Received: 4 September 2023 | Revised: 8 December 2023 | Accepted: 15 January 2024

DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.15467

TECHNICAL NOTE
Criminalistics

The relevance of current forensic firearms examination

techniques when applied to 3D printed firearms

Zara Ellen Wenzinger MS1 | Stephanie Wetzel PhD1 | Benjamin Bernarding MS2 |
John Viator PhD2 | Brian Kohlhepp3 | Pamela Marshall PhD1

1
Forensic Science and Law Program,
Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, Abstract
Pennsylvania, USA
This research project had two major objectives. The first was to successfully print and
2
Department of Engineering, Duquesne
University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
fire the Liberator, a 3D-printed firearm, to assess its feasibility as a lethal weapon. The
3
Ross Township Police Department, second objective was to identify any individual characteristics that might be deposited
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA during the firing process by the firearm. The Liberator was printed using unchanged
Correspondence files downloaded from the internet using PLA and ABS filament. The Liberator was
Zara Ellen Wenzinger, Forensic Science fired remotely into newspapers at the Allegheny County Medical Examiner's Office.
and Law Program, Duquesne University,
600 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA The printing of the Liberator was both inexpensive and relatively quick with only
15282, USA. minor hand modifications made after printing. The Liberator fractured beyond repair
Email: [email protected]
after firing but successfully fired and penetrated three newspapers. Neither the bullet
nor the cartridge case exhibited any individual characteristics that could be used for
identification purposes. Suspected thermoplastic deposits were identified on both
the bullet and cartridge case, but additional testing must be done for confirmation
purposes. In conclusion, the Liberator can be used reliably for one shot and will not
yield any evidence for Firearms and Toolmark Examination.

KEYWORDS
3D printed firearm, 3D printing, firearms, firearms examination, ghost gun, Liberator

Highlights

• It is crucial to understand if markings caused by 3D printing are relevant to the firearm

examination.
• Understanding the impact of absent rifling and firing pin impressions is critical in firearms
examination.
• It is important to understand the feasibility of manufacturing completely 3D-printed firearms.

1 | I N T RO D U C T I O N weapons and understands how current forensic firearms examina-

tion techniques can, or cannot, be applied in order to best process
A 3D printed gun: it sounds like something pulled right out of a potential evidence. It is also important to understand all the possible
cheesy cop show, but they are real and pose a unique threat glob- data that can be obtained from a scene when a 3D-printed firearm is
ally. Understanding the current legislation in the United States and suspected. This research aims to broaden the understanding of the
the growing popularity of 3D printing is key to grasping the extent forensic implications 3D printed firearms have.
of the threat 3D printed firearms pose to the public. It is import- There is no technical knowledge needed to build a 3D printed
ant that forensic science research gets ahead of these new types of firearm; all one needs is a 3D printer, a downloadable blueprint from

Presented at the Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners Annual Conference, May 29-June 3, 2022, in Atlanta, GA.

J Forensic Sci. 2024;69:659–668. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jfo © 2024 American Academy of Forensic Sciences. | 659
660 | WENZINGER et al.

