Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-34424-1

REVIEW ARTICLE

Natural dyes in textile printing: parameters, methods,

and performance
Md. Reazuddin Repon1,2,3 · Tarekul Islam4,5 · Tamal Krishna Paul4,6 · Sigita Jurkonienė1 · Aminoddin Haji7 ·
Sharof Shukhratov8 · Gazi Farhan Ishraque Toki9,10

Received: 12 October 2023 / Accepted: 15 July 2024 / Published online: 22 July 2024
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2024

Abstract
In recent years, consumer preferences have begun to turn back to natural dyes, whereas synthetic dyes have been pushed
into the background over the previous 60 years. This is a result of increased knowledge of the potential hazards associated
with the creation of synthetic dyes, which use raw materials derived from petrochemicals and involve intense chemical
interactions. Such dyes need a lot of energy to produce, and their negative effects on the environment increase pollution. It
has been discovered that several of these dyes, particularly the azo-based ones are carcinogenic. On the contrary, natural
dyes are getting more attention from scientists and researchers as a result of their several advantages like being eco-friendly,
biodegradable and renewable, sustainable, available in nature, having no disposal problems, minimizing the consumption of
fossil fuel, anti-bacterial, insect repellent, and anti-allergic, anti-ultraviolet, intensify dyeing and finishing process efficiency,
less expensive, and no adverse effects on human health and environment. However, there are also some drawbacks, like poor
fastness properties, natural dye printing for bulk production, difficulties in reproducibility of shades, and so forth. Despite all
these limitations, the demand for natural dyes is increasing significantly in textile industries because they offer far more safety
than synthetic dyes. This study provides an overall concept of the natural dyes in textile printing. It illustrates parameters of
printing performance, methods, and techniques of extraction of natural dyes, printing methods, and printing of natural and
synthetic fibers. Finally, this study describes the challenges and future prospects of natural dyes in textile printing.

Keywords Extraction method · Printing technique · Natural dyes

Responsible Editor: Philippe Garrigues

6
* Md. Reazuddin Repon Department of Textile Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical
[email protected]; [email protected] Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering &
Technology, Khulna 9203, Bangladesh
1
Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Nature Research Centre, 7
Department of Textile Engineering, Yazd University, Yazd,
Akademijos g. 2, 08412 Vilnius, Lithuania
Iran
2
Department of Production Engineering, Faculty 8
Department of Technological Education, Fergana State
of Mechanical Engineering and Design, Kaunas University
University, 150100 Fergana, Uzbekistan
of Technology, Studentų 56, 51424 Kaunas, Lithuania
9
3 State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers
Department of Textile Engineering, Daffodil International
and Polymer Materials, College of Materials Science
University, Dhaka 1216, Bangladesh
and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620,
4
ZR Research Institute for Advanced Materials, Sherpur 2100, China
Bangladesh 10
National Institute of Textile Engineering and Research,
5
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, King University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, 31261 Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583 47553

Introduction (Cuervo Lumbaque et al. 2017). Environmental awareness

and attempts to safeguard human health from environmental
Textile printing is the most well-known technique by which threats have considerably increased in recent years (Cuervo
textile materials are colored in a specific portion or the crea- Lumbaque et al. 2017; Upadhayay and Goel 2019). The
tion of localized color/effect/design on the textile substrates. raw materials, procedures, goods, and equipment used in
Printing method is very famous to consumers and customers the textile industry are quite diverse, and the supply chain
for its innovative design and effect, which was generated on is extremely intricate. The techniques of wet processing of
the textile substrates (Mohsin et al. 2022; Diaa et al. 2022). textiles are crucial to the creation of high-quality textiles
In textile printing, there is an important substance known since they enhance their aesthetic, cozy, and practical quali-
as printing paste which is made of a thickener/mixture of ties (Saxena et al. 2017).
thickeners, pigments/dye, ionic and/or non-ionic surfactants, As a result, due to the non-biodegradable and carcino-
and other printing assistants or substances. The thickener, genic nature of synthetic dyes, there is a huge demand for
one of the paste’s components, plays a vital role in printing the usage of natural colors all over the world (Chungkrang
(Fijan et al. 2009; Fadhel et al. 2021; Saad et al. 2021; Raza and Bhuyan 2020; Hegazy et al. 2022). Natural dyes are the
et al. 2021). A thickener used in printing creates a high level safest colors since they do not generate harmful byproducts
of viscosity of the printing paste at a low level of concentra- and contribute to environmental regeneration. Natural dyes
tion and acts as a medium for transferring dyes or pigments, are significant because they outperform synthetic colors in
surfactants, etc. onto the textile substrate. Additionally, it numerous ways. Natural colors are unquestionably healthier
provides the paste with appropriate rheological character- options because they do not include any chemicals that are
istics, such as high fluidity, thixotropy, and viscoelastic detrimental to the human body (Baliarsingh et al. 2013; Pan-
qualities, which will have a big impact on the printing qual- dit et al. 2021a). These dyes can be made without the use of
ity in the end (Abdel-Halim et al. 2008). Good rheological manufacturing processes because they are extracted from
behaviors typically produce a readily and uniformly flowing nature as well as they do not contaminate the environment
paste through the screen holes onto the substrate, as well as while being used and simply degrade in nature afterward.
a uniform deposition and penetration of the printed paste For this reason, natural dyes derived from biodegradable
into the textile substrate, during the printing process. This materials have been used as the first printing inks for tex-
is because when subjected to a tension or distortion force, tiles. However, to the best of our knowledge, there is only
viscosity appropriately declines (Perrin Akcakoca Kumba- one book chapter that published the features of different
sar and Bide 2000). Besides, the thickener in the paste is in printing techniques with natural dyes (Yıldırım et al. 2020).
charge of restoring the viscosity as soon as the shared stress Therefore, it is very necessary to prepare a comprehensive
is released from the squeegee, allowing the color paste to review highlighting the recent performance of textile print-
be held in place and preventing the spread of the deposited ing with natural dyes along with its limitations and future
paste on the substrate. The thickener in the paste should pre- prospects. This article starts with a discussion of influencing
vent the flow of dye molecules during printing or the subse- parameters of printing, which are very important for printing
quent treatment procedures of drying and steaming in order performances. Subsequently, an emphasis has been given to
to obtain precise, clear, and attractive designs on the printed the extraction methods of natural dyes and different printing
substrate (Teli et al. 2009). During a steaming procedure for techniques. Then, the printing performance of natural dyes
dye fixation, the thickener also serves as a substance that is on natural fabrics (cotton, wool, silk, and jute) and synthetic
hygroscopic in order to absorb either water or moisture from fabrics (polyester and nylon) is highlighted.
vapor. This creates microenvironments of water that allow
the dye to dissolve, diffuse, and/or transfer from the printed
paste to the textile substrate. The dyes used in textile print- Influencing parameters for printing
ing can be of synthetic or natural origin. Natural dyes are performance
attracting popularity in textile printing due to their non-toxic
nature and advantageous outcomes for the environment (Haji The principal objective of the Fourth Industrial Revolution
and Naebe 2020; El-Naggar et al. 2021a). (Industry 4.0) is to transform industries and manufacturing
The bio-resources used as bio-colorants are renew- methods digitally. All the fields are going to be changed
able and sustainable because they are derived from natu- from conventional to technical. From this sense, textile
ral sources (El-Naggar et al. 2021b; Bhandari et al. 2021). fields are also going to be digitalized in all development
Environmental concerns are playing a significant role in and applications. Textile printing is a unique creation of the
the marketing of consumer goods, especially textiles, glob- textile manufacturing industry that was developed by the
ally, in keeping with the evolving trends of green buying efforts of researchers. However, textile printing is one kind
47554 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583

of procedure that produces a localized effect or design to fabric more receptive to dyes. Desizing is the removal of any
the prefixed area of the textile material. In textile printing, sizing agents that may have been applied to the fabric during
two types of colorants (natural and man-made) can be used the weaving process. Sizing agents are used to add stiffness
to generate the specific effect or design on the substrates. In to the fabric, and they need to be removed to allow the dye
this paper, natural sources are selected for describing textile or pigment to penetrate the fibers effectively (Hassabo et al.
printing in terms of natural dyes. There are many natural 2023b). Bleaching is used to whiten the fabric and remove
sources available that are used as natural dyes for textile any natural or residual color. Hydrogen peroxide or sodium
printing. During the printing of textile materials, there are hypochlorite are commonly used as bleaching agents. Mer-
some parameters to be kept at an optimum level/amount for cerization is a treatment that involves treating cotton fabric
getting better printing results. All the parameters should be with sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) to increase its luster,
controlled for the desired result of printing. The printing strength, and dye receptivity. Depending on the printing
performance mostly depends on the printing parameters. method, fixing agents may be applied to the fabric before or
Several textile printing parameters are discussed below for after printing to help the dyes or pigments adhere to the fab-
understanding the influence of printing parameters on print- ric and improve color fastness. Mordants are chemicals used
ing performance. Figure 1 lists the parameters influencing to fix dyes in the fabric. They can be applied before print-
printing performance. ing (pre-mordanting) or after printing (post-mordanting) to
enhance the color and durability of the print. In some cases,
Pre‑treatment a heat setting may be used to fix the dyes or pigments in the
fabric. This involves subjecting the printed fabric to high
In textile printing, pretreatment is an important step that pre- temperatures to ensure proper bonding (Liu and Jiang 2023).
pares the fabric for the application of dyes or pigments. The Pretreatment helps to prepare the fabric surface so that it
specific pretreatment process can vary depending on the type is more receptive to dyes or pigments. By removing impuri-
of fabric and the printing method being used. Scouring is the ties, sizing agents, and other substances that might hinder the
process of removing any natural waxes, oils, and impurities adhesion of colorants, pretreatment ensures that the dyes or
from the fabric. It usually involves washing the fabric with pigments can bond effectively with the fabric fibers. Proper
hot water and detergent or an alkaline solution to make the pretreatment can lead to brighter and more vibrant colors in

Fig. 1  Parameters influencing

printing performance
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583 47555

