following types:
1. Twisted pair cable: It is the most common form of wire used in communication. In
a twisted-pair cable, two identical wires are wrapped together in a double helix. The
twisting of the wire reduces the crosstalk. It is known as the leaking of a signal from
one wire to another due to which signal can corrupt and can cause network errors. The
twisting protects the wire from internal crosstalk as well as external forms of signal
interference. Types of Twisted Pair Cable :
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): It is used in computers and telephones widely.
As the name suggests, there is no external shielding so it does not protects from
external interference. It is cheaper than STP.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): It offers greater protection from crosstalk due to
shield. Due to shielding, it protects from external interference. It is heavier and
costlier as compare to UTP.
2. Coaxial Cable: It consists of a solid wire core that is surrounded by one or more
foil or wire shields. The inner core of the coaxial cable carries the signal and the outer
shield provides the ground. It is widely used for television signals and also used by
large corporations in building security systems. Data transmission of this cable is
better but expensive as compared to twisted pair.
3. Optical fibers: Optical fiber is an important technology. It transmits large amounts
of data at very high speeds due to which it is widely used in internet cables. It carries
data as a light that travels inside a thin glass fiber. The fiber optic cable is made up of
three pieces:
1. Core: Core is the piece through which light travels. It is generally created using
glass or plastic.
2. Cladding: It is the covering of the core and reflects the light back to the core.
3. Sheath: It is the protective covering that protects fiber cable from the environment.
2. Unguided Media: The unguided transmission media is a transmission mode in
which the signals are propagated from one device to another device wirelessly.
Signals can wave through the air, water, or vacuum. It is generally used to transmit
signals in all directions. Unguided Media is further divided into various parts :
1. Microwave: Microwave offers communication without the use of cables.
Microwave signals are just like radio and television signals. It is used in long-distance
communication. Microwave transmission consists of a transmitter, receiver, and
atmosphere. In microwave communication, there are parabolic antennas that are
mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna. The higher the tower, the
greater the range.
2. Radio wave: When communication is carried out by radio frequencies, then it is
termed radio waves transmission. It offers mobility. It is consists of the transmitter
and the receiver. Both use antennas to radiate and capture the radio signal.
3. Infrared: It is short-distance communication and can pass through any object. It is
generally used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, etc.
Networks
Networking is the practice of linking two or more computing devices together for
the purpose of sharing data. Networks are built with a mix of computer hardware
and computer software.

Distributed Processing

Distributed computing is a field of computer science that studies distributed

systems. A distributed system consists of multiple autonomous computers that
communicate through a computer network. The computers interact with each other
in order to achieve a common goal. A computer program that runs in a distributed
system is called a distributed program, and distributed programming is the
process of writing such programs.

Distributed computing also refers to the use of distributed systems to solve

computational problems. In distributed computing, a problem is divided into many
tasks, each of which is solved by one or more computers.

Distributed programming typically falls into one of several basic architectures or

categories: client–server, 3-tier architecture, n-tier architecture, distributed objects,
loose coupling, or tight coupling.

 Client–server: Smart client code contacts the server for data then formats
and displays it to the user. Input at the client is committed back to the server
when it represents a permanent change.

 3-tier architecture: Three tier systems move the client intelligence to a

middle tier so that stateless clients can be used. This simplifies application
deployment. Most web applications are 3-Tier.
 n-tier architecture: n-tier refers typically to web applications which further
forward their requests to other enterprise services. This type of application is
the one most responsible for the success of application servers.
 Tightly coupled (clustered): refers typically to a cluster of machines that
closely work together, running a shared process in parallel. The task is
subdivided in parts that are made individually by each one and then put back
together to make the final result.
 Peer-to-peer: an architecture where there is no special machine or machines
that provide a service or manage the network resources. Instead all
responsibilities are uniformly divided among all machines, known as peers.
 Peers can serve both as clients and servers.
 Space based: refers to an infrastructure that creates the illusion
(virtualization) of one single address-space. Data are transparently replicated
according to application needs. Decoupling in time, space and reference is
achieved.
Line Configuration
Line configuration refers to the way two or more communication devices
attached to a link. Line configuration is also referred to as connection. A
Link is the physical communication pathway that transfers data from one
device to another. For communication to occur, two devices must be
connected in same way to the same link at the same time.
There are two possible line configurations.
1. Point-to-Point.
2. Multipoint.

Point-to-Point
A Point to Point Line Configuration Provide dedicated link between two
devices use actual length of wire or cable to connect the two end including
microwave & satellite link. Infrared remote control & tvs remote control.
The entire capacity of the channel is reserved for transmission between those
two devices. Most point-to-point line configurations use an actual length of
wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as microwave
or satellite links, are also possible.
Point to point network topology is considered to be one of the easiest and
most conventional network topologies. It is also the simplest to establish
and understand. To visualize, one can consider point to point network
topology as two phones connected end to end for a two way communication
Multipoint Configuration
Multipoint Configuration also known as Multidrop line configurationone
or more than two specific devices share a single link capacity of the channel
is shared.

More than two devices share the Link that is the capacity of the channel is
shared now. With shared capacity, there can be two possibilities in a
Multipoint Line Config:
 Spatial Sharing: If several devices can share the link simultaneously, its
called Spatially shared line configuration

 Temporal (Time) Sharing: If users must take turns using the link ,
then its called Temporally shared or Time Shared Line Configuration

Topology
The term “Topology” refers to the way in which the end points or
stations/computer systems, attached to the networks, are interconnected. We
have seen that a topology is essentially a stable geometric arrangement of
computers in a network. If you want to select a topology for doing
networking. You have attention to the following points.

 Application S/W and protocols.

 Types of data communicating devices.

  Geographic scope of the network.

 Cost.

 Reliability.

Depending on the requirement there are different Topologies to construct a network.

(1) Mesh topology.
(2) Star topology.
(3) Tree (Hierarchical) topology.
(4) Bus topology.
(5) Ring topology.
(6) Cellular topology.

 Ring and mesh topologies are felt convenient for peer to peer
transmission.

 Star and tree are more convenient for client server.

 Bus topology is equally convenient for either of them.

Mesh Topology
The value of fully meshed networks is proportional to the exponent of the number of
subscribers, assuming that communicating groups of any two endpoints, up to and
including all the endpoints, is approximated by Reed's Law.
The number of connections in a full mesh = n(n - 1) / 2
Star Topology
In a star topology, cables run from every computer to a centrally located device
called a HUB. Star topology networks require a central point of connection
between media segment. These central points are referred to as Hubs.
Hubs are special repeaters that overcome the electromechanical limitations of a
media. Each computer on a star network communicates with a central
hub that resends the message either to all the computers. (In a broadcast network) or
only the destination
computer. (In a switched network).
Ethernet 10 base T is a popular network based on the star topology.