the internet, and a nail to function as a firing pin [1]. In 2013, Cody after using a 3D printer to build an AR-15 assault rifle and possessing
Wilson published the blueprints for a 3D-printed firearm called the a hit list of former and current members of Congress [12]. In 2019,
Liberator on the internet [2]. The quality of a 3D-printed firearm is the UK made its first arrest due to a 3D-printed firearm [13]. A uni-
inferior to traditionally manufactured guns as the Liberator's bar- versity student in London was arrested when police found compo-
rel can crack during firing, reducing the bullet's speed [2]. However, nents of a 3D-printed gun that was capable of firing a lethal shot
recent designs have proven that new 3D-printed firearm models [13]. In 2019, a man in Connecticut was in possession of a 3D-printed
can successfully fire multiple rounds and can even be printed using gun when he was arrested on drug charges [14]. And in both 2020
metal [1]. and 2021, Canadian men have been arrested for 3D-printing firearm
As the blueprint models of these weapons become less crude and parts [15, 16]. Although crimes involving 3D-printed firearms are not
3D printers become less expensive, under $2000, the government and widespread now, they have the potential to become popular, which
law enforcement agencies have expressed an increasing concern in emphasizes the importance of forensic science and law enforcement
the trackability of these firearms. Polylactic acid (PLA), polyethylene to stay ahead of the curve.
terephthalate (PETG), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), and nylon There are a variety of ways forensic scientists examine firearms.
are all thermoplastics that are commonly used to print these weapons One way is to examine bullets and compare them to specific firearms
[3], making them untraceable using standard metal detectors. There using striations left by the rifling on the bore of the barrel [17]. It
are concerns that the easy accessibility of 3D-printed blueprints could has been established that examiners can correctly distinguish bullets
lead to an increase in firearms evading detection in airport and gov- fired from different firearms due to class and individual characteris-
ernment buildings especially since cartridges do not necessarily set tics produced during manufacturing [18, 19]. Firing pin and breech
off metal detectors. The lightest 9-mm Luger bullet weighs about 115 face impressions are also unique to each firearm [20] and therefore
grains. If it was assumed that a 2.54-cm nail was used as a firing pin, can be used to positively identify a firearm used in a crime. A firing
10 cartridges and a fully functional plastic gun could be smuggled in pin impression is generated when the firing pin strikes the cartridge
somewhere without detection. On top of this problem, law enforce- cap and breech face impressions are caused when the cartridge is
ment has concerns that 3D-printed firearms can allow people to evade pushed back against the breech block by the heavy gas pressure
background checks necessary for owning a firearm, allowing federal during firing [20]. These techniques are the fundamentals of forensic
offenders and mentally unstable people to have access to deadly firearms examination and will be considered in regard to 3D-printed
weapons [1]. Currently, even DIY gunsmiths have to register and re- firearms during this research paper.
ceive a background check to purchase the lower receiver component There is limited research regarding fully 3D-printed firearms and
of a gun [1]. These traits, like ease of production and untraceable na- their effect on existing forensic techniques. One paper discussed
ture, mean that 3D printed firearms have the potential to become very the use of organic-GSR (OGSR) testing as a method to determine
dangerous if left unchecked. the thermoplastic polymer composition of the firearm using Direct
Several law enforcement agencies, including the ATF and NSW Analysis in Real Time Mass Spectrometry (DART-MS) [21]. Another
Police, have tested 3D-printed guns for their risk and feasibility with two-part paper focuses on the firing pin impressions and other
mixed results [4, 5]. These studies did not stop an Israeli journal- unique markings that could be made by firing a 3D-printed weapon
ist from demonstrating the risk by bringing a functional 3D printed [2, 22]. Similarly, to standard firearms, they identified that the firing
gun into an address by the Prime Minister at the Israeli Parliament and primer cap marks deposited on the cartridge are specific to the
twice without detection [6], or two UK reporters from carrying a 3D firing pin used by 3D-printed weapons [22].
printed gun onto a Eurostar train headed to Paris without detection These two studies encompass the three main forensic examina-
[7]. Although these acts were not malicious, they prove that security tions done on firearms but are cursory at best. Limited sample sizes
concerns are not without merit. TSA officers have found not one are used, and some results are left inconclusive. It should be noted
but two 3D printed firearms with ammunition at airports [8]. These that the identification of thermoplastics from bullets was successful
were voluntarily surrendered and did not result in any charges [8]. only 50% of the time making it undesirable for lab testing due to the
All of this is compounded by the new ability to 3D print bullets out low probability of success. Identification of a weapon based on the
of plastic, only using a lead ball to add weight [9]. It has been made firing pin also seems unlikely in this situation due to the firing pins
clear that 3D-printed firearms have the global potential to become being common household items such as nails or modified drill tips
widespread and very dangerous. that can easily be disposed of or hidden in plain sight.
In addition to their ease of production and untraceable nature, Scarcely any research has been done on the forensic implica-
they appeal to individuals in countries where traditional firearms tions of plastic 3D-printed firearms so it is unclear if the forensic
are illegal to possess and to individuals who are barred from legally examination techniques explained prior can be applied success-
possessing them. In 2014, Japan, a country with notoriously strict fully and accurately to these unique weapons. This research looked
gun control laws, made the first recorded arrest for possession of at the presence of rifling and toolmark impressions on bullets and
3D-printed guns [10]. In 2016, seven men and two women were cartridge cases fired by 3D-printed firearms to establish if their
arrested in Australia and police seized a 3D printer that was used individuality and repeatability hold to the standards accepted in
to manufacture firearms [11]. In 2016, a man in Texas was arrested the forensic community. It is reasonable to assume that due to the
WENZINGER et al. | 661