the printed design. By removing any natural coloration in When exposed to high-temperature steam or thermal fixa-
the fabric and creating a clean, uniform surface, pretreatment tion, they must maintain excellent thermal and photostability
allows the dyes or pigments to achieve their full potential in without breaking. After fixing, it should be simple to remove
terms of color intensity and clarity. Pretreatment can also the thickening from the fabric surface. In order to avoid any
enhance the color fastness of the printed design. It helps to negative environmental or wastewater effects, they should
ensure that the dyes or pigments are securely bonded to the also be easily prepared, moderately inexpensive, and highly
fabric fibers, making the colors more resistant to fading due biodegradable.
to washing, exposure to sunlight, or other environmental
factors. Pretreatment helps in achieving consistent and uni- Printing paste
form results across different batches of fabric (Zhang et al.
2023b). It ensures that each piece of fabric is treated in the The ingredients of a printing paste can vary depending on
same way, which is crucial for maintaining consistency in the specific printing method, the type of fabric, and the
the final printed designs. By removing impurities and pre- desired results. The primary colorants are used to create the
paring the fabric properly, pretreatment reduces the likeli- desired design on the fabric. Dyes are used for dye-based
hood of printing defects such as uneven coloration, blotches, printing, while pigments are used for pigment-based print-
or streaks. This contributes to a higher-quality end product. ing. Thickeners are added to the paste to give it the right
Proper pretreatment can lead to a more durable print that viscosity or thickness for printing. Common thickening
can withstand wear and tear without significant fading or agents include sodium alginate, guar gum, starch, and car-
degradation in color quality (Yeo and Shin 2023). Overall, boxymethyl cellulose (CMC). Binders help fix the colorants
pretreatment in textile printing is essential for achieving con- of the fabric fibers during the curing or drying process. They
sistent, vibrant, and long-lasting printed designs on a variety improve the adhesion of the dyes or pigments to the fabric
of fabric types. It plays a critical role in ensuring that the and enhance color fastness. Common binders include acryl-
final textile products meet quality standards and customer ics, polyvinyl acetate (PVA), and starch-based binders. Fix-
expectations. ing agents are used to chemically set the dyes or pigments on
the fabric to improve color fastness. They help prevent the
Printing thickener color from fading or washing out. Fixing agents can be cati-
onic or anionic, depending on the type of dye used. Modi-
Thickeners are described as viscose substances that can fiers are chemicals added to the paste to adjust or modify the
give printing pastes gumminess and flexibility so that they properties of the print, such as the hand feel (texture), color
can be applied to fabric surfaces with precise pattern out- brightness, or durability. Depending on the printing method,
line and without bleeding or scattering (Abdelrahman et al. water or solvents may be used as a base or carrier for the
2020). Polysaccharides were previously the only polymeric paste. Water-based pastes are common in many textile print-
thickening substances used in printing on fabric. When ing processes, but solvent-based pastes are used in some
several kinds of colorants were introduced, it was discov- specialized applications. Various auxiliary chemicals may
ered that the integration of numerous of these thickening be added to the printing paste to improve its performance or
agents was incredibly poor (Abdelrahman et al. 2020). As to achieve specific effects. These can include wetting agents,
a result, numerous derivatives of polysaccharides, synthetic dispersing agents, pH adjusters, and crosslinking agents.
polymeric materials, and emulsion-thickening agents have Print paste is also called print ink which is used for print-
been invented (Pantnaik and Chakraborty 1995). The type ing techniques to generate a unique pattern effect or design
of dye and printing technique has a significant impact on on the textile fabric surfaces. Basically, print paste exhibits
the thickening agent selection. Besides, the structure and non-Newtonian flow behavior, meaning that shear stress and
characteristics of the fabric also influence the choice of a shearing rate are not inversely related. Pseudoplastic perfor-
thickening agent. Thickeners serve as a medium for color- mance and thixotropy are two categories of non-Newtonian
ing agents, substances, solvents, and other aids, bringing behavior. Pseudoplastic performance is the most well-known
them into close contact with the fabric’s surface during the category of non-Newtonian behaviors. The profile line that
printing process. However, there are three types of thicken- results from rheograms that demonstrate a link between
ers available natural thickeners, modified natural thicken- shear rate and shear stress is inclined with respect to the
ers, and synthetic thickeners. Thickeners are anticipated to axis of shearing rate. This suggests that when the visible vis-
produce respectable adherence and uniform printing paste cosity of a print paste is measured using a strong force that
distribution on fabric surfaces (Saad et al. 2021; Ebrahim is applied, known as shearing stress, which causes a high
et al. 2023). Thickeners should have the necessary physical flow velocity, known as shearing rate, the resistance to flow,
and chemical properties in order to avoid the separation of known as viscosity, is lower than that of the same solution
the dye, which produces level prints with distinct outlines. observed with a weaker force, a slower force, and a slower
47556 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583

rate of movement. No features that depend on time are for several purposes. Blend fibers are textile materials made
observed in pseudoplastic media. Some print pastes display from more than one type of fiber, whether synthetic or natu-
thixotropy performance, a different type of non-Newtonian ral. Blend fibers offer the most cost-effective option when
behavior where temporal effects are quite important. If the it comes to raw materials, especially if one of the compo-
shear rate is kept constant, the flow resistance deteriorates nents is relatively expensive. They can also be used to create
over time. When shear is halted, the structure of a thixo- innovative materials with improved or specific features that
tropic composite or thickener breaks down gradually over are not possible to achieve with fibers made from a single
time but can be rebuilt new. The time needed to rebuild this fiber type. Numerous blends of various qualities, such as
structure can take a few seconds to several days based on the polyester/wool and polyester/cotton, are conceivable due to
system (Lundberg et al. 1991; Khattab and Rehan 2018a). the diverse characteristics of fibers. Fiber blends combine
the beneficial properties of two or more fibers into a single
Printing fabric fabric. They are readily available in blends with natural ori-
gin, synthetic origin, or natural fibers mixed with synthetic
Basically, the printing technique is addressed on the textile ones. One of the most common blends is polyester/cotton
fabric for generating unique patterns, designs, and effects in in the textile sector. The blending combines the suppleness
a particular area. There are many fibers used to manufacture and moisture-wicking properties of cotton fibers with the
textile fabric where printing techniques are applied to create dimensional stability, hard-wearing properties, and anti-
a printing effect on the fabric surfaces. There are two basic crease functionality of polyester fibers. Blends of polyester
groups of fibers available in textiles including natural fib- and wool are an attempt to combine the attractive character-
ers and synthetic fibers. However, natural fibers are those istics of the two fibers. The fabrics produced by these blends
that are found in nature or are typically produced using sub- have excellent wear characteristics, dimensional stability,
stances from nature. Natural fibers are often divided into high mechanical strength, abrasion resistance, and soft han-
three categories: animal, vegetable, and mineral fibers. dling. Because of this, garments made of a wool/polyester
Natural cellulosic fibers also referred to as vegetable fiber, blend exhibit superior properties over those made entirely of
are primarily made of cellulosic materials, just like other wool or polyester fibers. Besides, wool/polyester blends play
plants. Cotton and linen are the two most major in terms of a significant role in the woven suit market (Dhinakaran and
textile use. Natural protein fibers made from animal species Ramakrishnan 2015; El-Hennawi et al. 2015; Kilincarslan
are less common than vegetable fibers used in the textile et al. 2016; Gupta et al. 2016; Sarioğlu 2017; Khattab and
industry (Abdelrahman et al. 2020). Wool and silk are two Rehan 2018b).
of the most noteworthy examples of natural animal fibers.
Protein keratin makes up wool textiles. The polypeptide Printing dyes
chains that makeup protein molecules are made from the
normal amino acids that are present in all-natural proteins Dyes are substances that are able to generate color on textile
(Abdelrahman et al. 2020). Some characteristics of wool materials. In printing techniques, various dyes are used to
fibers make them unsuitable for use in a variety of applica- create a particular pattern, design, and effect on the textile
tions as textile fibers. The most well-known drawback is that fabrics. Basically, dye selection is done based on the fabric
they inadequately shrink when washed in aquatic environ- characteristics. There are several types of dyes and auxilia-
ments. Pure wool fibers also cause problems with wrinkle ries available in the textile industry. The proper auxiliaries
preservation. Conversely, cotton fibers are delicate, fluffy are selected to create the printing paste based on the type of
staple fibers that rise in a boll, or protective cover. Cotton dye and the printing technique (Abdelrahman et al. 2020). It
form is quite consistent, with a width of 12 to 20 µm and a may not be acceptable to utilize a certain group of auxilia-
length that ranges from 1 to 6 cm (usually 2.2 to 3.3 cm). ries with a different type of dye. The choice of a component
Besides, high-quality dimensional stability resists acid and from a set is based on how well it works with other print-
alkali damage (Stanković et al. 2008; Dong et al. 2014). ing paste auxiliaries and, more specifically, with the dyes.
On the contrary, synthetic methods are where synthetic fib- Printing dyes should have some particular features including
ers first emerged. For instance, polyester fiber is a type of a high level of affinity to the textile fabric, good resistance
synthetic polymeric fiber that has at least one ester bond to friction, perspiration, light, and washing without fading,
for every repeating unit monomer in its polymer chain. The and compatibility with other auxiliaries. Several kinds of
condensation reaction between the two monomers, which are dyes are used for printing different textile fibers. Such dyes
aliphatic ethylene glycol with independent hydroxyl groups could be colorants that are water-insoluble, water-insolu-
and terephthalic carboxylic aromatic acid, produces the most ble, or only very slightly water-soluble (Islam et al. 2022).
typical polyester fibers (Chen 2015). Besides, blend fiber The dye is frequently used in a wet environment and may
is also another type of fiber that is used in textile sectors require a mordant to improve its colorfastness on the fabric
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583 47557

surface. The dyes have color because they only absorb cer- blends. Pigment printing does not require the same fixation
tain wavelengths of visible white light, which causes them to processes as dye-based printing. Basic dyes are primarily
reflect the color of the corresponding wavelength. However, used for acrylic and cationic dyeable polyester fibers. They
the choice of dyes is influenced by functional substituents have a positive charge and are attracted to the negatively
on dye molecules, functional substituents on fiber chemi- charged fiber surfaces. They are not commonly used in most
cal structures, and any potential interactions between these textile printing processes. Vat dyes are primarily used for
groups (Hassan et al. 2024). Covalent, ionic, or Van der cellulosic fibers and are known for their excellent colorfast-
Waals bonds are possible bonding mechanisms for dyes to ness to washing and light. They require a complex reduc-
textile fibers (Abdelrahman et al. 2020). In the process of tion and oxidation process for fixation, making them less
textile printing, different types of dyes are used, but only commonly used in textile printing. Sulfur dyes are mainly
specific groups of dyes predominate on a given fabric. used for dyeing denim and other cotton fabrics. They create
Reactive dyes are the most widely used dyes in textile deep, rich colors but have relatively low lightfastness and
printing, particularly for cellulosic fibers like cotton, rayon, are not commonly used for high-end fashion textiles. Solvent
and linen. They form strong covalent bonds with the fabric, dyes are used for printing on synthetic fabrics like nylon
resulting in excellent colorfastness and a wide color range. and polyester. They are dissolved in a solvent and applied
Reactive dyes are known for their vibrant colors and are to the fabric using methods like transfer printing. Natural
suitable for a variety of printing methods, including screen dyes are derived from plant sources, insects, or minerals.
printing and digital printing. Disperse dyes are primarily They are eco-friendly but often have limited colorfastness
used for synthetic fibers like polyester, nylon, and acetate. and color range. They are used in artisanal and sustainable
They are well-suited for heat transfer printing methods, such textile printing processes. Figure 2 indicates the structures
as sublimation printing, where the dye sublimates (changes of various dyes used in textile printing.
from a solid to a gas) under heat and fuses with the syn-
thetic fibers. Acid dyes are used for protein-based fibers like Printing techniques
silk and wool. They are particularly effective for dyeing and
printing on these natural fibers. Acid dyes require an acidic The process of applying color to fibers in unique patterns or
environment for proper fixation. Direct dyes are versatile images with a definite portion is known as textile printing.
and are used for both cellulosic and protein-based fibers. For the purpose of producing fibers with adequate colorfast-
They have good wash fastness but may not be as colorfast as ness capabilities, the choice of dye is based on a number
reactive dyes. Direct dyes are often used for tie-dye and batik of parameters, including the chemical nature of the fiber.
techniques. Pigment dyes are not true dyes but rather finely Printing is almost identical to a dyeing operation, except that
ground solid particles that adhere to the fabric surface. They color is applied to particular, constrained areas in accord-
are known for their excellent colorfastness and are suitable ance with a specific design. However, printing is now a key
for a wide range of fibers, including cotton, polyester, and process in textile coloring as a result of recent advancements