Tree (Hierarchical) topology

It is similar to the star network, but the nodes are connected to the secondary
hub that in turn is connected to the central hub.
The central hub is the active hub.
The active hub contains the repeater, which regenerates the bits pattern it receives
before sending them out.
The secondary hub can be either active or passive.
A passive hub provides a simple physical connection between the attached devices.

Bus topology
A bus topology connects computers along a single or more cable to connect
linearly. A network that uses a bus topology is referred to as a "bus
network" which was the original form of Ethernet networks. Ethernet
10Base2 (also known as thinnet) is used for bus topology.

Ring topology
In ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point line configuration
only with two devices on either side of it.
A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device until it
reaches its destination.
Each device in the ring has a repeater. When the devices receive the signal
intended for the other node, it just regenerates the bits and passes them
along.
Ring network passes a token.
A token is a short message with the electronic address of the receiver. Each
network interface card is given a unique electronic address, which is used
to identify the computer on the network.
Cellular topology
The cellular topology is applicable only in case of wireless media that does
not require cable connection.
In wireless media, each point transmits in a certain geographical area called
a cell.
Each cell represents a portion of the total network area.
Devices that are in the cell communicate through a central hub. Hubs in
different cells are interconnected. They route data across the network and
provide a complete network infrastructure.
The data is transmitted in the cellular digital packet data (CDPD) format.
 Network criteria refers to the essential characteristics and performance aspects
that define a successful network. These criteria are crucial for evaluating the
effectiveness and suitability of a network for its intended purpose. Key network
criteria include performance, reliability, security, scalability, and cost.
Performance is a measure of how well a network handles data transmission and
processing. It includes factors like throughput (the amount of data transmitted
over a given time) and delay (the time it takes for data to travel from source to
destination).
Reliability refers to the consistency and dependability of a network. Factors
contributing to reliability include the frequency of failures, the recovery time
after a failure, and the network's ability to handle errors.
Security is paramount in protecting data from unauthorized access, viruses, and
other threats. A secure network ensures the confidentiality, integrity, and
availability of data.
Scalability indicates a network's ability to accommodate growth in users,
devices, and data traffic without significant performance degradation.
Cost encompasses the initial investment in hardware and software, as well as
ongoing operational expenses. A cost-effective network balances performance
and reliability with reasonable expenses.
Physical structures of a network refer to the tangible components used to
connect devices and facilitate data transmission. These include:
 Transmission media: This is the physical path through which data
travels. Common examples include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber optic
cable, and wireless (radio waves, microwaves).
 Network devices: These include computers, servers, routers, switches, hubs,
and other hardware that enable network communication.
 Connectors and cabling: These physically link devices and enable the
transmission of data.
Different network topologies (the arrangement of devices and connections) also
influence the physical structure and performance of a network. Common
topologies include:
 Bus topology: A linear layout where all devices share a single cable.
 Star topology: Devices connect to a central hub or switch.
 Ring topology: Devices are connected in a closed loop.
 Mesh topology: Devices are interconnected in a complex web.
 Tree topology: A hierarchical structure resembling a tree.
 Hybrid topology: A combination of different topologies.
Understanding the network criteria and physical structures is essential for
designing, implementing, and managing effective and efficient networks.

NETWORK MODEL
Designing and managing networks is a challenging process that requires
integrating various technologies such as software, hardware, firmware and
electrical systems. To simplify this task, the concept of layering was
introduced. Layers isolate specific tasks, operate independently and rely on
one another only for data exchange, ensuring the network functions as a
cohesive system.
Layered Architecture in Networking
Layered architecture is a design framework used in networking
to organize and simplify the complexities of communication systems. It
divides the networking process into different layers, with each layer assigned a
specific set of tasks and responsibilities. This structured approach ensures
modularity, flexibility and easier troubleshooting.
.

Five-Layered Architecture
The most commonly used architectures are:
 OSI Model
 TCP/IP Model
Advantages of layered architecture
 Modularity: As the tasks are divided into different sections, it makes
understanding and maintenance of the system more simplified.
 Interoperability: Layers follow standard protocols and enable devices
from different organizations to communicate efficiently.
 Scalability: New technologies or protocols can be integrated without
affecting the entire system.
 Troubleshooting: Problems can be isolated to specific layers and each
layer can be analyzed and tested individually.

Overview of the OSI Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model is a theoretical framework
developed by ISO for understanding and implementing network protocols. It
consists of 7 layers:
1. Physical Layer: Deals with raw bit transmission over physical media.
2. Data Link Layer: Manages frame creation, error detection and medium
access.
3. Network Layer: Handles routing and forwarding of packets (e.g., IP).
4. Transport Layer: Ensures reliable data transfer (e.g., TCP).
5. Session Layer: Manages sessions between devices.
6. Presentation Layer: Handles data formatting, encryption and compression.
7. Application Layer: Provides end-user services (e.g., HTTP, FTP).

OSI Model
The TCP/IP Model: The Backbone of the Internet
The TCP/IP Model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a
foundational framework for modern networking, providing the architecture
that underpins the internet and most communication systems. It defines how
data is transmitted, routed and received across interconnected networks.

TCP/IP Model
The TCP/IP model is composed of four layers, each with specific
responsibilities:
1. Network Interface Layer: Handles hardware-specific data transmission
(e.g., MAC addresses, frame creation).
2. Internet Layer: Manages IP addressing, routing and packet forwarding
using protocols like IP and ARP.
3. Transport Layer: Ensures reliable end-to-end communication with
protocols like TCP (reliable) and UDP (faster, less reliable).
4. Application Layer: Supports user-facing services like web browsing and
email, with protocols such as HTTP, FTP and DNS.