crude nature of the plastic gun, the act of firing would fundamen- printed with Hatchbox ABS 1.75 mm filament. Three different PLA
tally change the bore of the barrel. Honsberger and Werner ob- filaments were used: Hatchbox Black, PrintOxe Matte Green, and
served that the cartridge casings were torn and swollen after firing Overature Matte Blue. An image of the printed non-barrel parts can
[22] indicating a fundamental change to the inside of the bore. If be seen in Figure 1.
this affects the repeatability of impressions during successive fir- A 3.99 oz steel block was obtained from MetalsDepot by order-
ings, attempting to compare rifling and other unique impressions ing a 2.53 cm × 2.53 cm Hot Rolled A-36 Steel Square custom cut to
could lead to the misidentification or erroneous exclusion of a fire- 2.2225 cm. This steel block was inserted using Gorilla Glue epoxy
arm. It is important to learn the implications these unique weap- into the side of the frame to comply with the Undetectable Firearms
ons have on forensic analysis before their threat grows. Act. The frame had a built-in compartment for this steel block to
be inserted into. It can be seen above the number 3 in Figure 4.
According to the developer's instructions, the bottom cover was
2 | METHODS supposed to be epoxied on top of the steel block but that was omit-
ted for this research project so that the steel block would remain
2.1 | 3D printing of the firearms visible. In addition, a 2.53 cm Grip Rite Roofing Nail, not pictured in
Figure 4, was used as the firing pin. No modifications were made to
The Liberator files were obtained online for free from GitHub, an the roofing nail.
IT service management company that allows for the sharing and There were six barrels printed from each of three different ther-
downloading of 3D print files. The files consisted of the STL files moplastics: Overature PLA Matte Grass Green 1.75 mm filament,
listed in Table 1, a ‘READ ME.docx’ document with instructions Kodak Nylon 6 Natural 1.75 mm filament, and Hatchbox ABS Black
on best practices for printing, and a video that outlines assem- 1.75 mm filament. Not all of the barrels were able to fit 380 Auto
bly. Two-barrel files were included in these files: a 380 Barrel ammunition in them immediately after printing, so they were dis-
(Threaded) and a 380 Barrel (Unthreaded). A difference between carded. Some barrels were able to be modified by hand so that they
the two barrels was unable to be determined. Only the 380 Barrel could fit 380 Auto cartridges. These modifications were done using
(Threaded) STL file was used to print barrels for this project. a Chew Steel Tools 3.6V Li-ion Cordless Rotary Tool using mainly
Numbers listed in parentheses indicate how many replicates to the Grinding Tools and Diamond Bits. Markings were made on the
print of each part. bottom of each barrel with a Sharpie to denote how well the 0.380
The model was printed on a Creality Ender 3 using Creality Slicer ammunition fit and how much hand-fitting was done. This was to
by Cura (Version 1.2.3). This printer can be purchased from Amazon. ensure the best fitting barrels would be used first. Ultimately, three
com for only $189. The majority of the firearm was printed with ABS, five Nylon, and two PLA barrels were selected. An image of
various PLA 1.75 mm filaments except for the hammer which was each type of barrel can be seen in Figure 2.
During assembly, sanding was done on the pins and connection
TA B L E 1 Table of STL files included in the GitHub downloadable points to ensure an ideal fit. This was accomplished using the same
file.
rotary tool used for the barrels. This was due to stray pieces of fil-
380 Barrel (threaded) ament that were left behind by the printer during the printing pro-
380 Barrel (unthreaded) cess. No major modifications had to be made in order to ensure an
Bottom cover ideal fit.
Firing pin bushing
Frame pins (×3)
Frame 2.2 | Firing process
Grip pin
The Liberator was fired using a remote firing unit provided by the
Grip
Allegheny County Medical Examiner's Office. The firing was con-
Hammer body
ducted in their indoor firing range. The firearms were shot into
Hammer pin
boxes of newspapers and other miscellaneous paper measuring
Hammer
eighteen inches long to capture the bullet. The full setup of the
Spring (×2) Liberator in the remote firing unit can be seen in Figure 3. The
Spring connecting rod bushing built-in trigger pull mechanism of the remote firing cart was too
Spring connecting rod low to work properly with the Liberator, so a string was used to
Trigger spring pull the trigger. Norma MHP (monolithic hollow point) 380 Auto
Trigger cartridges were used for firing. Several modifications were made
for safety during the firing process. First, the trigger spring was
Note: This includes all the files included in the download regardless of if
used in the research project. Numbers denoted in parenthesis indicate removed to make it easier to cock the hammer by decreasing the
how many replicates to print. amount of tension. The trigger spring's function was to allow the
662 | WENZINGER et al.

F I G U R E 1 Image of non-barrel
Liberator parts labeled. All 17 parts of the
Liberator are pictured and labeled above
except for the firing pin, which was not
3D-printed, and the barrels, which are
pictured in Figure 4.