Fig. 2  Structures of various

dyes used in textile printing
(Benkhaya et al. 2020)
47558 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583

in the field, particularly in machines, thickening agents, An alternate temperature is required based on the type and
and fixation techniques. Furthermore, the greater aesthetic degree of heat resistance of the material (Cie 2015).
appeal of printed clothing has also increased its popularity.
The method used to apply color to fabric differs significantly Printing time
across textile dyeing and printing processes. During the dye-
ing process, the excess dye solution is sucked out of the dye Printing time means how much time is required for trans-
bath after the fabric has been immersed in a diluted solution ferring the design, effect, or pattern to the selected fabric
of the dye. Contrarily, printing is done by mixing dyes with surface. Basically, printing time is very important for print-
various auxiliary materials in a thickening paste. A pattern ing techniques. Printing performance mostly depends on
that has been previously produced is printed on the substrate printing time. According to one study, K/S values and the
using a roller or screen. The printing paste is made viscous percentage of dye transfer rise as transfer time increases
by combining one or more thickening polymers, also known from 5, 10, and 20 s to 30 s. A modest increase in K/S val-
as thickeners, which serve as carriers for dyes and auxilia- ues is observed when the printing time is further raised to
ries. This prevents color from oozing outside of the design 40 s (El-Halwagy et al. 2001). Generally, the most appropri-
area of the cloth and allows for sharply defined designs. ate printing time typically depends on the dye composition
However, printing paste is difficult to dispose of and causes and the printing substrate. There may be insufficient dye
sedimentation in water streams when its waste is disposed transfer to the substrate at very low temperatures and for
of, affecting the water quality and having a negative impact short periods of time. If caution is not given, excessive heat
on the environment. So, synthetic thickeners can be sub- can damage or melt the dye and/or the substrate, especially
stituted with natural biodegradable polymers that serve as for synthetic substrates, even though higher temperatures
sustainable thickening substances for textile printing. These (180–240 °C) at 30–40 s (Sarkodie et al. 2018), or at most
biodegradable materials have the benefits of being environ- 120 s (Sarkodie et al. 2018), render effective dye transfer.
mentally friendly, nontoxic, and affordable to produce (Abe Thus, the kind of dye, transfer medium, additional additives,
2012). There are some printing techniques and styles includ- substrate, and temperature all affect printing time. Generally
ing hand screen printing, roller or machine printing, block speaking, printing at a high temperature takes a shorter time
printing or stamping, batik printing, screen printing, photo- than printing at a low temperature. This information is cru-
graphic printing, spray or stencil printing, and resist and dis- cial for estimating the duration of time required for transfer
charge printing. Screen printing has largely replaced block printing on a certain substrate using a particular transfer
printing in India today, which was used there in the past. film or medium. Furthermore, K/S values are negatively
Roller printing and modified screen printing, such as rotary impacted by how long polymeric paste is stored after being
screen printing, operate continuously and offer a higher level used for transfer printing on fabrics made of natural fibers.
of productivity. The simplest method is hand screen printing, Even without an inkjet-produced picture, the transfer paper
which can be seen as a progression from stenciling. retains its shape well.

Printing temperature Printing pressure

Printing temperature is a significant parameter of textile Printing pressure, a crucial parameter for printing, is the
printing. An optimum printing temperature addresses an level of pressure put on the transfer paper, roller, stamp,
effective and efficient printing on fabric. However, printing substrate, etc. The substrate and the degree of dye pene-
temperature has a big influence on printing performance. tration are both impacted by the pressure used during the
The proper temperature is crucial when transferring a design transfer printing process. It is rarely applied to the major-
onto surfaces under dry conditions, except in wet-transfer ity of materials because pressure has a detrimental impact
procedures that do not use heat. When printing for 30 s with on fabric tensile strength. Therefore, low pressure is used
a thermoplastic sheet like polyethylene, extending the trans- to execute a number of transfer printing techniques. It is
fer temperature from 140 to 200 °C has a significant impact important to control the amount of pressure used in transfer
on improving the color strength (K/S) of the prints. K/S printing since higher pressure ensures a good acceleration
values slightly rise with an increase in printing tempera- of dye transport into the fiber core, which is very efficient
ture up to 220 °C (El-Halwagy et al. 2001). The K/S value but can affect fabric dimensional stability. The development
decreases when cotton and wool samples are printed at tem- of the heat press made it possible to apply the proper pres-
peratures higher than 200 °C without the use of polyethylene sure for optimum coloring depending on the substrate type.
film. Cotton has higher K/S and transfer values than wool The level of pressure required for a particular transfer pro-
(El-Halwagy et al. 2001). This implies that another element cedure depends on the dye penetration and the nature of the
that may affect K/S values is the makeup of the material. substrate. When the pressure is too low during the transfer
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583 47559

process, a lot of ink and gas escape (particularly with sub- Substrate
limable dyes), which leads to hazy prints that are difficult
to read, waste of transfer resources (dye and substrate), and The performance of the printing technique is significantly
environmental contamination. A satisfactory level of clarity influenced by the substrate. By adding barriers (i.e., agents
is achieved if the pressure is applied correctly, and there is that lie between the natural fabric and dye to retain the dye
no or a very little gap between the substrate and the transfer onto the fabric), such as polymeric agents, transfer printing
paper/medium (Wang et al. 2012). In addition to physical can be successfully used on natural fiber fabrics in addition
pressure, other factors that affect dye release include the to its successful use on synthetic, thermoplastic polyester
pressure at which the dye vapor diffuses through the layers (El-Halwagy et al. 2001; Yin et al. 2013). The wash fastness
of paper, the speed at which it does so, and the affinity of the of the dispersed dye on untreated wool is very poor. The
dye for the substances (such as binders and additives) printed same dyes on wool treated with benzoic anhydride showed
on the transfer paper. Therefore, analyzing the distinctive a substantial improvement (Lewis and Pailthorpe 1983).
features of the transmitted material is crucial. According When complex-forming dyes are applied to fabric that has
to traditional wisdom, dye penetration should be kept to a already had sufficient metal salt pretreatment, fastness may
minimum effective level because high levels can blur the be increased. Good K/S values and fastness qualities can
sharpness of images. The distance the dye vapor travels after be obtained by working with chromium-complex dispersion
sublimation and while being transferred to the final substrate dyes (Lewis et al. 1984).
is minimized, which significantly enhances image definition.
Fixation
Transfer paper
In textile printing, fixation means the absorption of dye
Transfer paper plays an important role in printing perfor- molecules by the fabric surface. Basically, fixation refers
mance. It is able to address an effective and efficient printing to the reaction between fabric surface and dye molecules
performance based on its nature (Li et al. 2013b, a). Accord- and making a strong covalent bond with fiber. It is a chal-
ing to Li et al., the paste that is coated on the paper’s surface lenging technique that has not yet been clearly understood
has a considerable influence on the printing characteristics as to how to transfer dyes from print paste film to fabric
of transfer paper, as represented in the K/S values of printed (Abdelrahman et al. 2020). The temperature of both the fiber
silk (El-Halwagy et al. 2001). When employing polyethylene and the print film rises when the printed fabric is subjected
film or glazed-coated paper for transfer printing instead of to high-temperature steaming because the steam’s heat is
superfine uncoated paper, somewhat higher K/S values are passed to both the fabric and the print paste film. The paste
obtained. This is due to the fact that more dye sublimation— film preferentially chooses the condensed steam, which
or less effective dye transfer to substrates—occurs during the expands to activate the incorporated auxiliaries like urea
printing process on uncoated paper as opposed to glazed and and accelerators to create a eutectic combination. This facili-
coated paper because more ink is deposited on the surface tates the breakdown of dye aggregates. The amount of water
and dispersed in the pores of the uncoated paper. Currently, that the paste film absorbs has an impact on this process as
inkjet printers are being used to print images with sublima- well. In order to facilitate the transfer and diffusion of dyes
ble ink on transfer media. The image is transferred onto the and auxiliaries into the fabric, the structural elements of the
substrate using an inkjet-printed transfer medium, which is previously dried print paste film are driven apart when it
not appropriate for low volume, multiple-type printing due expands. The distribution of dye in the print paste film, the
to its time-consuming nature and the high cost of setting up type of fiber, and the forces among thickener molecules and
the original print on transfer media, as opposed to screen between dye molecules and thickener molecules and fibers
printing and offset printing. As a result, it is impractical to are the key factors influencing color yield. The greater affin-
print pictures in large quantities using inkjet technology to ity between the thickening agent and the dye would cause
meet shifting consumer demand for unique and innovative a higher percentage of the dye to be retained in the thicker
designs. A thermoplastic polymeric agent paste can also be paste, resulting in a lower color yield on printed fabric. The
used to pre-coat transfer paper before the dye is printed on a thickening film typically exhibits resistance to dye transfer
silk surface. K/S values—which rely on the type of dye used, if it becomes cake-like during the print-fixing process. The
the type and fiber content of printed cloth, as well as other dyes that have a lower affinity for thickening will transfer to
factors—are typically used to assess the effectiveness of a the fabric the best. Additionally, dye transfer is facilitated
transfer print. Prints made with the included polyethylene by the heterogeneity of paste film. A thickener’s dye release
printing transfer film perform better than prints made with- property would be diminished, and, as a result, the color
out the film in terms of washing and perspiration fastness, as yield would drop if it has a high adhesion power caused
well as crock fastness, which vary from good to very good. by Van der Waals attraction forces. Gum-based thickening
47560 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583

agents have higher substitutions, which, along with their in nature, UV protective, producing highly, attractive
strong adhesive force, result in stronger resistance to dye and smooth shades, naturally renewable, low toxicity,
absorption into fibers. However, at low molar replacements, and green chemistry (Rungruangkitkrai and Mongkhol-
gums lose some of their ability to adhere, allowing dyestuff rattanasit 2012; Hebeish et al. 2015; Sikder et al. 2023),
and water molecules to enter the fabric matrix. According and they have the potential to have a significant impact on
to the aforementioned findings, a suitable thickener should the textile dyeing and finishing industries. The most of
have low solid contents, a low molecular weight, heteroge- natural dyes come from plant sources such as roots, ber-
neity, and substitution. It should also have low adhesion or ries, petals, bark, leaves, flowers, seed, fruit, and wood
elastic power (ITO et al. 1996; Kausar and Mahmood 2013). (Hebeish et al. 2015; Habib et al. 2022; Baaka et al. 2023;
Haji et al. 2023; Kodaloǧlu and Demiralay 2023; Mamun
Post‑treatment et al. 2023; Shahmoradi Ghaheh et al. 2023). There are
about 450 types of plants that yield dye, of which 40 to
In textile printing, post-treatment is an important term 50 are very significant. Since pelargonidin, chrysammic
that refers to the treatment process that is done after the acid, morin, coumarin, emblicanin, harmine, curcumin,
printing process. Post-treatment processes are important tannins, anthocyanins, flavonoids, and other chemicals
for most of the textile printing techniques. The processes compounds are present in plants, they contribute to the
address very uniform, effective, and efficient printing results colors of plant-based dyes; therefore, no single compound
of the printed textiles. If post-treatment processes are not is solely accountable for their hue. However, there is a
applied to the printed materials, then they will not provide significant amount of evidence that natural sources (plant
the desired printed result. There are some post-treatment parts) were used in textile printing. Some research works
processes available that are applied to the printed materials are addressed here where researchers used natural sources
for better results. The following processes including cur- for textile printing including annatto (Savvidis et al. 2013,
ing, steaming, soaking, washing, rinsing, drying, or apply- 2014; Chattopadhyay et al. 2018), turmeric (Salem et al.
ing fixing agents may be applied to printed materials as 2013; Teli et al. 2013; Ragheb et al. 2017), rhubarb (Rek-
post-treatment processes. After printing, the ink needs to aby et al. 2009; Salem et al. 2013; Osman 2014), nutshell,
be cured uniformly and accurately to adhere to the print- chrysanthemum seed, madder, red poppy (Hebeish et al.
ing materials (Kantheti et al. 2020). Curing and steaming 2015), golden dock, cutch (Savvidis et al. 2014), orange
processes help to well adhere and penetrate the ink to the tree leaves, alkanet (Rekaby et al. 2009; Salem et al. 2013;
printed materials properly. Basically, all the post-treatment Chattopadhyay et al. 2018), marigold (Teli et al. 2013),
processes help to enhance the properties of printed materials Butea monosperma flower (Babel and Gupta 2015), locust
like color fastness, appearance, strength, durability, longev- bean seed (Rekaby et al. 2009), pomegranate peel (Sav-
ity, and comfort. vidis et al. 2014; İbrahim Bahtiyari et al. 2017), walnut
bark, manjistha (Chattopadhyay et al. 2018), dyer’s chamo-
mile (İbrahim Bahtiyari et al. 2017), and henna (Hebeish
Natural dyes et al. 2006). Furthermore, Table 1 summarizes other natu-
ral plants that are responsible for color (dyeing/printing)
In recent times, there has been an intensifying attention with their biological name/family, part used, and chemical
on the fabrication or finishing of textile materials with compounds.
agents which are extracted from different types of natu- Natural dyes that are non-toxic and environmentally
ral resources that can provide various kinds of functional friendly have grown in importance as a result of rising
and environmental impacts. The term “natural dye” refers environmental awareness and the wish to stay away from
to dyes derived from animals, plants, or minerals. Plant harmful synthetic dyes. It should be emphasized that the
and animal origins, byproducts, and tissue or cell culture use of natural dyes for the coloring of textiles has generally
are the terms used to extract natural dyes (Repon et al. been limited to craftsmen, small-scale printers, dyers, and
2023). The earth is overflowing with an extensive variety exporters, as well as producers and exporters on a smaller
of natural dyes (Krieg and Halbhuber 2010; Prabhu and scale, who have come to terms with the production and sale
Bhute 2012). It is categorized into three sections namely of highly valued eco-friendly textiles (Samanta and Agar-
in terms of structure, sources, and application method. The wal 2009). However, some industrial dyers and small textile
public’s growing ecological consciousness has sparked a export businesses have started looking into the possibility
new interest in using plant-based natural dyes for dye- of applying natural dyes for standard textile dyeing and
ing and printing textile fabrics. Natural dyes have some printing in order to counteract the harm caused by synthetic
expected positive concerns over synthetic dyes like high dyes (Glover and Pierce 1993). In contrast to synthetic dyes,
biodegradability, antibacterial, non-harmful, eco-friendly natural dyes create incredibly rare, calming, and delicate
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583 47561

Table 1  List of plants used for natural dyeing/printing

Natural source Biological name/family Part used Chemical compounds Refs.