Internet Model
The internet relies on the TCP/IP protocol suite, also known as the Internet
Suite. It defines the Internet Model with its four-layered
architecture(Network Interface Layer, Internet Layer, Transport Layer,
Application Layer).While the OSI Model is a general framework for
communication, the Internet Model is specifically designed for all internet
communication.
How Packet Transfers Work in Network Models
Packet transfers in network models work on the concept of Protocol Data
Units (PDUs), which represent data at various layers of the networking
process. PDUs ensure efficient and structured communication by
encapsulating data as it passes through different layers of the model.
 Protocol Data Units
Comparing OSI and TCP/IP Models
Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP stands for

OSI stands for Open Systems Transmission Control
Interconnection Protocol/Internet
Full Form Protocol

Layers It has 7 layers It has 4 layers

Usage It is low in usage It is mostly used

It is horizontally
It is vertically approached
Approach approached

Delivery of the package

Delivery of the package is
is not guaranteed in
guaranteed in OSI Model
Delivery TCP/IP Model

Reliability It is less reliable than TCP/IP It is more reliable than

 Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Model OSI Model

Not tied to specific protocols, but

examples include HTTP
HTTP, FTP, TCP,
(Application), SSL/TLS
UDP, IP, Ethernet
Protocol (Presentation), TCP (Transport), IP
Example (Network), Ethernet (Data Link)

Handled mainly at the

Error Handed at multiple layers. Transport Layer (e.g.,
Handling TCP)

Challenges of Network Models

 Complexity in Implementation: Theoretical models like OSI can be
challenging to implement in practical scenarios.
 Adaptation to Modern Technologies: Traditional models struggle to
address advancements like IoT, cloud computing and 5G, which require
more flexibility.
 Security Challenges: Ensuring comprehensive security across all layers is
difficult and vulnerabilities in one layer can compromise the entire system.
 Scalability Issues: Models may not handle the growth of large, complex
networks efficiently and can lead to performance limitations.
 Protocol Dependency (TCP/IP): The use of specific protocols makes it
less adaptable to new technologies or alternative protocols.
 Interoperability: Achieving seamless communication between devices or
systems using different models becomes a challenge.

TYPES OF NETWORK
Types of Computer Networks
A computer network is a system that connects many independent computers to
share information (data) and resources. The integration of computers and other
different devices allows users to communicate more easily. It is a collection of
two or more computer systems that are linked together. A network connection
can be established using either cable or wireless media. Hardware and software
are used to connect computers and tools in any network.
Uses of Computer Networks
 Communicating using email, video, instant messaging, etc.
 Sharing devices such as printers, scanners, etc.
 Sharing files.
 Sharing software and operating programs on remote systems.
 Allowing network users to easily access and maintain information.
Types of Computer Networks
There are mainly five types of Computer Networks
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

Types of Computer Networks

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
PAN is the most basic type of computer network. It is a type of network
designed to connect devices within a short range, typically around one person. It
allows your personal devices, like smartphones, tablets, laptops, and wearables,
to communicate and share data with each other. PAN offers a network range of
1 to 100 meters from person to device providing communication. Its
transmission speed is very high with very easy maintenance and very low cost.
This uses Bluetooth, IrDA, and Zigbee as technology. Examples of PAN are
USB, computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA, etc.

Types of PAN
Wired Personal Area Network: A wired personal area network is constructed
using a USB.
 Wired PAN
Wireless Personal Area Networks: Wireless Personal Area Networks are
created by simply utilising wireless technologies such as WiFi and Bluetooth. It

is a low-range network. Wireless PAN

Advantages of PAN
 PAN is relatively flexible and provides high efficiency for short network
ranges.
 It needs easy setup and relatively low cost.
 It does not require frequent installations and maintenance
 It is easy and portable.
 Needs fewer technical skills to use.
Disadvantages of PAN
 Low network coverage area/range.
 Limited to relatively low data rates.
 Devices are not compatible with each other.
 Inbuilt WPAN devices are a little bit costly.
Applications of PAN
 Home and Offices
 Organizations and the Business sector
 Medical and Hospital
 School and College Education
 Military and Defense
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer network that
connects computers through a common communication path, contained within a
limited area, that is, locally. A LAN encompasses two or more computers
connected over a server. The two important technologies involved in this
network are Ethernet and Wi-fi. It ranges up to 2km & transmission speed is
very high with easy maintenance and low cost. Examples of LAN are
networking in a home, school, library, laboratory, college, office, etc.

Local Area Network

(LAN)
Advantages of a LAN
 Privacy: LAN is a private network, thus no outside regulatory body controls
it, giving it a privacy.
 High Speed: LAN offers a much higher speed(around 100 mbps) and data
transfer rate comparatively to WAN.
 Supports different transmission mediums: LAN support a variety of
communications transmission medium such as an Ethernet cable (thin cable,
thick cable, and twisted pair), fiber and wireless transmission.
 Inexpensive and Simple: A LAN usually has low cost, installation,
expansion and maintenance and LAN installation is relatively easy to use,
good scalability.
Disadvantages of LAN
 The initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high because
there is special software required to make a server.
 Communication devices like an ethernet cable, switches, hubs, routers,
cables are costly.
 LAN administrator can see and check personal data files as well
as Internet history of each and every LAN user. Hence, the privacy of the
users are violated
 LANs are restricted in size and cover only a limited area
 Since all the data is stored in a single server computer, if it can be accessed
by an unauthorized user, can cause a serious data security threat.
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a type of computer
network that is usually used in places like a school or colleges. This network
covers a limited geographical area that is, it spreads across several buildings
within the campus. CAN mainly use Ethernet technology with a range from
1km to 5km. Its transmission speed is very high with a moderate maintenance
cost and moderate cost. Examples of CAN are networks that cover schools,

colleges, buildings, etc. Campus Area

Network (CAN)
Advantages of CAN
 Speed: Communication within a CAN takes place over Local Area Network
(LAN) so data transfer rate between systems is little bit fast than Internet.
 Security: Network administrators of campus take care of network by
continuous monitoring, tracking and limiting access. To protect network
from unauthorized access firewall is placed between network and internet.
 Cost effective: With a little effort and maintenance, network works well by
providing fast data transfer rate with multi-departmental network access. It
can be enabled wirelessly, where wiring and cabling costs can be managed.
So to work with in a campus using CAN is cost-effective in view of
performance
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of
computer network that connects computers over a geographical distance
through a shared communication path over a city, town, or metropolitan area.
This network mainly uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the technology with a
range from 5km to 50km. Its transmission speed is average. It is difficult to
maintain and it comes with a high cost. Examples of MAN are networking in
towns, cities, a single large city, a large area within multiple buildings, etc.