F I G U R E 2 Image of Liberator Barrels A, D, and I. From left to

right, Barrel I made of green PLA. Barrel D made of white nylon,
and Barrel A made of black ABS.

F I G U R E 3 Close up image of Liberator remote firing set up. This

image shows the fully assembled Liberator placed in the remote
firing cart at the Allegheny County Medical Examiner's Office.
trigger to reset to its initial position after firing. This did not affect
the firing mechanism since it was not necessary for the trigger to
reset after firing since the Liberator must be manually loaded and
unloaded. Second, the spring connecting rod was replaced with a
0.238 cm × 2.54 cm Pin Length 416 Stainless Steel Precision Dowel 2.3 | Rifling and toolmark examination
Pin from MSC Industrial Direct. This was because the spring con-
necting rod was likely to snap after each fire. It was replaced with After firing each round and collecting the GSR samples, the bullet
a stainless-steel alternative so it would withstand more than one and cartridge cases were collected to determine if any individual
consecutive fire and reduce the number of repairs conducted in characteristics deposited during the firing process could be iden-
between firings. This dowel pin does not contain enough metal to tified. Analysis was done using a Leeds LCF Firearms Comparison
set off a metal detector, so it does not affect the undetectability Microscope with Olympus SZX12. Images were taken using Spot
of the Liberator by a metal detector. Basic Version 5.2. Specific characteristics looked for were rifling
WENZINGER et al. | 663

F I G U R E 4 Image of major part—Frame. This part includes

the grip, frame, trigger, trigger spring, and grip pin. This part also
contains the 3.99 oz steel block. Not visible—grip pin and trigger
spring.

patterns and striae present on the bullet and firing pin impressions
on the cartridge case. In addition to those characteristics, the entire
bullet and cartridge case were checked for any unique markings that
could be specific to a 3D-printed firearm.

3 | R E S U LT S F I G U R E 5 Image of major part—Hammer mechanism. This

part includes the hammer body, hammer pin, hammer, firing
3.1 | 3D-printing of the firearms pin, firing pin bushing, frame pin (3×), spring connecting rod,
spring connecting bushing, and spring (2×). Not pictured—spring
connecting bushing, frame pin replicates, and spring replicates. Not
The total time to print the Liberator model, non-barrel parts, to-
visible—hammer pin, firing pin, and firing pin bushing.
taled 19 hours. The longest part to print was the frame, totaling
8.5 h. In addition, several of the smaller parts could be printed
together in one print job. Each barrel took up to 15 h due to it
being printed with slightly different parameters used. Each bar-
rel was printed with 100% infill. Specifically, each Hatchbox ABS
barrel took 14.5 h, each Overature PLA barrel took 15 h, and
each Kodak Nylon 6 barrel took 14.5 h. Several parts had to be
reprinted including three additional triggers, nineteen spring con-
necting rods, three frame pins, and fifteen springs. This was due
to several reasons. Some of them, such as the triggers and frame
pins, were printed in replicates due to them breaking when remov-
ing them from the 3D printer or during the assembly process. The
spring connecting rods and springs were printed in replicates due
to their delicate nature and high stress position in the Liberator's
structure. These parts would have to be replaced after every fir-
ing. That is why in Figure 5, those parts are printed with different
colored PLA.
The actual assembly of the Liberator took no more than five
F I G U R E 6 Image of Liberator post-fire. This is an image of the
minutes to complete. Prior to full assembly, it was assembled into Liberator after firing one round of 0.380 ammunition. It can be seen
three major parts: the frame, the hammer mechanism, and the that the hammer mechanism, barrel, and right side of the frame
barrel, as seen in Figures 5–7. The frame (Figure 4) included the have cracked off.
664 | WENZINGER et al.

F I G U R E 7 Images of destroyed Liberator hammer mechanism. The left image shows one side of the destroyed hammer mechanism. The
middle image shows the other side of the destroyed hammer mechanism. One can see how fragile the hammer mechanism is since pieces
can be seen to have broken off when flipping the object over. The right image shows the hammer mechanism in addition to all parts found on
the floor surrounding the Liberator after firing.

grip, frame, trigger, trigger spring, and grip pin. This is also the
part that contains the 3.99 oz steel block. The hammer mechanism
(Figure 5) included the hammer body, hammer pin, hammer, fir-
ing pin, firing pin bushing, frame pin (3×), spring connecting rod,
spring connecting bushing, and spring (2×). This was the most
complex of the three major parts due to it containing the actual
firing mechanism of the Liberator. Full assembly of the Liberator
from the frame, the hammer mechanism, and the barrel took less
than five minutes. It should be noted that the bottom cover part
was printed but omitted from the final build of the Liberator. This
was so that the steel block could always be seen.