Onion Allium cepa Onion skin Pelargonidin (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
Marigold Tagetes erecta Linn Flower Lutein (Agarwal et al. 2007)
Aloe vera Aloe barbadensis Leaf Chrysammic acid (Joshi et al. 2009)
Jackfruit Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam Wood Morin (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
Red cedar Cedrela toona Roxb Flower Coumarin (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
Pseudoacacia (Acacia catechu Willd.)/ Catechin Gum (Klaichoi et al. 2014)
Fabaceae
Amla Emblica officinalis Gaerth./ Fruit Emblicanin (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
Euphorbiaceae
Harmal Peganum harmala Seed Harmine (Joshi et al. 2007, 2009)
Dhataki Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Flower Pelargonidin 3,5-diglucoside (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
Kurz./Lythraceae
Arjun Terminalia arjuna Bark (Arjunone) tannine, flavo- (Kumar et al. 2018; Adeel et al.
noids 2018, 2019)
Haldi Curcuma longa Linn./Zingib- Ryzomes Curcumin (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
eraceae
Vachaniya Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels./ Fruit Cyanidin (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
Menispermacea
Chamomile Matricaria recutita Leaf Flavonoids, terpenoids, (Sadeghi-Kiakhani et al. 2017)
lactones
Negro coffee Cassia occidenta- Seed Tannins + flavonols (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
lis L./Caesalpinaceae
Bixa orellana Bixa orellana Linn Seed Bixin (Srineeraja 2017; Siva 2007)
Kamala tree Mallotus philippiensis Muell./ Fruit Rottlerin (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
Euphorbiaceae
Tendu Diospyros melanoxylon Bark Lignans (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
Buch.-Ham./Ebenaceae
Chinaberry tree Melia azedarach/Meliaceae Fruit - (Abdelslam et al. 2020)
Ash Fraxinus Bark Flavonoids (Bechtold et al. 2007)
Jamun Syzygium cumuni (L.) Skeels Fruit Delphinidin
Pomegranate fruit peel Punica granatum Peel Tannin, flavonoids (Davulcu et al. 2014)
Punica granatum Linn./Puni- Fruit Cyanidin-3-glucoside (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
aceae
Henna Lawsonia inermis Leaf, root and seed Lawsone (Mahesh 2011; Hasan et al.
2015)
Avlai Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb./ Bark Luteolin + quercetin (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
Caesalpiniaceae
Madder Rubia cordifolia Root and stem Purpurin (Yusuf et al. 2016)
Silver wattle Acacia dealbata Link/ Bark Chalcone (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
Mimosaceae
Cutch Acacia catechu Wood Tannin and flavonols (Pandit et al. 2021b)
Holly hock Althea rosea Cav/Malvaceae Flower Anthocyanin
Babul Acacia nilotica Linn/ Flower Kaempferol (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
Mimosaceae
Prickly chaff flower Achyranthes aspera Flower Tannin (Joshi et al. 2009)
Bael fruit Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr./ Fruit Marmelosin (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
Rutaceae
Guajava Psidium guajava Leaf Flavonoids and tannin (Narayanaswamy et al. 2013;
Choudhury et al. 2017; Olo-
node et al. 2018)
Bastard teak, Bengal kino Caesalpinia sappan L./Cae- Bark Brazilin (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
salpinaceae
Vajradanti Barleria prionitis L./Acan- Flower Barlerin (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
thaceae
47562 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583

Table 1  (continued)
Natural source Biological name/family Part used Chemical compounds Refs.

Semal Bombax ceiba Linn./Bomba- Flower β-sitosterol (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
caeae
Banberry grape wort Actaea spicata L./Ranuncu- Seed Triterpene (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
laceae
Kachner Bauhnia purpurea Linn/Cae- Flower Astragalin (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
salpiniaceae
Flame of the forest Butea monosperma (Lam) Flower Butrin (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
Taubert/Papilonaceae
Dimorphandra mollis Dimorphandra mollis Benth Seed and leaf Flavonoids (Kumar and Choudhury 2018;
Kumar et al. 2018)
Logwood Haematoxylum campechi- Leaf Haematoxylin or hematoxylin (Bronzato et al. 2016; Azeem
anum et al. 2019)
Mahua Madhuca longifilia Leaves Myricetin (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
Adalsa Adathoda vasica Nees./Acan- Leaf Vasicine (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
thaceae
Clove Syzygium aromaticum Fruit Eugenol (Sarkar et al. 2003)
Pan Arnebia benthamii (Wall. ex Underground parts Shikonin (Siva 2007; Yadav et al. 2023)
G. Don)/Boraginaceae
Turmeric Curcuma longa and Curcuma Rhizome Curcuminoid (Han and Yang 2005; Zemljič
aromatica et al. 2014)
Neem Azadirachta indica Bark, seed, leaf Nimbin (Chopra et al. 1952; Joshi et al.
2007, 2010)
Coconut Cocos nucifera Coir Tannin (Gupta and Bhaumik 2007;
Kumar Gupta 2020; Adeel
et al. 2021)
Tulsi Ocimum tenuiflorum Leaf and stem Oleanolic acid (Sarkar et al. 2003; Vankar
et al. 2007)

shades. On the contrary, synthetic dyes are easily accessible, Aqueous extraction
inexpensive, and yield numerous colors; however, some of
them may also cause skin irritation, environmental contami- Natural colors can be extracted by a well-known method,
nation, and other dangers to the body. Table 2 represents a namely aqueous extraction. Aqueous extraction is a tradi-
comparison of natural dyes over synthetic dyes. The use of tional method which is mostly famous in textile dyeing and
natural dyes is not limited to textile dyeing and printing; it printing. The extraction method can be addressed here for
is also capturing the fields of coloration of food, cosmet- understanding the preparatory process of natural color from
ics, pharmaceuticals, dye synthesized solar cells, histologi- natural sources. The aqueous extraction method is catego-
cal staining, moth proof, and insect repellent goods (Repon rized into five steps in this study. At first, raw materials (a
et al. 2023). small portion of plant) are collected from natural sources
and then washed and dried. The next step is to prepare
it into fine powder form. After that, the powder form is
Extraction methods of natural dyes immersed in water and boiled as per the desired tempera-
ture. Then, it needs to be filtered to get the aqueous color
Extraction refers to the collection of coloring substances solution. It should be remembered that there are some sen-
from natural sources for the purpose of dyeing or printing sitive parameters like raw material, temperature, time, and
textile materials. It is an essential stage to collect natural material-to-liquor ratio that are very essential to control in
dyes for the preparation of printing. Generally, natural colors this extraction method. It is recommended that the powder
are extracted from the parts of roots, berries, petals, bark, form of natural color should be boiled with water at 100 °C
leaves, flowers, seeds, fruit, and wood. Only the desired col- (Maryam et al. 2019). In some cases, the solvent (water)
oring material needs to be extracted since natural colors can is evaporated by heating, and the natural dye powder is
also be found in lipids, fats, lipid products, proteins, and obtained. Figure 3 depicts the aqueous extraction proce-
many other body elements (Iqbal and Ansari 2021b). dure of natural color.
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583 47563

Table 2  Comparison of natural and synthetic dyes (Iqbal and Ansari 2021a; Repon et al. 2023)
Factors Synthetic dyes Natural dyes

Availability As these dyes are generated from chemical compounds, it is There are huge sources of natural dyes in nature
not available in nature
Eco-friendly As synthetic dyes are produced from chemical compounds, Natural dyes are extracted from natural sources; they exhibit
they are not eco-friendly more eco-friendly characteristics than synthetic dyes
Collection It is easy to produce synthetic dyes on a large scale It is difficult to collect natural dyes on a large scale
Renewable It is difficult to replace with other chemical compounds It can be replaced by other natural materials
Sustainability Less sustainable than natural dyes More sustainable compared to synthetic dyes
Biodegradable Difficulties appeared to decompose this dye Microorganisms can degrade these colored substances
Shade creation It is possible to recreate a shade after dyeing with synthetic It is hard to regenerate shades here
dyes
Waste material Agricultural waste materials cannot be used in dyeing with The dyeing procedure with natural dyes can make use of a
synthetic dyes variety of agricultural byproducts
Price It is more costly than natural dyes Less costly than synthetic dyes
Consistent recipe Consistent recipe can be achieved easily Difficult to make a consistent recipe in natural dyes
Application Some problems arise during the application of textile materi- Application of natural dyes is easy for textile materials
als
Process time The whole process of dye collection to dyeing takes less time It takes a large scale of time from collection to dyeing
than natural dye
Shade creation It is possible to recreate a shade after dyeing with synthetic It is hard to regenerate shades here
dyes
Fading properties It is difficult to fade colors from the fabric surface Sometimes, it may fade easily from the fabric surface
Protection It is less protective than natural dyes Some natural dyes show excellent properties including UV
protective, anti-bacterial, insect repellent, anti-allergic,
moth proof, and repellent
Additional cost Additional cost is required for synthetic dyes Comparatively less amount of additional cost is required for
natural dyes
Disposal Difficulties are raised during the disposal system There are no disposal issues
Toxicity It is more harmful to both the human body and the environ- It is less harmful over synthetic dyes
ment

Fig. 3  Graphical representation

of aqueous extraction method
47564 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583

Alkaline extraction Solvent extraction

Alkaline extraction is also used for natural dye collection Solubility is an essential parameter of natural color in terms
from plants. The collected plant parts are boiled in water of solvent extraction methods. This method is considered
by adding 0.1% NaOH solution at the optimum temperature more effective and efficient than the aqueous extraction
and time. As most of the natural dyes are made with gly- method. Figure 5 depicts the steps of the solvent extrac-
coside compounds, they can be hydrolyzed under alkaline tion method of natural color. There are two ways of solvent
conditions. It should be noted that an improper pH level extraction that can alternative each other. Natural color can
can damage the dyeing properties of the natural dye (Iqbal be extracted by adding different organic solvents (ethanol,
and Ansari 2021b). Moreover, extraction temperature also acetone, chloroform, methanol, petroleum ether) or a mix-
greatly affects the color strength. For example, natural dye ture of solvents (a mixture of water and alcohol, methanol,
extraction from henna leaves by alkali extraction showed and ethanol) (Iqbal and Ansari 2021b). The mixture of water
that extraction temperature at 90 °C exhibited the highest and alcohol is more suitable for the extraction of water-
color strength (Ali et al. 2009). Figure 4 illustrates the alka- soluble and water-insoluble natural substances. As using a
line extraction steps of natural color. solvent is removed easily, it shows easy simple purification
of natural colors from natural sources (Shahin et al. 2022).
Acid extraction However, there is a harmful possibility of solvent extraction
that can create a greenhouse effect by remaining residual
Acid extraction method for collecting natural color solvent after extraction.
from natural sources is similar to the alkaline extraction
method. Alkaline extraction is done under an alkaline Enzymatic extraction
medium whereas acid extraction is addressed under an
acidic medium by adding HCl into water (Samanta and Enzymatic extraction is a well-known natural color extrac-
Agarwal 2009). Furthermore, acetic acid can also be used tion method. Generally, this extraction method takes more
to extract natural dyes. Weak acid for the extraction of stages to complete the extraction. There are some enzymes
natural dyes is used for those plants that have glycoside which mostly used for natural color extraction. The most
linkage in their structure (Salauddin et al. 2021a). This used commercial enzymes are cellulase, amylase, and pec-
extraction process produces the highest yield of color tinase which loosen the binding material present in the nat-
due to the hydrolysis of glycoside (Samanta and Agarwal ural coloring part including leaves, seeds, petals, flowers,
2009; Salauddin et al. 2021b). fruit, wood bark, berries, roots, or any hard part of the plant