M
etropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Advantages of MAN
 MAN offers high-speed connectivity in which the speed ranges from 10-100
Mbps.
 The security level in MAN is high and strict as compared to WAN.
 It support to transmit data in both directions concurrently because of dual
bus architecture.
 MAN can serve multiple users at a time with the same high-speed internet to
all the users.
 MAN allows for centralized management and control of the network,
making it easier to monitor and manage network resources and security.
Disadvantages of MAN
 The architecture of MAN is quite complicated hence, it is hard to design and
maintain.
 This network is highly expensive because it required the high cost to set up
fiber optics.
 It provides less fault tolerance.
 The Data transfer rate in MAN is low when compare to LANs.
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large
geographical distance through a shared communication path. It is not restrained
to a single location but extends over many locations. WAN can also be defined
as a group of local area networks that communicate with each other with a range
above 50km. Here we use Leased-Line & Dial-up technology. Its transmission
speed is very low and it comes with very high maintenance and very high cost.
The most common example of WAN is the Internet.

Wide Area
Network (WAN)
Advantages of WAN
 It covers large geographical area which enhances the reach of organisation to
transmit data quickly and cheaply.
 The data can be stored in centralised manner because of remote access to
data provided by WAN.
 The travel charges that are needed to cover the geographical area of work
can be minimised.
 WAN enables a user or organisation to connect with the world very easily
and allows to exchange data and do business at global level.
Disadvantages of WAN
 Traffic congestion in Wide Area Network is very high.
 The fault tolerance ability of WAN is very less.
 Noise and error are present in large amount due to multiple connection point.
 The data transfer rate is slow in comparison to LAN because of large
distances and high number of connected system within the network.
Comparison between Different Computer Networks
Other Types of Computer Networks
 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
 Storage Area Network (SAN)
 System-Area Network (SAN)
 Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)
 Enterprise Private Network (EPN)
 Virtual Private Network (VPN)
 Home Area Network (HAN)
1. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
WLAN is a type of computer network that acts as a local area network but
makes use of wireless network technology like Wi-Fi. This network doesn't
allow devices to communicate over physical cables like in LAN but allows
devices to communicate wirelessly. The most common example of WLAN is
Wi-Fi.

Wireless Local Area Network

(WLAN)
There are several computer networks available; more information is provided
below.
2. Storage Area Network (SAN)
SAN is a type of computer network that is high-speed and connects groups of
storage devices to several servers. This network does not depend on LAN or
WAN. Instead, a SAN moves the storage resources from the network to its
high-powered network. A SAN provides access to block-level data storage.
Examples of SAN are a network of disks accessed by a network of servers.

Storage Area Network (SAN)

3. Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)
A POLAN is a type of computer network that is an alternative to a LAN.
POLAN uses optical splitters to split an optical signal from a single strand of
single-mode optical fiber to multiple signals to distribute users and devices. In
short, POLAN is a point to multipoint LAN architecture.

What is Internetworking in Computer Network?

Internetworking, often called interconnecting networks, is the practice of

connecting different computer networks or network segments to create a larger
and more extensive network infrastructure. Various networking technologies,
protocols, and devices, including routers and switches, are used to enable
communication and data exchange between these distinct networks.

The term internetworking is made up of two words, inter and networking, which
refers to a link between two or more separate nodes/segments. Internetworking
aims to establish a seamless and cohesive network environment in which data
can transfer efficiently and effectively across several interconnected networks,
regardless of their underlying technologies or architectures.

There is a slight difference between network expansion and Internetworking.

Using a switch or hub to link two local area networks constitutes a LAN
extension, whereas employing a router to connect them exemplifies
internetworking. Internetworking operates within Layer 3 (Network Layer) of
the OSI-ISO model. The most popular example of internetworking is the
Internet.

How does It Work?

Internetworking establishes connections between distinct computer networks,

allowing them to communicate and share data effectively. Every individual
network node or phase is built with a similar protocol or communication logic,
such as Transfer Control Protocol (TCP) or Internet Protocol (IP), to enable
communication. Internetworking occurs when one network communicates with
another using constant communication processes. The goal of internetworking
was to overcome the problem of sending a packet of data across several lines.

Types of Internetworking

The three types of internetworking are as follows:

Extranet

In computer networks, an extranet refers to a controlled and secure extension of

an organization's internal network that allows authorized external parties, such
as clients, partners, suppliers, or customers, to access certain resources, services,
and information.

It is a network of internetwork that is restricted in scope to one organization or

entity but also has restricted links to the networks of one or more other
organizations or entities at times, but not always. It is the most basic level of
Internetworking, usually imposed in an extremely private place.

Intranet

An intranet is a private and internal network within a company that uses internet
protocols and technology to allow employees or members to share information,
resources, and services. It functions similarly to the internet but is limited to the
members of the organization. Intranets are used for internal communication,
document sharing, project collaboration, and access to internal tools and
applications.

This type of computer network is a compilation of interconnected networks that

leverage the Internet Protocol and employ IP-based tools such as web browsers
and FTP applications. It operates under the jurisdiction of a single
administrative entity. This entity restricts external access to the network,
permitting entry exclusively to designated users..

Internet

The internet, short for interconnected network, is a global network of

interconnected computers and computer networks that communicate with one
another via standardized protocols. It is an immense network that allows people,
organizations, and computers all over the world to share information, resources,
and services.

It is a specific Internetworking, consisting of a worldwide interconnection of

governmental, academic, public, and personal networks primarily based on the
Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) developed
by ARPA of the United States Department of Defence and also home to
the World Wide Web (WWW) and referred to as the 'Internet' to distinguish it
from all other generic Internetworks. Participants on the internet, as well as their
service providers, use IP addresses obtained from address registries that control
assignments.

Internetwork Addressing

Data Link Layer Addresses

Data-link layer addresses serve as distinct identifiers for the physical network
connections of network devices. These addresses, often referred to as hardware
addresses or MAC addresses, are commonly utilized to uniquely identify
devices within a network. They can be organized hierarchically or in a flat
manner. Data-link addresses are typically pre-assigned to devices and remain
constant for a specific device.
End systems typically possess a single data-link address due to their singular
physical network connection. Conversely, routers and other internetworking
components often feature multiple data-link addresses due to their numerous
physical network associations.

MAC Addresses

MAC addresses are essential elements of the data-link layer, defining network
identities within IEEE-assigned MAC address-based local area networks
(LANs). Each local area network interface has a unique MAC address that
represents a single network unit. These addresses have twelve hexadecimal
digits and a length of forty-eight bits. The first twelve digits are the
Organisational Unique Identifier (OUI), which is frequently handled by the
IEEE and identifies the manufacturer or vendor.