3.2 | Firing process

There were several failed attempts before a successful fire. A few

F I G U R E 8 Image of deconstructed Liberator frame. This is the
of these failed attempts were due to the automatic trigger pull slip-
deconstructed version of the Liberator frame pictured in Figure 6.
ping underneath the trigger resulting in no trigger pull. The remain- Although the right side of the frame did not crack off completely
ing failed attempts were due to the firing pin not lining up correctly during firing, it did break off during the deconstruction due to its
with the Centerfire 380 Auto cartridges. This was resolved by re- fragile nature.
moving one of the frame pins and rotating the hammer mechanism
downward slightly. This adjustment took less than two minutes.
Once this alignment was corrected there was one more failed at- 3.3 | Rifling and toolmark examination
tempt even though the firing pin made proper contact. No adjust-
ments were made before the next attempt, which was successful. Neither the bullet nor cartridge case exhibited any individual charac-
During the firing process, the right side of the frame cracked off, teristics that could be used for identification purposes. In addition,
the hammer mechanism was destroyed, and the barrel was ejected no comparison bullet or cartridge case was obtained for comparison.
from the frame. Only the grip, barrel, and trigger remained intact. No rifling was found on the bullet (Figure 9). Several indentations
The Liberator after firing can be seen in Figure 6. The remnants of were found on the bullet, but none possessed unique striae that
the hammer mechanism can be seen in Figure 7 and the Liberator could be counted for comparison purposes. One major indentation
frame can be seen deconstructed in Figure 8. Most of the firearms was found near the base of the bullet and was consistent around the
were able to be recovered with the exception of the firing pin. entire edge of the bullet (Figure 9). The cause of this indentation is
Recovery was done by manually by searching the surrounding areas unknown. Additionally, a blue-green mark was found on the bullet
and sweeping up the floor of the firing range. The barrel was found (Figure 10).
next to the remote firing cart, but the cartridge case was found No firing pin impression could be recovered from the cartridge
downrange of the newspaper box. The bullet only penetrated 0.95 case due to primer blow-out (Figure 11). Although there were sev-
and 1.27 cm. Due to the destruction of the firearm, only one barrel, eral marks on the cartridge case from the expansion, none had
a PLA barrel, was used. unique striae that could be used for comparison (Figure 12). As seen
WENZINGER et al. | 665

F I G U R E 9 Image BULLETPIC5. Image of Liberator-fired bullet.

No rifling patterns can be seen on the bullet. In addition, an indent F I G U R E 1 1 Image CCTop2. Image of the cartridge case head
near the left side of the bullet is present. fired from a Liberator. This image shows the primer blow-out which
obscures any firing pin impression left by the firearm.

F I G U R E 1 0 Image BLUEMARK. Image of a blue mark on the

Liberator-fired bullet. This mark, the center of the image, appeared F I G U R E 1 2 Image CARTRDIGECASE3. Image of the cartridge
blue-green to the naked eye. case body fired from a Liberator. This image shows the lack of
individual characteristics. It also shows the expansion of the
cartridge case body from the firing process.

in Figure 12, there was a significant expansion in part of the car-

tridge case body. was printed on a $180 printer available for purchase on Amazon.
Additionally, two different three-dimensional objects were iden- This makes the Liberator both inexpensive and quick to print. Even
tified as present on the cartridge case. One three-dimensional object though some parts were fragile and had to be reprinted, no part took
can be seen pictured in Figure 13. In addition, there were blue-green incredibly long to re-print. Honsberger's two-part paper indicated
lines present around the head of the cartridge case (Figure 14). a similar level of breakage using a high-end 3D printer [2, 22]. This
indicates that the quality of 3D printer is not as crucial to the func-
tionality and success of 3D printed firearms as previously thought.
4 | DISCUSSION In addition, the majority of the additional parts were printed out
of an abundance of caution and were not used during the assembly
4.1 | 3D printing of the firearms or firing process. A bit of sanding by hand had to be done to ensure
the proper fit between parts but this was accomplished in under
The printing of the Liberator was simple and required no changes an hour, making it extremely doable. The rotary tool used was also
to the STL files downloaded from GitHub. The entire print took just available on Amazon for only $20 making it easy and affordable for
over a day to complete. The filament cost no more than $25 and the average person.
666 | WENZINGER et al.