Fig. 4  Alkaline extraction

procedure of natural dye
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583 47565

Fig. 5  Graphical representation

of solvent extraction method

(Chungkrang et al. 2021) (Shahin et al. 2022). Enzymatic vacuum evaporation are done to collect the dried powder of
extraction may follow some steps for collecting the natural natural color. Thus, natural color is extracted from natural
color from natural sources. At first, the collected natural sources in dried powder form. Figure 6 shows the whole
parts are treated by spraying a 2% solution of enzymes for stages of enzymatic extraction method.
better soaking, and then it is left for one night. Then, the Fermentation extraction technique may also be used
treated material is washed with distilled water. After that, for natural color extraction. Basically, microorganisms
the treated material is put into a conical flask with the nec- are used in the fermentation extraction method. However,
essary amount of water, and then 2% ­Na2CO3 solution is there are some selective enzymes that may boost extrac-
poured over it to keep an optimal pH level. Then, the coni- tion rates, speed up the release of significant components,
cal flask is shaken by using an orbital shaker at the required and slightly break down plant tissues (Salauddin et al.
rpm, time, and temperature. Finally, vacuum filtration and 2021b). The fermentation process uses enzymes generated

Fig. 6  Graphical expression of

enzymatic extraction
47566 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583

by microorganisms in the surroundings or those found in extraction is an efficient and environmentally friendly method
natural resources to aid in the extraction process (Iqbal and for extracting natural color compounds from plant materi-
Ansari 2021b). Fermentation extraction has been used to als. It offers several advantages, including shorter extraction
extract the color from the seeds of annatto, indigo, and tur- times, reduced solvent consumption, and improved extrac-
meric (Chungkrang et al. 2021). Besides, this technique is tion yields. Figure 7 illustrates the graphical expression of
suitable for the extraction of color from other plants. This ultrasound-assisted extraction technique of natural color.
technique has some drawbacks, including the need for a lot
of time, a bad smell brought on by microbial activity, and the Microwave‑assisted extraction
need to extract color right away after collecting.
Natural dye is extracted using microwave energy where
Ultrasound‑assisted extraction a tiny amount of solvent is used for extraction (Iqbal and
Ansari 2021b). This method leverages microwave energy
Natural color can be extracted by ultrasound-assisted extrac- to heat the extraction solvent and accelerate the extraction
tion (Iqbal and Ansari 2021a). The process by which the tar- process. Microwave-assisted extraction is a faster technique
get substances are extracted from different parts of natural that extracts natural color within a short time. It enhances
plants using solvents and sonic energy is called ultrasound- the rate of processing and is able to extract a better yield.
assisted extraction (Shahin et al. 2022). This method utilizes The powder form of natural sources is boiled with solvent
ultrasound waves to enhance the extraction process by dis- in a beaker by adding NaOH (2%) (Adeel et al. 2020). After
rupting plant cell structures and facilitating the release of boiling, this solution is placed into a microwave machine
color compounds. Powder forms of natural sources is pre- for microwave treatment. After completing the microwave
pared and then mixed with water in a beaker (Tiwari et al. treatment, the solution is filtered by vacuum filtration and
2010). Then, the required pH level is achieved using ­Na2CO3 finally collected the natural color in liquid form. Microwave-
and NaOH (2%) in the mixing solution, respectively. After assisted extraction is a powerful and efficient technique for
that, the beaker is immersed in an ultrasonic bath where the extracting natural color compounds from plant materials. It
working frequency and power level should be controlled offers advantages such as reduced extraction time, improved
as required. When the mixture is ultra-sonicated, time and yield, and controlled extraction conditions. However, it is
temperature should be controlled using hot water and ice important to carefully monitor and control the temperature
cubes. Centrifugal machine is used to remove suspension to prevent overheating and degradation of sensitive color
from the solution. Finally, vacuum filtration and evaporation compounds. Figure 8 shows all stages of the microwave-
are applied to collect dried natural dye. Ultrasound-assisted assisted extraction technique.

Fig. 7  Steps of ultrasound-

assisted extraction technique
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583 47567

Fig. 8  Graphical representation

of microwave-assisted extrac-
tion technique

Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) compounds: alkaloids, terpenes, and curcumin; cannabi-
noids: cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol) from plants
The supercritical fluid extraction technique is a well-known (Abou Elmaaty et al. 2022). In comparison to conventional
extraction technique to extract chemical compounds from extraction techniques, this technique is more environmen-
natural sources. Although supercritical fluid (SCF) is the tally friendly (Ae et al. 2016; Shukla et al. 2019; Uwineza
most difficult process, it has the positive aspects of both liq- and Waśkiewicz 2020). Environmental contamination and
uids and gases, including high density and viscosity, lower residual solvent pollution are nonexistent here (Salauddin
surface tension, and greater solubility, all of which improve et al. 2021b). In supercritical fluid extraction, a dense gas is
quickly with pressure (Salauddin et al. 2021b). Basically, commonly utilized as a solvent that includes carbon dioxide
this technique is used to extract certain compounds (essential above the extraction-critical temperatures and pressures of
oils: lavender oil, peppermint oil, and citrus oils; bioactive 31 °C and 74 bar, respectively (Mansour 2018). SFE can be

Fig. 9  Technical diagram of

supercritical fluid extraction
technique
47568 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583

applied in two ways called laboratory-scale extraction and (flask) and began mixing with the clean solvent. The device
commercial-scale extraction. Figure 9 illustrates the SFE continues to work for the required time after the thimble is
technique for both laboratory and commercial-scale extrac- exhausted due to the suction action (Naveed et al. 2020). A
tion. The SFE is based on the solvating characteristics of an rotary evaporator is used to further purify the extracted pig-
SCF, which is produced by adding pressure and temperature ment after it has been filtered through filter paper.
above a substance’s critical point. Each substance shows its
own critical point (Sharif et al. 2014). In the SFE technique,
there are some parameters (pressure, temperature, extrac- Printing methods
tion time, and related factors) that influence the features and
chemical composition of the extracted materials (Kulazynski Printing is one of the most well-known coloring techniques
et al. 2016). applied to textile fabrics to create localized color and design/
effect. Block printing, screen printing, flat screen printing,
Soxhlet extraction rotary screen printing, and inkjet printing are some of the
methods used throughout the printing process to transfer
Soxhlet extraction is one of the most famous techniques for the dye component that is normally added to the printing
the extraction of natural color from plant parts. Earlier than paste to the fabric surface. Then, the fabrics proceed to the
the start of the twentieth century, the Soxhlet extraction fixation stage. The type of fiber and the printing procedure
method was developed (Shahin et al. 2022). This technology are different depending on the type of dye substance applied
has been developed to decrease waste production and boost (Yıldırım et al. 2020). The major key to effective and better
the extraction process’ environmental friendliness. Natural printing performance depends on the printing paste, techni-
color from plant-based sources is extracted using a Soxhlet cal, and fixation parameters. When preparing printing paste,
apparatus. Figure 10 represents a technical diagram of the natural substances may be used. Prior to the development of
Soxhlet extraction technique. Experimentally, the extractor synthetic dyes, printing was carried out with natural dyes.
thimble of an instrument is filled with the plant powder. The
solvents are heated to the desired temperature in a round- Block printing
bottom flask with a liquor ratio of 1:40 (Naveed et al. 2020).
In the condenser, the vapors rise above the top of the conduit Block printing is a manual printing method that is consid-
after passing through it. After the condensed vapors fell into ered first as the ancient art of textile printing. This printing
the thimble, the extracted substance returned to the container method is still used to generate a specific design or effect on
the textile materials in the garments industry. It can gener-
ate a distinctive design or effect on every piece of textile
goods that sets it apart from the others. In the fourteenth
century, wood blocks were undoubtedly applied for print-
ing in France, Italy, and Germany, and skilled printmak-
ers substituted mineral pigments for dyes (Yıldırım et al.
2020). The first recorded usage of blocks in Europe was in
the manufacture of cliché wallpaper goods, which are incred-
ibly expensive knockoffs of tapestries and fabrics made of
glazed brocade. However, this printing method is very easy
to apply on the fabric surface. In the block printing method,
there are some basic needs including printing paste (pre-
pared from natural dyes), wood block, raw fabric, and print-
ing table. The printing paste is put on the design surface of
the block prior to pressing it onto the fabric, and it is pressed
firmly and constantly on the fabric, generating a strong print
by deftly striking it on the back with a wood-based striker
(Haggag et al. 2013). The pattern would generate the image
as a mirror image.
Some of the original blocks were carved from wood using
an engraving tool called a xylography machine, while others
were made of clay or terracotta (Thalouth et al. 2012). When
Fig. 10  Technical diagram of Soxhlet technique used for natural color a design uses several colors, it is common practice to print
extraction the fabric with the first color first, let it dry, and then print
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583 47569

Fig. 11  Block printing method

with the second color. This process is repeated until all the squeegee is pushed through the template’s open spaces once
colors have been printed. In order to place the blocks pre- the template has been prepared to begin printing. A rubber
cisely where they are needed, the block printing employee or rubber supporter with a metal or wooden support within
must possess a high level of ability. Figure 11 depicts a block is dragged down steadily along the template at a steady angle
printing method (MasterClass 2022). and pressure (Miles 2013). By securing the template to a
carrier and automatically advancing the squeegee through
Screen printing the template, the manual procedure is somewhat automated
(Miles 2013). In screen printing, a pattern image/design is
Screen printing is one of the most well-known printing printed on the surface of the desired fabric. Printing paste is
methods used in the textile manufacturing industry. Basi- placed on the templated screen (polyester/nylon/silk), and
cally, the Japanese developed a sophisticated art for printing then the whole screen frame is placed on the fabric where
fabrics using the screen-printing technique, which was origi- the image/design will be printed. After that, the squeegee is
nally utilized for basic patterns and writings on walls (Miles done repeatedly until the image/design is fully printed on the
2013; Shang 2013). The stencils were bound with human desired fabric surface. Figure 12 exhibits the mechanism of
hair or silk threads when the Japanese invented the stencil a screen-printing method.
technique for textile printing. In the nineteenth century, this
technique for printing cloth became popular well outside Flat screen printing
of Japan (Miles 2013). The first silk gauze was used as a
substrate for templates in Lyon in 1850; this method ulti- Flat screen-printing method is one kind of printing technique
mately came to be referred to as template printing. Between where the screen frame and desired fabric are flat. In this
1930 and 1954, as the usage of knitted fabrics and man- printing method, a printing table, a screen frame, a squeegee,
made fibers increased, hand stencil printing, as well as other a printing paste, and the desired fabric are used for printing
printing techniques grew in popularity and became the best purposes. The printing paste is applied to the screen with
method for these fibers. Template printing is a technique that a squeegee. The paste is pulled into contact with the cloth
uses stretched support cloth attached to a frame to produce by wiping the screen (Lacasse and Baumann 2004). In this
the best printing results possible (Miles 2013). The photo- printing process, the size of the frame limits the printed pic-
sensitive coating is applied to the template fabric after the ture. There are different operating modes for the machines,
materials have been stretched to suit the template, and it is including fully automatic, semi-automatic, and manual
then given time to dry in a dark place. Next, patterns are cut (Lacasse and Baumann 2004). Flat screen printing uses a
out of black paper and placed in places where light is unde- long table with the fabric spread out on top of the printing
sirable. Then, the template is subjected to light before being blanket. This blanket is often constructed of cotton/polyester
cleaned in warm water right away. It is crucial that this wash fabric that has been covered in neoprene rubber to make
takes no more than 3–4 min. A flexible and synthetic rubber it waterproof. To prevent printing distortion if the fabric
47570 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583

Fig. 12  Screen-printing method

(Sunrise Metal 2019)

Fig. 13  Flat screen printing

moves, it is either sewn to the printing blanket or adhered to

it using a thermoplastic adhesive or water-based glue. The
paste is then applied to the fabric using the screens after they
have been lowered (Ragab et al. 2022). The printed material
moves on to the next frame after each application, drying
out and being prepared for fixation by the time it reaches the
final frame (Lacasse and Baumann 2004). When printing is
finished, the fabric and printing blanket are separate. To get
rid of any gum and color paste that has gotten past the blan-
ket’s edges or through the fabric, it is washed (Broadbent
2001). Figure 13 indicates the flat screen printing.