The last six hexadecimal digits reflect the interface serial number or another
value specified by the manufacturer. These MAC addresses are automatically
copied from read-only memory (ROM) to random-access memory (RAM)
during interface card activation. They are also known as burned-in addresses
(BIAs).

Network Layer Addresses

Network addresses can appear in both structured address spaces and the more
common virtual or logical address spaces. The relationship between the network
address and the device is flexible and conceptual in nature. It frequently relies
on elements such as physical network features or arbitrary groups rather than
exact physical properties. Each network-layer protocol that an end system
supports requires a network-layer address.

Similarly, routers and other internetworking equipment necessitate a distinct

network-layer address for each physical network connection within their
support for each network-layer protocol.

Note: IP addresses in computer networks come in two main types: IPv4 and
IPv6. IPv4, using 32-bit numbers like 192.168.1.1, faces scarcity issues. IPv6,
with 128 bits in hexadecimal like 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334, solves this
problem.
Challenges to Internetworking

Internetworking comes with several challenges due to its complexity and the
diverse technologies and systems involved. Some of the challenges include:

 Scalability:

As the number of devices and users on a network increases, the network

must be able to handle growing traffic, data, and demands without
incurring major performance degradation. It is a continuing struggle to
design networks that can scale effectively.

 Security:

As networks become more connected, the potential attack surface for

malicious actors grows. Protecting networks from unauthorized access,
data breaches, viruses, and other online threats is an essential concern in
internetworking.

 Reliability and Redundancy:

Networks need to be highly reliable, minimizing downtime and

disruptions. Implementing redundancy mechanisms and failover systems
to ensure continuous operation in the face of failures is complex but
necessary.

 Interoperability:

Different networks and devices frequently employ a variety of protocols,

standards, and technologies. It can be difficult to ensure smooth
communication and compatibility among these disparate elements.
Protocols such as TCP/IP have helped bridge these gaps, although
problems can still exist.

 Network Management:

As networks grow in complexity, managing and monitoring them

becomes increasingly challenging. Efficiently diagnosing and
troubleshooting issues, optimizing performance, and ensuring proper
resource allocation are ongoing tasks.
  Resource Management:

It can be difficult to manage network resources properly to ensure

optimal performance, especially in shared environments. This includes
responsibilities such as bandwidth allotment and congestion control.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Internetworking

Advantages

 Global Connectivity:

Internetworking provides worldwide connectivity, allowing users and

devices to communicate and exchange resources from all over the world.

 Scalability:

Internetworking allows networks to scale to accommodate growing

numbers of users and devices without needing to rebuild the entire
infrastructure.

 Resource Sharing:

Users can share resources such as files, printers, and databases across
networks, increasing efficiency and collaboration.

 Remote Access:

Internetworking facilitates remote access to corporate networks, enabling

telecommuting and remote management.

 Redundancy and Failover:

Redundant network connections and failover mechanisms improve

network reliability, minimizing downtime and ensuring continuous
operation.

Disadvantages

 Security Risks:
 Internetworking exposes networks to additional security concerns such as
unauthorized access, data breaches, and cyberattacks.

 Network Congestion:

Increased connectivity can cause network congestion and poor

performance, particularly during high usage times.

 Privacy Concerns:

Internetworking raises concerns about user privacy and data protection,

particularly when sensitive information is transmitted across networks.

 Dependency on Infrastructure:

Organizations that rely on interconnected networks are vulnerable to

outages or interruptions in the internet infrastructure.

 Complexity:

Connecting multiple networks using different technologies and protocols

creates complexity in terms of configuration, management, and
troubleshooting.

Types of Protocols and Standards

There are several types of protocols and standards used in computer networks,
including Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), Internet Protocol (IP), User
Datagram Protocol (UDP) and network standards such as TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP,
among others.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a fundamental component of computer
networks, designed to ensure accurate and reliable data transmission between
devices. As one of the core protocols in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, TCP
guarantees that all information packets arrive at their intended destination in the
correct order and without errors.
TCP's well-established rules help facilitate smooth communication across
various network architectures while maintaining high standards of security and
performance. For example, when downloading a large file from a website or
conducting online banking transactions, TCP ensures that your connection
remains stable and secure throughout the entire process.
Internet Protocol (IP)
Internet Protocol (IP) is a fundamental network protocol that enables data
communication across the internet. It is responsible for routing and forwarding
data packets from one device to another, based on their unique addressing
scheme.
IP addresses are used to identify devices that are connected to a network,
allowing them to communicate with each other.
One of the key features of IP is its ability to work in conjunction with other
protocols such as TCP or UDP, forming the backbone of the internet's
infrastructure. Without it, we wouldn't be able to send emails or browse web
pages online.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a connectionless protocol that operates on top
of the Internet Protocol (IP). It is faster than Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) because it does not guarantee the delivery of packets or in order delivery,
making it less reliable.
UDP is commonly used for time-sensitive applications such as online gaming,
video streaming, and voice-over-IP (VoIP), where speed and efficiency are
more important than reliability.
It should be noted that while UDP does not provide flow control or error
correction like TCP, it has several benefits. For one thing, it requires fewer
resources than TCP since no state tracking is required at either end of the
communication channel.
Professionals who work with computer networks must understand which
protocols to use for specific applications to optimize network performance
effectively.
Network Standards (TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, Etc.)
There are different types of network standards used in computer networks that
are essential for data communication. These include ?
 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) ? TCP/IP
is the most commonly used protocol and standard in computer networks.
It is responsible for ensuring reliable data transmission over the internet
 by breaking down data into smaller packets that can be sent across
different network devices.
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) ? HTTP is a standard protocol
used for transmitting web pages and other content on the World Wide
Web. It defines how web clients such as browsers communicate with
servers to retrieve information.
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) ? FTP is another protocol used to transfer
files between devices on a network. It provides a simple way of sending
and receiving files, making it an essential tool for businesses that need to
transfer large amounts of data.
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) ? SMTP is a standard protocol
used for sending email messages between different email clients and
servers on the internet.
 Domain Name System (DNS) ? DNS is a set of protocols that translates
human-readable domain names into IP addresses used by computers to
locate websites and other resources on the internet.
Following these standards ensures proper formatting, secure and reliable
transmission, efficient network management, and prevention of data loss or
security breaches. Non- compliance with these protocols and standards may
lead to malfunctioning systems, security breaches, or even legal liability issues
for organizations. Thus, it's important to adhere to established protocols and
standards when communicating data through computer networks.
Importance of Protocol and Standard Compliance in Network Security
Adhering to protocols and standards in computer networks is crucial for
maintaining network security, preventing data breaches, and ensuring the
reliability of information exchange - read on to find out why.