also available freely on the internet meaning that anyone, includ-

ing federal offenders who are barred from firearm ownership, or
individuals who live in countries that do not permit handgun own-
ership, can obtain them.
In the future, printing the Liberator in ABS and Nylon should
be looked at for its effect on durability, time, and cost. Other com-
mon thermoplastics should also be considered. It is possible that
changing the plastic used for printing would result in a more dura-
ble firearm that can withstand more than one shot. But different
thermoplastics could increase printing time and printing difficulty.
Since the barrels, when printed with different thermoplastics, didn't
always exhibit an ideal fit, it is reasonable to assume that printing
all the firearm parts also wouldn't exhibit an ideal fit. This means
that deviating from the downloadable instructions is unlikely for the
average person. Other thermoplastics might also cost more. This
F I G U R E 1 3 Image CCTOP BLUELINES2. Image of the blue- should be limited to 3D printers that are sold commercially and are
green lines present on the head of the cartridge case. relatively inexpensive.

4.2 | Using 3D printing for identification

Research has been done to link 3D printers to their printed objects

using toolmark comparison techniques already accepted by the fo-
rensic science community [21]. In theory, one could possibly connect
a 3D printed firearm to the 3D printer used and subsequently the
person who printed it in the absence of traditional rifling and tool-
mark comparison. There were two key conditions that had to be met
in order to successfully link an object to its printer, the first being
that no post-printing modifications were done and the second being
that the replicate print had to be in the same bed location [23]. This
research shows that it would not work for many reasons. Due to the
amount of post-print modification, such as sanding that was needed
to properly fit the parts of the firearm together, it is unlikely that
this type of comparison would yield any fruitful results when applied
F I G U R E 1 4 Image OBJECT1CLOSEUP. Image of a three- to 3D-printed firearms. In addition, the ‘ReadMe.docx’ file suggests
dimensional object present on the cartridge case. vapor smoothing the 3D printed firearm parts after printing, which
would also destroy any of these individual characteristics left by the
3D printing bed. Also, certain thermoplastics, such as nylon, require
When assembling the Liberator, three major parts were glue to adhere the plastic part to the bed during printing to prevent
identified during the assembly process: the frame, the hammer movement.
mechanism, and the barrel. This allows for the Liberator to be
transported through security inconspicuously without appear-
ing as a firearm. The easy assembly from these three major parts 4.3 | Firing process
allows for the Liberator to be transported separately since it is
not burdensome to assemble the firearm on site. This makes the Based on this research, the Liberator can only be used reliably for
Liberator an attractive weapon for individuals trying to evade one shot due to the amount of damage that followed firing. Only the
security measures such as metal detectors. The low cost makes trigger, barrel, and grip maintained their integrity after firing. Also,
the Liberator a cheaper option for individuals who only need a the Liberator may not be lethal, even at close range, due to its struc-
firearm for one or two shots. Also, several states impose waiting tural design. There should also be additional research conducted on
periods for purchases of handguns making the Liberator a faster the velocity of the bullet after firing to determine its lethality. This
option for individuals as well. Both factors make the Liberator an research could eliminate the threat of the Liberator entirely if it can
attractive weapon for individuals considering suicide. The files are be proven that the weapon is not lethal.
WENZINGER et al. | 667