Rotary screen printing Fig. 14  Rotary screen printing (El-Kashouti et al. 2019)

Rotary screen printing is the most well-known printing

method, in which rotary cylinder elements are used for supplied from the color reservoir to the cylindrical mecha-
printing. The mechanism of this printing method is similar nism for doing desired printing on the fabric. Each cylinder
to the flat screen printing method. But, in the rotary screen- roller contains a different color from the color reservoir. The
printing method, lightweight metal foil screens made of glue and washing machines that were mentioned earlier for
stainless steel or nickel are used to transfer the color to the flatscreen printing are also included with rotary-screen print-
cloth (Purushothama 2019). These screens are shaped like ing machines. The paste and adhesive residue are removed
cylinder rollers. The rotary screen printing mechanism is from the belt by washing it. Each time the color is changed,
shown in Fig. 14 where fabric moves under a continuously the belt must also be cleaned, as well as the screens and
moving series of cylinder screens, the printing paste being input devices using paste (Lacasse and Baumann 2004).
mechanically injected into the screen’s interior from a tank The rotary printing method uses a system where the pres-
and forced through onto the fabric at each location (Hag- sure element and printing plate are both cylinders that rotate
gag et al. 2013; El-Kashouti et al. 2019). Printing paste is simultaneously. The printing plate’s cylindrical interior and
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583 47571

exterior are both filled with ink (Carr 1995). Because of dye (or pigment), a solvent (water), and a number of other
its versatility and the development of rotary screen print- components (such as salt, binder for pigment ink, and sur-
ing technology, this type of printing has seen a significant factant) (Shang 2013). Yellow, magenta, cyan, and black are
increase in popularity in recent years (Kašiković et al. 2016). the four fundamental colors used in digital printing, which
The most significant drawback is that it is not cost-effective, creates new challenges for textile color mixing (El-Kash-
and it is very difficult to get orders for the same design if outi et al. 2019). Ink-jet printing for textile applications has
sales are low, and we frequently need to change it. recently attracted increasing interest (Javoršek and Javoršek
2011; Haggag et al. 2013). The advantages of ink-jet print-
Inkjet printing ing include its quickness, adaptability, innovation, cleanli-
ness, competitiveness, and environmental friendliness (Shah
A digital printing technique called ink-jet printing enables et al. 2021). Traditional textile printing uses a printing paste
printing on various textile substrates without coming into that combines colors and printing chemicals. Digital ink-
contact with the substrate or the ink (Javoršek and Javoršek jet printing on textiles requires the preparation of a print-
2011). One of the most fascinating technological advance- ing medium because the specifications for ink purity and
ments in the industrial and textile industries is digital print- particular conductivity for this type of printing prohibit the
ing. Digital textile printing has outstanding print fastness direct addition of typical printing chemicals like alkali, urea,
and can reproduce an endless variety of colors and hues and sodium alginate to the ink formulation. Pigment-based
(Javoršek and Javoršek 2011; Purushothama 2019). A wide inks and dye-based inks are frequently used to categorize
range of industries, especially the textile industry, use inkjet inks for fabric printing (Li et al. 2023). Printing with pig-
printing technology because it uses digital control and a non- ment-based ink enhances the fabric’s wash and lightfastness
contact printing approach, which makes the process simple, compared to dye-based ink printing. Most importantly, it
rapid, and uses less material (Shah et al. 2021). Figure 15 is environmentally beneficial by conserving electricity and
depicts an inkjet printing technology used in the textile man- water.
ufacturing industry. When printing with an inkjet print head,
small dye droplets are applied to the fabric (Purushothama
2019; Shah et al. 2021). The print system software interprets Printing of textile materials with natural
the data from the digital image file to control the inkjet’s dyes
specific color, ink volume, and placement of the microdro-
plets (El-Kashouti et al. 2019). The information needed to For eco-friendly printing of textile materials with natural
control the droplet output and produce consistent, high-qual- dyes, most of the dyes are obtained from various parts of
ity images is contained in the digital image file (Kašiković plants, such as roots, flowers, bark, leaves, fruits, and so
et al. 2016; Purushothama 2019). Cotton, bamboo, and silk forth (Sasivatchutikool and Nakpathom 2019). These plant
fabric sheets that have been carefully prepared are among the parts contain different phytochemicals which may be respon-
materials used for inkjet printing (Purushothama 2019). The sible for the coloration of fabric. For example, plant species
quality of printing is greatly influenced by color ink, which that generate indigo dyes contain glucoside indican which is
is a crucial part of ink-jet printing technology. Because of oxidized to form indigo blue, the main coloring factor of fab-
this, printing inks varied as printer technology advanced ric (Tayade and Adivarekar 2014). The use of natural dyes
(Javoršek and Javoršek 2011). Jetting ink is made up of a extracted from different plant sources in printing involves
the subsequent stages: surface modification of fabric, pre-
paring the printing paste, the printing of fabric by various
printing techniques, fixing the dye molecules by steaming,
and washing.
As the first step of the printing procedure, surface
modification of fabric is very important. It has been con-
sidered that natural dyes possess lower color strength and
fastness properties while used on the fabric, although the
eco-friendly nature of natural dyes increases its demand
in textile industries (Adeel et al. 2017). Surface modifi-
cation can overcome these flaws. Because surface modi-
fication can increase the dye affinity towards the fabric
which increases the color strength. In the case of surface
preparation, scouring and bleaching are the commonly used
Fig. 15  Inkjet printing/digital printing (Mondal 2018) techniques. Moreover, other techniques, such as plasma
47572 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583

treatment (Haji et al. 2015), enzyme treatment (Nguyen Printing of cotton fabric
et al. 2017), gamma radiations (Usman et al. 2016), cati-
onization (Haddar et al. 2018), and so on, are used as sur- Cotton, the most often used natural fiber, is being extensively
face modification techniques to enhance the dye affinity for researched for its appropriateness in printing with a variety
higher color strength and fastness properties. Besides these of natural dyes. Before printing, cotton fabric is chemically
different surface modification processes, mordanting of the pretreated in order to enhance the color strength and color
printed fabric, either post-mordanting or pre-mordanting, fastness properties (Hassabo et al. 2023a). For instance,
not only enhances the adherence of dye molecules towards Mondal et al. scoured and bleached the single jersey cotton
the fabric but also ensures a certain shade of the printed knit fabric in order to enhance the absorption of printing
fabric (Singh et al. 2021). After the surface modification of chemicals. Three distinct natural dyes—tamarind seed husk,
the fabric, preparing the printing paste is necessary which rose flower, and teak leaf—as well as three natural thicken-
requires dyestuffs, thickener, water, and other auxiliaries. ers—tamarind seed, mango seed, and guar gum—were used
The viscosity of the printing paste with the right concen- to print on the bleached fabric. Such printed fabric exhibited
tration of the thickening agent may have an impact on the excellent wash fastness, light fastness, and rubbing fastness
color strength attributes of the fabric, making thickeners an properties (Mondal et al. 2022). Similarly, the scoured cot-
important component of printing paste. Higher viscosity of ton woven fabric printed with indigo dye and carboxymethyl
the printing paste may hinder the release of dye molecules starch as a natural dye and thickener respectively, showed
towards the fabric which may reduce the color strength of strong hydrogen bonding between dye molecules and fibers,
the fabric (Mongkholrattanasit et al. 2022). After surface for which very good ratings (4–5) of fastness for the color
modification and the preparation of printing paste, differ- change and staining to acid and alkali perspiration were
ent printing techniques can be applied to color the fabric obtained (Mongkholrattanasit et al. 2022).
which is subsequently steamed and washed to obtain the Apart from the scouring and bleaching process, it has
desired printed fabric. In Tables 3 and 4, different printing also been found in a study that a cationic modification
techniques and the printing performance are mentioned for was performed on cotton fabric in order to enhance the
a comprehensive understanding. dye affinity towards the fabric before inkjet printing of
natural dye, extracted from sarsaparilla root (Wang et al.
Printing of natural fiber 2022b). After inkjet printing, a post-mordant treatment
was also conducted for increasing the color fastness prop-
Printing on natural fibers is a common practice in the textile erties. The peak at 1439 ­cm−1, from ATR-FTIR analysis,
industry, and it involves applying colored patterns or designs determined the quaternary ammonium group, showing the
onto textiles made from natural fibers such as cotton, wool, grafting of the cationic modifier on the cotton fabric’s
silk, and jute. surface (Wang et al. 2022b). Moreover, the peak at 2901

Table 3  Summary of printing textile materials with natural dyes

Natural dye source Textile material Printing technique Fixation/curing Ref.

Annatto, Manjistha, Ratan jot Jute fabric Screen Steaming at 100 °C (Chattopadhyay and Pan 2019)
Alkanet, Rhubarb Wool, silk, cotton, flax Flat-screen Steaming at 130 °C (Rekaby et al. 2009)
Sarsaparilla root Cotton Inkjet Steaming under saturated (Wang et al. 2022b)
steam for 15 min
Indigo plant leaves Knitted cotton, woven cotton Screen Dried by hot air (Mongkholrattanasit et al. 2022)
Tamarind seed husk, rose Cotton Screen Cured at 105 °C (Mondal et al. 2022)
flower, teak leaf
Curcuma tinctoria (turmeric), Cotton, viscose Screen Thermo-fixation at 155 °C (Raza et al. 2021)
Beta vulgaris (beet) roots,
and Lawsonia alba (henna)
leaves
Annatto Cotton Discharge, inkjet Thermo-fixation at 150 °C (Savvidis et al. 2013)
Juglans regia Wool Screen Steaming at 105 °C (Glogar et al. 2020)
Henna leaves Wool Screen Thermo-fixation at 150 °C (Hakeim et al. 2003)
Curcumin Wool, polyamide and silk Inkjet Heating in oven at 150 °C (Zhou et al. 2019)
Butea monosperma flower Silk Screen Steaming at 125 °C (Babel and Gupta 2015)
Curcuma tinctoria Polyester Screen Thermo-fixation at 160 °C (Abdou et al. 2013)
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583 47573

Table 4  Summary of printing performance of textile materials with natural dyes

Textile materials Natural dye Thickener Mordant Color strength Rubbing Lightfastness Refs.
sources fastness
Dry Wet