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework that

standardizes the functions of a telecommunication or computing network, while
the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) suite is a practical
implementation of protocols that enable network communication, particularly
on the internet. The OSI model has seven layers, whereas the TCP/IP model has
four.
OSI Model:
 The OSI model is a layered architecture with seven layers, each responsible for
a specific set of networking tasks:
1. Physical Layer: Deals with the physical transmission of data (bits) over a
medium (cables, wireless).
2. Data Link Layer: Handles error-free transmission of data frames between two
directly connected nodes.
3. Network Layer: Responsible for routing packets across networks.
4. Transport Layer: Provides reliable, end-to-end communication between hosts.
5. Session Layer: Manages connections (sessions) between applications.
6. Presentation Layer: Handles data formatting, encryption, and compression.
7. Application Layer: Provides the interface between the network and the user
applications.
TCP/IP Model:

The TCP/IP model is a four-layer model that is used in the internet protocol
suite:
1. Network Access Layer: Combines the functions of the OSI's Physical and Data
Link layers.
2. Internet Layer: Corresponds to the OSI's Network layer, handling routing and
addressing.
3. Transport Layer: Provides reliable, end-to-end communication, similar to the
OSI's Transport layer.
4. Application Layer: Combines the OSI's Session, Presentation, and Application
layers.
Key Differences:
 The OSI model is a conceptual framework, while TCP/IP is a practical protocol
suite.
 The OSI model has seven layers, while TCP/IP has four.
 The TCP/IP model is simpler and more widely implemented than the OSI
model.
 The TCP/IP model was developed before the OSI model.
 UNIT-II

DATA AND SIGNALS

In network communication, data is the information being transmitted, while
signals are the physical means by which that data is transmitted. Data can be
analog or digital, and signals can be analog or digital representations of that
data.
Here's a more detailed explanation:
Data:
 Data refers to the information that needs to be communicated, such as text,
images, audio, or video.
 Data can be analog (continuous values, like the sound of a voice) or digital
(discrete values, like the binary code 0s and 1s).
Signals:
 Signals are the physical representation of data that can be transmitted over a
network medium.
 They can be electrical or electromagnetic impulses, or even light pulses in the
case of fiber optics.
 Signals can be analog (continuous waveforms) or digital (discrete levels, often
representing binary values).
 Example: In a wired network, data is converted into electrical signals (voltage
or current) that travel through the cable. In wireless networks, data is converted
into electromagnetic waves (radio waves, etc.).
Relationship:
 Data needs to be transformed into signals for transmission.
 Receiving devices then convert the signals back into data that can be
understood.
 Both data and signals can be either analog or digital.
 For instance, when you speak, your voice creates an analog signal in the
air. This signal can be converted into digital data (e.g., in a recording) and then
transmitted as digital signals over a network.
An electrical or electromagnetic quantity (current, voltage, radio wave, micro
wave, etc.) that carries data or information from one system (or network) to
another is called a signal. Two basic types of signals are used for carrying data,
viz. analog signal and digital signal.
Analog and digital signals are different from each other in many aspects. One
major difference between the two signals is that an analog signal is a continuous
function of time, whereas a digital signal is a discrete function of time.

This article explains all the significant differences between analog and digital
signals along with a brief description of analog signal and digital signal.
What is an Analog Signal?
A signal which is a continuous function of time and used to carry the
information is known as an analog signal. An analog signal represents a
quantity analogous to another quantity, for example, in case of an analog audio
signal, the instantaneous value of signal voltage represents the pressure of the
sound wave.
Analog signals utilize the properties of medium to convey the information. All
the natural signals are the examples of analog signals. However, the analog
signals are more susceptible to the electronic noise and distortion which can
degrade the quality of the signal.
What is a Digital Signal?
A signal that is discrete function of time, i.e. which is not a continuous signal, is
known as a digital signal. The digital signals are represented in the binary form
and consist of different values of voltage at discrete instants of time.
Basically, a digital signal represents the data and information as a sequence of
separate values at any given time. The digital signal can only take on one of a
finite number of values.
Difference between Analog and Digital Signal
The following table shows all the significant differences between analog signals
and digital signals ?
 Parameter Analog Signal Digital Signal

A signal for conveying A signal which is a discrete

information which is a function of time, i.e. non-
Definition
continuous function of time is continuous signal, is known as
known as analog signal. digital signal.

An analog signal is typically

represented by a sine wave The typical representation of a
Typical
function. There are many more signal is given by a square
representation
representations for the analog wave function.
signals also.

Digital signals use discrete

Analog signals use a continuous values (or discontinuous
Signal values range of values to represent the values), i.e. discrete 0 and 1, to
data and information. represent the data and
information.

Signal The bandwidth of an analog The bandwidth of a digital

bandwidth signal is low. signal is relatively high.

The analog signals are more

The digital signals are suitable
suitable for transmission of
for computing and digital
Suitability audio, video and other
electronic operations such as
information through the
data storage, etc.
communication channels.

The digital signals are more

Effect of Analog signals get affected by
stable and less susceptible to
electronic noise the electronic noise easily.
noise than the analog signals.

Due to more susceptibility to the The digital signals have high

Accuracy noise, the accuracy of analog accuracy because they are
signals is less. immune from the noise.
 Parameter Analog Signal Digital Signal

Digital signals use less power

Power Analog signals use more power than analog signals for
consumption for data transmission. conveying the same amount of
information.

Digital circuits are required for

Analog signals are processed by
processing of digital signals
Circuit analog circuits whose major
whose main circuit components
components components are resistors,
are transistors, logic gates, ICs,
capacitors, inductors, etc.
etc.

Observational The analog signals give The digital signals do not given
errors observational errors. observational errors.

The common examples of analog

The common example of digital
signals are temperature, current,
Examples signal is the data store in a
voltage, voice, pressure, speed,
computer memory.
etc.

The analog signals are used in

The digital signals are used in
land line phones, thermometer,
Applications computers, keyboards, digital
electric fan, volume knob of a
watches, smartphones
radio, etc.