4.4 | Rifling and toolmark examination produce as proved by this research project. Even as they advance in
quality, there is no reason that these more advanced firearms would
The lack of individual characteristics on the bullets only indicates be harder to produce.
that no rifling was present on the barrel, not that a 3D-printed fire- This research established the ease of printing the Liberator using
arm was used. It could indicate that a smooth-bore barrel was used. commercially available supplies. Firing the gun established that the
The presence of the blue-green mark on the bullet could be from Liberator can only be used for one shot and may not be lethal. And
the thermoplastic since the barrel was printed in Matte Grass Green there were no individual characteristics on the bullet or the cartridge
Color. Additional research should be conducted to see if this type of case that could be used for firearms and toolmarks examination.
mark could be scraped off and analyzed to determine if it was ther- The biggest concern with 3D-printed firearms is national secu-
moplastic residue. If it can be determined to be thermoplastic, then rity due to their untraceable nature. Further research could prove
that in conjunction with the lack of rifling could provide evidence of that these firearms have a low potential for lethality. This would
3D-printed firearm use in the absence of rifling and other individual eliminate most security concerns. However, different models of
characteristics. Honsberger and Warner suggest in their paper the firearms might have different potential bullet velocities. The re-
use of filtered or UV illumination to aid in the identification of these search done in this project proves that current forensic firearms
polymers [22]. Alternatively, SEM-EDS would be another way to test examination techniques are not yet equipped to handle 3D-
for thermoplastic residue since that instrumentation is already used printed firearms.
for the analysis of GSR. This research project used a limited sample size due to time con-
The lack of a firing pin impression makes traditional cartridge straints. In future studies, it is important to look at the effects of
case comparison impossible. This is likely due to the sharp point on different firearm models, different thermoplastics, and different 3D
the end of the nail instead of a rounder end seen on traditional firing printers. All of these factors could affect the durability and threat
pins. If one were to sand down the firing pin impression, it is possible potential of 3D-printed firearms. The fact the Liberator could only
that would introduce significant individual marks for an identifica- fire one shot that did not deeply penetrate the box of paper should
tion. But even if there was a firing pin impression, a standard 1-inch not be used to dismiss the threat of these weapons. In some circum-
roofing nail was used. This could easily be hidden or disposed of. In stances, only one close-range shot is all that is needed to end a life.
addition, the roofing nail used in this research project was unable to
be located for comparison purposes after firing. C O N F L I C T O F I N T E R E S T S TAT E M E N T
There were several marks made on the expanded part of the The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
cartridge case from the barrel. It might be possible to compare
these marks to a replicate fire since the barrel was not destroyed REFERENCES
in the process. A cast could be made of the barrel and the negative 1. Jacobs JB, Haberman A. 3D-printed firearms, do-it-yourself guns, &
image compared to the cartridge case. Or a replicate frame could the second amendment. Law Contemp Probl. 2017;80(129):129–47.
2. Honsberger H, Rhumorbarbe D, Werner D, Riva F, Glardon M,
be printed, and the original barrel could be used for a replicate fire.
Gallusser A, et al. How to recognize the traces left on a crime scene
For future research, replicate frames should be printed so that by a 3D-printed Liberator? Part 1. Discharge, exterior ballistic and
successive firings can be conducted. Replicate frames were not wounding potential. Forensic Sci Int. 2018;286:245–51. https://doi.
printed during this project due to an accelerated timeline caused by org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.03.026
3. Black O, Cizdziel JV. The advent of 3D-printed firearms and its
the COVID-19 pandemic. Successive firings will be able to establish
implications for forensic analysis. New York, NY: Nova Science
if the markings on the cartridge case body can be used for compari- Publishers, Inc.; 2019. p. 55–7.
son purposes. They will also be able to establish if the primer blow- 4. Greenberg A. 3D-printed gun stands up to federal agents' testfir-
out was unique to this firing or if it is a common occurrence caused ing–except when it explodes. Forbes. 2013. Available from: https://
www.forbes.com/sites/andygreenberg/2013/11/14/3d-printed-
by the structure of a 3D printed firearm.
gun-stands-up-to-federal-agents-testfiring-except-when-it-explo
des-video/?sh=22d36d9d455c. Accessed 24 Nov 2023.
5. Pearce R. NSW police issues warning on 3D printed guns.
5 | CO N C LU S I O N Computerworld. 2013. Available from: https://www2.computerwo
rld.com.au/article/462774/nsw_police_issues_warning_3d_print
ed_guns/. Accessed 24 Nov 2023.
The research done in this project proves that current forensic ex-
6. Captain S. Journalists smuggle 3-D printed gun into Israeli par-
amination techniques are not prepared to analyze evidence created liament. NBC News. 2013. Available from: https://www.nbcnews.
by 3D-printed firearms. Despite its diminished capacity for lethal- com/technolog/journalists-smuggle-3-d-printed-gun-israeli-parli
ity, firearms and toolmark examination were unable to determine ament-6c10570532. Accessed 24 Nov 2023.
7. Murphy S, Myers R. How mail on Sunday ‘printed’ first plastic gun
any individual characteristics that could be used for comparison
in UK—and then took it on board Eurostar without being stopped
purposes. The field of 3D printing is only advancing, so it is likely in security scandal. Daily Mail. 2013. Available from: https://www.
that the durability of these 3D-printed firearms will also advance. dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2323158/How-Mail-On-Sunday-
3D-printed firearms, such as the Liberator, are already inexpensive, printed-plastic-gun-UK--took-board-Eurostar-stopped-security-
scandal.html. Accessed 24 Nov 2023.
quick to manufacture, and require limited technical knowledge to
668 | WENZINGER et al.