Wool Juglans regia British gum Ferrous sulfate - 4 4 7 (Glogar et al. 2020)
No mordant - 4 3/4 6
Wool Lawsone - Copper sulfate 4−5 3−4 3 - (Abou-Okeil and
Hakeim 2005)
Wool Henna leaves CMC Copper sulfate 5.29 4 3 3−4 (Hakeim et al.
Ferrous sulfate 5.89 3−4 2−3 3−4 2003)
Aluminum sulfate 4.05 4−5 3 3−4
Silk Butea mono- Mango kernel FeSO4 - 5 5 7 (Babel and Gupta
sperma flower gum CuSO4 5 5 7 2015)
Cassia seed gum FeSO4 - 5 4/5 7
CuSO4 5 4/5 7
Knitted cotton Indigo plant Carboxymethyl - - 3−4 3 5 (Mongkholrattana-
Woven cotton leaves starch 3−4 3 5 sit et al. 2022)
Cotton Sarsaparilla root - No mordant 6.14 3−4 3 2 (Wang et al. 2022b)
Fe2 + based 7.49 4 4 3−4
Al3 + based 6.58 3−4 3−4 2−3
Bio-mordant 6.87 3−4 3−4 2
Cotton Tamarind seed Tamarind seed - - 4−5 4 7 (Mondal et al.
husk Mango seed 4−5 4 6 2022)
Guar gum 4−5 4 6
Rose flower Tamarind seed - - 4−5 4−5 7
Mango seed 4−5 4 5
Guar gum 4−5 4 6
Teak leaf Tamarind seed - - 4−5 4 6
Mango seed 4−5 4 5
Guar gum 4−5 4 6
Cotton Curcuma tinctoria Chitosan/starch - ~ 1.3 ~ 4.5 ~ 3.5 - (Raza et al. 2021)
(turmeric) blend
Beta vulgaris ~ 0.2 ~ 4.5 ~ 3.7 -
(beet) roots
Lawsonia alba ~ 0.7 ~ 4.5 ~ 3.5 -
(henna) leaves
Viscose Curcuma tinctoria Chitosan/starch ~ 2.4 ~5 ~4 - (Raza et al. 2021)
(turmeric) blend
Beta vulgaris ~ 0.3 ~5 ~4 -
(beet) roots
Lawsonia alba ~ 1.4 ~5 ~4 -
(henna) leaves
Jute Ratan jot Guar gum No mordant 3.36 4−5 4−5 - (Chattopadhyay and
Potash alum 8.36 4−5 4 Pan 2019)
Myrobalan 7.09 5 4−5
Double mordant 15.73 5 4−5
by potash alum
and myrobalan
Jute Ratan jot Sodium alginate No mordant 2.74 4 4−5 - (Chattopadhyay and
Potash alum 3.85 4−5 4−5 Pan 2019)
Myrobalan 6.67 4 4
Double mordant 11.55 4−5 4
by potash alum
and myrobalan
47574 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583

Table 4  (continued)
Textile materials Natural dye Thickener Mordant Color strength Rubbing Lightfastness Refs.
sources fastness
Dry Wet

Jute Ratan jot Gum Arabic No mordant 1.61 4 4 - (Chattopadhyay and

Pan 2019)
Potash alum 1.49 4 4
Myrobalan 6.11 4 4
Double mordant 8.46 4 4−5
by potash alum
and myrobalan
Polyester Curcuma tinctoria Chitosan/starch - 4.97 4−5 4−5 3−4 (Abdou et al. 2013)
Cotton/polyester blend 3.48 4−5 4−5 3−4
Nylon 6 Rhubarb Sodium alginate - - 1−2 3 3 (Maamoun et al.
Turmeric 4 4 2 2007)

[Note: change in color = CC; staining on cotton = CS]

­cm−1 also confirmed the presence of the cationic modi- Printing of wool fabric
fier on the fabric. For the cationic modification, the color
strength (K/S) property increased with increasing the con- Another common natural fiber is wool which is often more
centration of the cationic modifier; since the degree of expensive than cotton. Wool fibers are mostly produced
cationization increased by forming an ionic bond with from animals like sheep’s fleece; therefore, it is known as
the cotton fabric which ensured the fixation of natural dye the protein fiber consisting of α-keratin which has a poly-
on the fabric (Wang et al. 2022b). The cationized cotton peptide chain consisting of amino acids (El Mogahzy 2009;
fabric showed a positive charge, whereas the bleached Varghese and Mittal 2018). Before printing the wool fiber,
fabric showed a negative charge (Glogar et al. 2022). a pretreatment process must be carried out. However, wool
Such characteristics of the cationized cotton fabric can fiber cannot be treated with sodium hydroxide (NaOH), like
ensure higher color strength of the printed fabric than cotton, during the pretreatment process, because wool can
the bleached fabric (Glogar et al. 2022). Apart from the be dissolved by using a NaOH solution (Thakker et al. 2022;
cationization treatment, surface modification with nano- Allam et al. 2022). As a part of pretreatment, sodium car-
particles can also enhance the printing performance as bonate ­(Na2CO3) and hydrogen peroxide (­ H2O2), as scouring
the nanoparticles have a higher surface area which may and bleaching agents respectively, can be used to remove
ensure the affinity of natural dye towards the fabric. Cot- the dirt and natural color of wool fiber (Allam et al. 2022).
ton fabric treatment with ZnO nanoparticles for printing Moreover, chitosan grafting (Varghese and Mittal 2018),
the natural dye, berberine, enhanced the color strength oxygen plasma treatment (Peran et al. 2020), and so on
(K/S value), light fastness, and also wash fastness proper- can be carried out before the printing of natural dyes on
ties (Saad 2021). wool fabric in order to enhance the printing performance.
As natural dyes have low fastness properties, by treat- For example, it has been found in a study that pretreatment
ment with mordants besides the surface modification of of wool fabric by ­H2O2 and papain before inkjet printing
the cotton fabric, the printing performance of the fabric generated more active sites for the adsorption of dyestuffs
can be further improved. Wang et al. treated the printed (Shi et al. 2021). During the pretreatment process, H ­ 2O 2
fabric with metal (­ Fe2+ and ­Al3+) and bio-based (pome- broke the disulfide bonds of keratin protein which provided
granate peel extract) mordants and it was found that non- the possibility to break the amide bonds by papain treat-
mordanted fabric had the lowest color strength property ment. Thus, more active sites were induced that improved
compared with the mordanted fabric. In the case of mor- the printing quality (Shi et al. 2021). Besides the pretreat-
danting, fabric treatment with ­Fe2+ mordant exhibited the ment process, for printing wool fabric, different printing
highest color strength and color fastness properties com- conditions, like dye concentration, pH, types of thicken-
pared with A­ l3+ and bio-based mordant because F­ e2+ dem- ers, mordants, fixation techniques, and so on, are also very
onstrates the highest complex forming ability with the dye important. Hakeim et al. reported the printing of wool fabric
and fabric compared with ­Al3+ and bio-based mordants using henna (2- hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone) as the natural
(Wang et al. 2022b). colorant (Hakeim et al. 2003). They investigated the color
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583 47575

strength properties by considering different types of thick- and Butea monosperma flower as the source of natural dye
eners (carboxymethyl cellulose, sodium alginate, etc.) and (Babel and Gupta 2015). However, before the printing pro-
mordants (copper sulfate, aluminum sulfate, ferrous sulfate), cess, the silk fabric was pretreated with 20% of myrobalan
various dye fixation techniques (steaming, microwave heat- (Terminalia chebula) solution for 24 h (Babel and Gupta
ing, etc.), the effect of dye concentration, and pH (Hakeim 2015). The printed silk fabric demonstrated very good light,
et al. 2003). They found that 0.3% dye concentration, 3% rubbing, wash, and perspiration performance due to the
glycerin, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) thickener, pH 3, proper adsorption of printing paste with the fabric (Babel
and microwave fixation provided the highest color strength and Gupta 2015). In another study, it was found that the
and good fastness properties (Hakeim et al. 2003). In addi- printed silk fabric with curcumin ink via the inkjet printing
tion, in another study, it has also been found that pH 4, with process showed higher color depth than the other printed
a 4% concentration of the thickening agent, 45 min fixation fabric, polyamide, and wool because of better ink penetra-
by steaming, and iron sulfate as the mordant can yield the tion into silk fabric (Zhou et al. 2019).
highest light and wash fastness along with rubbing fastness
in case of printing Juglans regia natural dye on the wool Printing of jute fabric
fabric (Glogar et al. 2020).
For the coloration of wool fabric, extensive research has Another source of natural fiber is jute. Although the research
been carried out on the wool fabric pretreatment process as on printing on jute fabric is limited, researchers are continu-
well as optimizing the printing condition for different natural ously trying to find new sources of natural dyes as well as
dyestuffs. Therefore, some general understandings can be suitable printing conditions for the coloration of jute fabric.
formulated as below: Scouring and bleaching of jute fabric are the most influential
processes of printing jute fabric because it can reduce the
• Raw wool fibers are hydrophobic in nature due to the surface stiffness and rigidity, make the fabric surface soft, as
oxygen ester and thioester bond between the external well increase the wettability for adsorbing the natural dyes
fatty acid layer and the surface of the epicuticle (Zanini (Ibrahim et al. 2011). Chattopadhyay and Pan (2019) colored
et al. 2015; Peran et al. 2020). Therefore, pretreatment the jute fabric by screen printing process where they used
must be carried out; however, sodium hydroxide or three different natural dyes: manjistha, annatto, and ratan jot;
sodium hypochlorite cannot be used for treatment as it two types of mordant: biomordant and chemical mordant;
can degrade the wool fiber. and four different natural thickeners: guar gum, gum arabic,
• Acidic conditions (pH < 7) should be maintained during sodium alginate, and gum indulka. Before the screen print-
the preparation of printing paste in order to get the high- ing, the jute fabric was subjected to bio-scouring, bleaching,
est printing performance. and mordanting in order to make the fabric white, soft, and
• Thickener viscosity must be maintained depending on suitable for printing. Two mordants, myrobalan as the bio-
the dye concentration and mordant. mordant and potash alum as the chemical mordant, were
applied individually and sequentially (double mordanting)
Printing of silk fabric on the jute fabric (Chattopadhyay and Pan 2019). The color
strength and fastness properties in the case of double mor-
Silk fiber is a natural protein fiber produced from the glands danting were better. In addition, guar gum thickener in the
of arthropods, like silkworms, spiders, bees, scorpions, print paste demonstrated the best result in terms of color
and mites (Ahmed et al. 2022). Silk is comprised of two yield as well as fastness properties (Chattopadhyay and Pan
major components: fibroin and sericin; however, sericin 2019).
is removed to obtain the silk fiber which is known as the
degumming process (Varghese and Mittal 2018). The wet Printing of synthetic fiber fabric
processing steps of silk fiber involve degumming, bleaching,
dyeing, and finishing, where the degumming and bleach- Printing on synthetic fibers is a common practice in the
ing processes are responsible for the removal of sericin and textile industry. Synthetic fibers, such as polyester, nylon,
natural color (Patil et al. 2023). In the case of coloration acrylic, and spandex, have different properties than natu-
with natural dye, it is considered that an acidic environment ral fibers, and various printing methods are used to achieve
is needed for silk fabric (Uddin et al. 2022). In addition, desired results.
mordant also plays a significant role in enhancing the color
performance of the silk fabric (Uddin et al. 2022). Babel and Printing of polyester fabric
Gupta followed the screen printing technique by using cop-
per sulfate and ferrous sulfate as the mordants, cassia seed Polyester is a synthetic fabric that is widely used in textile
gum and mango kernel gum as the natural thickening agent, industries for dyeing and printing. It is considered that an
47576 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583