Performance Comparison:
 Accuracy:
Digital signals, while more robust against noise, may lose some information
during the conversion from analog to digital (sampling and
quantization). Analog signals can capture more subtle variations but are
vulnerable to degradation.
 Reliability:
Digital signals are generally more reliable for long-distance transmission and
storage due to their noise immunity.
 Flexibility:
Digital signal processing offers greater flexibility in terms of signal
manipulation and processing compared to analog.
 Bandwidth:
Digital signals can be compressed and transmitted more efficiently, potentially
requiring less bandwidth for similar information transmission.
In essence:
 Analog
is like a smooth, continuous wave that can carry a lot of detail but is prone to
getting distorted.
 Digital
is like a staircase, where the information is represented in steps. It might not
capture all the fine details, but it's much more robust against noise and easier
to work with using computers.

Transmission Modes in Computer Networks (Simplex, Half-Duplex and

Full-Duplex)
Last Updated : 03 Oct, 2024
Transmission modes also known as communication modes, are methods of
transferring data between devices on buses and networks designed to facilitate
communication. They are classified into three types: Simplex Mode, Half-
Duplex Mode, and Full-Duplex Mode. In this article, we will discuss
Transmission Modes.
What is Transmission Modes?
Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices. It is also
known as a communication mode. Buses and networks are designed to allow
communication to occur between individual devices that are
interconnected. There are three types of transmission modes:
Simplex Mode
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street.
Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive.
The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one
direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce
input, the monitor can only give the output.

Advantages of Simplex Mode

 Simplex mode is the easiest and most reliable mode of communication.
 It is the most cost-effective mode, as it only requires one communication
channel.
 There is no need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving
devices, which simplifies the communication process.
 Simplex mode is particularly useful in situations where feedback or response
is not required, such as broadcasting or surveillance.
Disadvantages of Simplex Mode
 Only one-way communication is possible.
 There is no way to verify if the transmitted data has been received correctly.
 Simplex mode is not suitable for applications that require bidirectional
communication.
Half-Duplex Mode
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice
versa. The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for
communication in both directions at the same time. The entire capacity of the
channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages
are sent in both directions.
Channel capacity=Bandwidth * Propagation Delay

Advantages of Half Duplex Mode

 Half-duplex mode allows for bidirectional communication, which is useful in
situations where devices need to send and receive data.
 It is a more efficient mode of communication than simplex mode, as the
channel can be used for both transmission and reception.
 Half-duplex mode is less expensive than full-duplex mode, as it only
requires one communication channel.
Disadvantages of Half Duplex Mode
 Half-duplex mode is less reliable than Full-Duplex mode, as both devices
cannot transmit at the same time.
 There is a delay between transmission and reception, which can cause
problems in some applications.
 There is a need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving
devices, which can complicate the communication process.
Full-Duplex Mode
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In
full_duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link
with signals going in another direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:
 Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one
for sending and the other for receiving.
 Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in both directions.
Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all
the time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the
two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two
persons by a telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same
time.
Channel Capacity=2* Bandwidth*propagation Delay

Advantages of Full-Duplex Mode

 Full-duplex mode allows for simultaneous bidirectional communication,
which is ideal for real-time applications such as video conferencing or online
gaming.
 It is the most efficient mode of communication, as both devices can transmit
and receive data simultaneously.
 Full-duplex mode provides a high level of reliability and accuracy, as there
is no need for error correction mechanisms.
Disadvantages of Full-Duplex Mode
 Full-duplex mode is the most expensive mode, as it requires two
communication channels.
 It is more complex than simplex and half-duplex modes, as it requires two
physically separate transmission paths or a division of channel capacity.
 Full-duplex mode may not be suitable for all applications, as it requires a
high level of bandwidth and may not be necessary for some types of
communication.
Difference Between Simplex, Half duplex, and Full Duplex Transmission
Modes
Parameters Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex

The direction Simplex mode is Half Full Duplex

of a uni-directional Duplex mode is mode is a two-
communication communication. a two-way way directional
directional communication
 Parameters Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex

communication
simultaneously.
but one at a time.

In Half Duplex In Full Duplex

In simplex mode,
mode, Sender mode, Sender
Sender can send
Sender and can send the data can send the data
the data but that
Receiver and also can and also can
sender can’t
receive the data receive the data
receive the data.
but one at a time. simultaneously.

Usage of one Usage of one Usage of two

channel for the channel for the channels for the
Channel usage
transmission of transmission of transmission of
data. data. data.

The simplex Full Duplex

The Half Duplex
mode provides provides better
mode provides
Performance less performance performance than
less performance
than half duplex simplex and half
than full duplex.
and full duplex. duplex mode.

The Half-Duplex
The Full-Duplex
Simplex utilizes involves lesser
doubles the
Bandwidth the maximum of utilization of
utilization of
Utilization a single single bandwidth
transmission
bandwidth. at the time of
bandwidth.
transmission.

Suitable for It is suitable for It is suitable for It is suitable for

those those those
transmissions transmissions transmissions
 Parameters Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex

when there is when there is

when there is
requirement of requirement of
requirement of
sending data in sending and
full bandwidth
both directions, receiving data
for delivering
but not at the simultaneously in
data.
same time. both directions.

Example of
Example of half
simplex mode
Examples duplex mode is:
are: Keyboard
Walkie-Talki
and monitor.

Difference Between FDM,TDM and WDM

Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission

of multiple signals across a single data link. In a multiplexed system, n lines
share the bandwidth of one link. The lines direct their transmission streams to a
multiplexer (MUX), which combines them into a single stream .
 TDM uses a shared channel to transmit two or more digital or analog signals.
It can be used when the transmission media's bit rate exceeds that of the
signal to be delivered. Simply divide the available bandwidth into channels,
each with a specified bandwidth.
 FDM allows independent signals to use the same transmission channel, such
as a cable or optical fiber.
 WDM uses many lasers, each generating a unique color of light, to transfer
data over a single fiber optic line.
FDM(Frequency Division Multiplexing)
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be
applied when the bandwidth of a link is greater than the combined bandwidths
of the signals to be transmitted. In FDM, signals generated by each sending
device modulate different carrier frequencies.
These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that
can be transported by the link. Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient
bandwidth to accommodate the modulated signal. These bandwidth ranges are
the channels through which the various signals travel.
TDM(Time Division Multiplexing)
TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) is a multiplexing technology and has low
conflict. It works with both digital and analog signals. TDM shares the
timeframe of the multiple signals. TDM and synchronous time division
multiplexing (sync TDM).
TDM is utilized for long-distance communication networks and can handle high
data traffic demands from end users. TDM splits the available time on the
channel into discrete time slots, each allocated to a distinct signal or data
stream.
TDM
WDM(Wavelength Division Multiplexing)
WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing) is generally utilized for
multiplexing numerous optical carrier signals into a single optical fiber channel.
WDM permits communication in both directions via the fiber connection.
Two or more colors of light can flow through a single fiber, and an optical
waveguide can transport multiple signals at different wavelengths or
frequencies on the optical spectrum.
WDM(Wavelength Division Multiplexing)
Difference Between FDM, TDM, and WDM
FDM TDM WDM

Wavelength division
TDM (Time Division
multiplexing (WDM)
FDM is a multiplexing Multiplexing) is a
is often used for
method used in analog multiplexing
multiplexing
systems that requires a technology and has
numerous optical
guard band to prevent low conflict, working
carrier signals into a
signals from overlapping. with both digital and
single optical fiber
analog signals.
channel.