8. Sundby A. 3D-printed guns among weapons found at airport se- oba-man-arres ted-for-allegedly-3d-printing-guns-1. 5768211.
curity checkpoints, TSA says. CBS News. 2018. Available from: Accessed 24 Nov 2023.
https://www.cbsnews.com/news/3d-printed-guns-among-weapo 17. Fowble K. Bullet castings: recovery of striations. 2013. Available
ns-found-at-airport-security-checkpoints/. Accessed 24 Nov 2023. from: https://www.newhaven.edu/_resources/documents/acade
9. Kleinman A. 3D-printed bullets are terrifyingly easy to make. mics/surf/past-projects/2013/kristen-fowble-paper.pdf. Accessed
Huffpost. 2013. Available from: https://www.huffpost.com/entry/ 24 Nov 2023.
3d-printed-bullets_n_3322370. Accessed 24 Nov 2023. 18. Inbau FE. Firearms identification—ballistics. J Crim Law Criminol.
10. 3-D printed guns lead to arrest of man in Japan. NBC News. 2014. 1999;89(4):1293–314. https://doi.org/10.2307/1144180
Available from: https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/gadgets/3-d- 19. Sharma BR. The importance of firing pin impressions in the identifi-
printed-guns-lead-arrest-man-japan-n100831. Accessed 24 Nov cation of firearms. J Crim Law Criminol Police Sci. 1963;54(3):378–
2023 80. https://doi.org/10.2307/1141000
11. Whigham N. Police seize another batch of 3D printed guns as au- 20. Sehgal DS, Sahota SS, Kaur N, Kaur A. Development of firing pin
thorities deal with danger of downloadable firearms. News.com. and breech face impression on lead and plasticine surfaces—a case
au. 2016. Available from: https://www.news.com.au/technology/ report. Egypt J Forensic Sci. 2017;7(1):15. https://doi.org/10.1186/
innovation/design/police-seize-another-batch-of-3d-printed-guns- s41935-017-0015-9
as-authorities-deal-with-danger-of-downloadable-firearms/news- 21. Black O, Cody R, Edwards D, Cizdziel JV. Identification of polymers
story/c2fa2711ebf7b761e3e2f0802a80d1b2. Accessed 24 Nov and organic gunshot residue in evidence from 3D-printed firearms
2023. using DART-mass spectrometry: a feasibility study. Forensic Chem.
12. Date J. Texas man sentences in 3D-printed gun case, had ‘hit list’ of 2017;5:26–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forc.2017.05.003
US lawmakers. ABC News. 2019. Available from: https://abcnews. 22. Honsberger H, Werner D, Rhumorbarbe D, Riva F, Glardon M,
go.com/Politics/texas-man-sentenced-3d-printed-gun-case/story? Gallusser A, et al. How to recognise the traces left on a crime
id=60914980. Accessed 24 Nov 2023. scene by a 3D-printed Liberator? Part 2. Elements of ammunition,
13. Noor P. London student convicted for making gun using 3D printer. marks on the weapons and polymer fragments. Forensic Sci Int.
Guardian. 2019. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/ 2019;295:137–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.12.010
world/2019/jun/19/london-student-convicted-for-making-gun- 23. Aronson A, Elyashiv A, Cohen Y, Wiesner S. A novel method for
using-3d-printer-tendai-muswere. Accessed 24 Nov 2023. linking between a 3D printer and printed objects using toolmark
14. Dempsey C. Waterbury police make unusual gun arrest: man had comparison techniques. J Forensic Sci. 2021;66(6):2405–12.
a plastic, 3D printed gun. Hartford Courant. 2019. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.14825
https://www.courant.com/breaking-news/hc-br-waterbury-3d-
gun-arrest-20190523-ykgyfs4jlrh4ddw3w5ifcb2sfu-story.html.
Accessed 24 Nov 2023.
15. Smith P. Canadian man arrested for allegedly 3D-printing gun parts. How to cite this article: Wenzinger ZE, Wetzel S, Bernarding
DH News. 2020. Available from: https://dailyhive.com/vancouver/ B, Viator J, Kohlhepp B, Marshall P. The relevance of current
canadian-man-arrested-3d-printing-gun-parts. Accessed 24 Nov forensic firearms examination techniques when applied to 3D
2023.
printed firearms. J Forensic Sci. 2024;69:659–68. https://doi.
16. Unger D. ‘Not a hobby, it's a crime’: Manitoba man arrested for
allegedly 3D-printing guns. CTV News. 2022. Available from: org/10.1111/1556-4029.15467
https://winnipeg.ctvnews.ca/not-a-hobby-it-s-a-crime-manit