acidic pH medium is the best environment for dyeing polyes- Jeong et al. 2023). Although the use of natural dyes for print-
ter fabric because hydrogen bond is induced which may con- ing the nylon fabric is very limited, the following necessary
tribute to the dye adsorption on the polyester fabric (Uddin steps can improve the printing result of nylon:
et al. 2022) (Baig 2011). However, polyester fabric is hydro-
phobic in nature; therefore, the fabric should be pretreated • As nylon fabric is hydrophobic in nature, using car-
before the coloration because the pretreatment of polyester boxymethyl cellulose or starch on the fabric surface can
fabric can increase the color intensity as well as improve improve the dye adsorption during printing.
the print quality (Ding et al. 2018). Noppakundilograt et al. • Using organic compounds like dimethyl formamide can
(2010) pretreated the polyester fabric with five types of solu- increase the dye diffusion rate into the fabric during
tions, namely chitosan (CH), N-[(4-dimethylaminobenzyl) printing.
imino] chitosan (DBIC), N-[(2-hydroxy-3-trimethylammo- • Mordant should be used during the printing of nylon fab-
nium)propyl] chitosan chloride (HTACC), glycine (Gly), and ric with natural dyes.
a mixture of CH and Gly prior to the printing. It has been
found that the pretreatment of polyester fabric with these
reagents before inkjet printing exhibited much better color Environmental pollution control
yield than the unmodified fabric (Noppakundilograt et al.
2010). In another study, it has been demonstrated that chi- Environmental pollution is a major issue all over the world.
tosan and starch mixtures as thickeners improved the color Environmental pollution is increasing day by day as a result
strength by providing darker colors, which means chitosan of the activities of humans around the world. Humans are
and starch mixtures improved the dye uptake percentage mostly responsible for the pollution of the environment.
(Abdou et al. 2013). The polyester fabric printed with Cur- Basically, most industries drain their wastes into rivers,
cuma tinctoria natural dye by using chitosan and starch mix- lakes, and seas, as well as empty places in the environ-
tures showed improved color strength (5.12) compared with ment. As a result, the environment becomes polluted with
the standard samples. Moreover, the printed polyester fabric these wastes. There are several industries that are mostly
exhibited excellent color fastness to rubbing and washing responsible for environmental pollution. The responsible
(Abdou et al. 2013). industries are chemical, plastic, textile, paper, tissue, alloy,
tannery, cement, paint, pulp industries, and so on. Among
Printing of nylon fabric these industries, chemical dyes are mostly used in the textile
industry for dyeing and printing textile goods. The textile
Nylon is a synthetic fiber consisting of amide groups (Gupta industry uses a lot of water and chemical dyes for several
2013) which possesses higher tensile strength than natural production stages. After using it, they just drain their waste
fibers. The coloration of nylon fabric has generally been into rivers, lakes, and the environment (Wang et al. 2022a).
conducted by acid dyes, although dyeing and printing nylon Thus, environmental pollution takes place regularly. How-
fabric with natural dyes is gaining popularity due to the ever, environmental pollution is mostly caused by the use
environment-friendly process. To ensure the proper fixa- of synthetic dyes in textile industries. If it is possible to
tion of dye molecules, scientists are trying to develop new reduce the use of synthetic dyes in textile industries, then
processes. For instance, to increase the color strength and there will be a chance to minimize environmental pollution.
fastness properties of nylon fabric, three different mordants The discharge of toxins into the natural environment has
(aluminum sulfate, tannic acid, and tin chloride) were used. led to criticism of the utilization of synthetic dyes in both
The using of mordant significantly improved the fastness the printing and dyeing industries. There will undoubtedly
properties because of the formation of complex coordina- be many significant changes in human life at the start of
tion complexes and π- π interactions among the extracted the next century. From this point of view, natural dyes can
compounds, the nylon 6 functional groups, and the mordants minimize the environmental threat of synthetic dyes (Kerkez
(Ebrahimi and Parvinzadeh Gashti 2016). In another study, et al. 2020). A number of these will be the move to natural
it has been found that to print nylon 6 fabric with the natural dyes and their effective utilization in comparison to synthetic
dyes obtained from turmeric and rhubarb plants, a suitable substitutes, which have been steadily losing out due to global
amount of cellulose enzyme was used along with the sodium awareness of environmental and sustainability issues. One
alginate thickener during the storage period of the pastes result of increasing awareness of the environment has been
before printing. Moreover, for increasing the dye adsorption suggestions for the use of natural dyes in textiles. Natural
onto the fabric, benzyl alcohol and dimethyl formamide were dyes draw the attention of scientists and researchers for their
also used (Maamoun et al. 2007). Finally, it has been found positive concern over synthetic dyes in terms of environmen-
that the printed nylon fabric with both natural dyes exhibited tal pollution. The use of natural dyes reduces the pollution
good to very good fastness properties (Maamoun et al. 2007; threat to the environment. Natural dyes are becoming more
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583 47577

popular as they provide a lot of better features over synthetic the fabric have antibacterial qualities that guard the wearer
dyes, like being more eco-friendly, biodegradable, renew- from health problems. However, there are several drawbacks
able, more sustainable, having no disposal problems, and to using natural dyes, such as their high cost, propensity to
having no adverse effects on human health or the environ- fade quickly, limited source availability, poor color, and
ment (Islam et al. 2022). So, the use of natural dyes can help shade sustainability. In contrast, natural dyes are brightly
control pollution threats to the environment (Zhang et al. colored, nontoxic, nonallergic, noncarcinogenic, safer for
2023a; Repon et al. 2023). Besides, the awareness of humans children, eco-friendly, and reduce human dependence on
about the use of chemical dyes is needed for controlling the dangerous items. They also do not create trash because they
pollution of the environment. are extracted from nature. Although natural dyes show sig-
nificant advantages, there are still some areas that need to
be improved from the commercial point of view.
Challenges and future prospects First of all, natural dyes are mainly extracted from natural
sources, onion, henna, leaves, and so forth. Although these
Demands for the use of natural dyes are just one result of natural sources are available in nature, the extraction method
growing environmental consciousness (Chvan 1995). Natu- of dyes from these sources is not still scalable. That is why
ral dyes are pigments extracted from plant, animal, or min- high-yield production of natural dyes is not possible, which
eral sources. However, due to their extremely low toxicity, impedes the industrial production of textile printing. There-
colors derived from plant sources are intriguing. Natural fore, new approaches should be implemented immediately
colors can be extracted from any part of the plant, includ- for industrial production. Secondly, proper color grading
ing the leaves, fruits, seeds, flowers, bark, roots, and so cannot be obtained by using natural dyes. Regarding the
on. The introduction of toxins into the environment has led commercial point of view, there are different color tones
to criticism of the use of synthetic dyestuffs in the dyeing according to the buyer’s requirements. However, achiev-
and printing industries. There will undoubtedly be many ing the required color grade during textile printing is not
significant changes in human life at the start of the new mil- practiced widely. Therefore, synthetic dyes are used in this
lennium (Sale et al. 2013). One of these will be the move case. So proper research should be carried out so that the
away from synthetic dyes, which have been steadily losing required color tone can be obtained. Thirdly, color fastness
ground due to increased global awareness of the need to to wash, color fastness to light, and color fastness to rubbing
preserve the environment and ecology and toward natural are sometimes difficult to achieve regarding printing with
dyes and their effective use. Craft dyes and printers have natural colorants without mordanting. However, synthetic
historically been the only industries that use natural dyes mordants are widely used in maintaining fastness proper-
to color textiles. In recent times, there has been an increase ties. Using synthetic mordants is harmful to human beings.
in interest in using these dyes, and a small number of com- Therefore, new research should be carried out to find alterna-
mercial dyes and small businesses have been exploring the tives to synthetic mordants. The significance of natural dyes
potential of applying natural dyes for printing and dyeing is due to their practical applications, aesthetic satisfaction,
textiles (Sale et al. 2013). Natural dyes are less harmful, and safety, which require us to popularize them in society.
non-polluting, and pose fewer health risks. They are also Natural dyes will encourage us to value our relationship with
vivid, have unique color ideas, and cause fewer allergic nature and acknowledge its significance in our daily lives.
reactions. On the contrary, synthetic dyes pose a threat to Cost-effective manufacturing and dyeing will undoubtedly
the health of the environment and all living things when be achievable in the future to support the needs of exten-
used in the textile industry and other industries (Iqbal and sive trade and commerce with the help of organized planta-
Ansari 2021b). As a result, it is essential to use natural dyes tions and farming (Iqbal and Ansari 2021a). Therefore, the
extensively in order to counteract the harmful effects of syn- usage, applications, and popularization of natural dyes may
thetic dyes. However, natural dyes have the benefit of being be a strategy to protect our environment and fulfill nature’s
extracted from natural sources, making them appealing to requirements.
customers and not detrimental to the environment. Natural
dyes do not affect the environment because they come from
renewable resources. When dyes are extracted from plant Conclusions
parts, the mass production of flower crops and other species
increases farmer revenue and creates employment oppor- Products that offer protection using natural active compo-
tunities. They make textiles that are safe and secure for all nents obtained from plant extracts are experiencing a huge
of us by adding calming tones and delicate color payoffs. It resurgence of interest in today’s consumer-driven market.
also shields consumers from the sun’s damaging rays when Customers are more likely to embrace products that are eco-
the fabric is colored using natural dyes. The natural dyes in friendly and biodegradable since they provide the benefit of
47578 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:47552–47583

being non-toxic and environmentally beneficial. The present Abdelrahman MS, Nassar SH, Mashaly H et al (2020) Review in textile
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parameters that influence printing performances. Addition- Ultraviolet protection of cotton fabrics and their blends
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influence of gamma radiations. Radiat Phys Chem 130:35–39.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​radph​yschem.​2016.​07.​010
Author contribution MRR has contributed to conceptualization, meth- Adeel S, Rehman FU, Hameed A et al (2018) Sustainable extraction
odology, data collection, formal analysis, writing—original draft prepa- and dyeing of microwave-treated silk fabric using Arjun bark
ration, and approval of contents. TI and TKP have contributed to data colorant. J Nat Fibers 17:745–758. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 080/1​ 5440​
collection and writing—original draft preparation. SJ, AH, SS, and 478.​2018.​15341​82
GFIT have contributed to editing and reviewing. MRR has supervised Adeel S, Rehman F-U, Rafi S et al (2019) Environmentally friendly
all stages of preparing the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed plant-based natural dyes: extraction methodology and applica-
to the published final version of this review. tions. Plant Hum Heal 2(2):383–415. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​
978-3-​030-​03344-6_​17
Funding The authors would like to thank the European Commission Adeel S, Habib N, Arif S et al (2020) Microwave-assisted eco-dyeing
for the financial support received under the cofounded Erasmus + pro- of bio mordanted silk fabric using cinnamon bark (Cinnamo-
ject REWAFT reference 2022-1-LT01-KA220-HED-000086367. mum verum) based yellow natural dye. Sustain Chem Pharm
Views and opinions expressed are, however, those of the authors only 17:100306. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/J.​SCP.​2020.​100306
and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the Euro- Adeel S, Kiran S, Shahid M et al (2021) Ecofriendly application of
pean Education and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA). Neither the coconut coir (Cocos nucifera) extract for silk dyeing. Envi-
European Union nor EACEA can be held responsible for them. ron Sci Pollut Res 29:564–572. https:// ​ d oi. ​ o rg/ ​ 1 0. ​ 1 007/​
S11356-​021-​15669-6
Data availability All data presented herein are constant with the pub- Ae K, Singh A, Nc S et al (2016) Novel eco-friendly techniques for
lished literature. extraction of food based lipophilic compounds from biological
materials. Nat Prod Chem Res 4:1–7. https://​doi.​org/​10.​4172/​
Declarations 2329-​6836.​10002​31
Agarwal R, Pruthi N, Singh SJS (2007) Effect of mordants on printing
Ethical approval Not applicable. with marigold flowers dye. Nat Prod Radiance 6:306–309
Ahmed A, Bain S, Prottoy ZH et al (2022) Silk-templated nanomaterial
Consent to participate Not applicable. interfaces for wearables and bioelectronics: advances and pros-
pects. ACS Mater Lett 4:68–86. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1021/​acsma​
Consent for publication Not applicable. teria​lslett.​1c006​18
Ali S, Hussain T, Nawaz R (2009) Optimization of alkaline extrac-
tion of natural dye from henna leaves and its dyeing on cotton
Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests. by exhaust method. J Clean Prod 17:61–66. https://d​ oi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​jclep​ro.​2008.​03.​002
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