FDM divides the TDM provides each WDM combines

bandwidth into smaller user a defined time slot numerous light beams
frequency ranges, and to deliver signals from different
transmitters broadcast across a shared channels into a single
data concurrently across a channel. The user light beam and
 FDM TDM WDM

receives the complete delivers it over a fiber

shared channel inside
bandwidth during that optic thread similar to
each frequency range.
time frame. FDM.

FDM refers to Frequency TDM refers to Time WDM refers to Wave

Division Multiplexing. Division Multiplexing. Length Multiplexing.

FDM is used in a
It is used in ultra-
communications network This technology is
long-distance and
to send and receive input used in GSM and also
high-capacity fiber
signals at maximum in SDH Transmission.
system
speed at all times.

Synchronous TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) is a technique used in

digital communication systems to combine multiple data streams into one signal
over a shared medium. Here's a detailed explanation:

✅ Definition

Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a type of multiplexing

where each input channel is assigned a fixed time slot in a repeating frame,
regardless of whether the channel has data to send or not.

🧠 Key Concepts

 Fixed Time Slots: Each device or source has a dedicated slot in every
time frame.
 Synchronization: The sender and receiver are tightly synchronized, so
both know which slot belongs to which channel.
 Idle Transmission: If a device has no data to send, its time slot is sent
empty (wasting bandwidth).
🖥️How It Works

1. Multiple data sources (e.g., users or devices) are connected.

2. A frame is created consisting of a fixed sequence of time slots.
3. Each source sends its data in its assigned slot.
4. The multiplexer combines the data into a single stream.
5. The demultiplexer at the receiver end separates the stream back into the
original sources based on timing.

📊 Example

If there are 4 channels (A, B, C, D), a TDM frame might look like:

Frame 1: A1 B1 C1 D1
Frame 2: A2 B2 C2 D2
Frame 3: A3 B3 C3 D3
...

Even if Channel B has nothing to send, its slot (B1, B2, etc.) remains reserved.

⚖️Advantages vs. Disadvantages

Advantages:

 Simple to implement
 Predictable timing (due to fixed slots)

Disadvantages:

 Inefficient use of bandwidth (empty slots when sources are idle)

 Requires tight synchronization between sender and receiver

🔁 Comparison with Statistical TDM

Feature Synchronous TDM Statistical TDM

Slot assignment Fixed Dynamic (based on need)
Efficiency Lower (wasted slots) Higher
Complexity Lower Higher
Synchronization Strictly required Less strict
Definition:

Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM) is a type of Time Division

Multiplexing (TDM) that dynamically allocates time slots to input channels
based on their actual data transmission needs, rather than assigning fixed time
slots (as in conventional or synchronous TDM).

🔑 Key Concepts:

Feature Synchronous TDM Statistical TDM

Dynamic (only when data is
Time Slot Allocation Fixed (even if no data)
present)
Bandwidth Lower (due to idle
Higher (slots used only as needed)
Efficiency slots)
Complexity Lower Higher
Required (for buffering and
Multiplexer Memory Not required
control)

📈 How It Works:

1. Multiple input channels send data to a multiplexer.

2. The multiplexer monitors which channels have data to send.
3. It dynamically assigns time slots to those channels with data, using a
statistical algorithm.
4. A header or identifier is added to each data block to indicate which
channel it belongs to.
5. The receiver uses this information to reconstruct the data streams
accurately.

📦 Example:

If you have 5 input channels, but only 2 are sending data at a given time, STDM
will assign time slots only to the active channels, saving bandwidth.

🧠 Advantages:
  More efficient use of bandwidth.
 Reduces idle time on the channel.
 Scales better for bursty traffic patterns.

⚠️Disadvantages:

 Requires more complex hardware/software.

 Needs buffering and control logic.
 Headers add overhead to each data packet.

📚 Use Cases:

 Wide area networks (WANs)

 Packet-switched networks
 Data communication between computers and modems
 ISDN and modern digital transmission systems

Transmission Media refers to the physical pathway or communication channel

through which data is transmitted from one device to another. It is broadly
categorized into:

1. Guided Media (Wired or Bounded Media)

These are transmission media that use physical cables or wires to transmit data.

Types of Guided Media:

 Twisted Pair Cable

o Two insulated copper wires twisted together.
o Types: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP), Shielded Twisted Pair
(STP)
o Use: Telephone lines, LANs
o Speed: Up to 1 Gbps (depending on category)
 Coaxial Cable
o Central conductor, insulating layer, metallic shield, and outer
cover.
o Use: Cable TV, broadband internet
o Speed: Hundreds of Mbps
 Fiber Optic Cable
o Transmits data as light pulses through glass or plastic fibers.
o Types: Single-mode, Multi-mode
 o Use: High-speed internet, long-distance communication
o Speed: Up to 100 Gbps or more

2. Unguided Media (Wireless or Unbounded Media)

These transmit data through the air (or vacuum) without physical cables, using
electromagnetic waves.

Types of Unguided Media:

 Radio Waves
o Omni-directional, travel long distances
o Use: FM radio, AM radio, cordless phones
o Range: Short to long distances
o Frequency: 3 kHz to 1 GHz
 Microwaves
o Unidirectional, requires line-of-sight
o Use: Satellite communication, mobile phones
o Range: Medium to long distances
o Frequency: 1 GHz to 300 GHz
 Infrared
o Short-range communication
o Use: TV remotes, short-distance wireless links
o Range: Few meters
o Frequency: 300 GHz to 400 THz
 Satellite Communication
o Signals sent to a satellite and back to Earth
o Use: GPS, global broadcasting
o Latency: Higher due to distance

Summary Table
Feature Guided Media Unguided Media
Medium Physical cables Air or space
Speed Generally faster Slower, varies
Interference Less prone More prone
Cost Can be higher (fiber) Lower infrastructure
Mobility Limited High