From Smog to Solutions: Addressing Air Pollution and
Improving the Air Quality Management in the Philippines
A Research Synthesis Presented to
Jemer Alimbon
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Subject
The Environmental Science
ARENDAIN, ANNICA AUI D.
BAGUIO, MELODY E.
CAASI, MEL GERALD C.
PALARAN, LARIEZA P.
XIAO, MEINALYN C.
March 2025
Globally, air pollution has negatively affected air quality and has become a serious
threat to public health. In fact, 4.2 million deaths annually are estimated to be due to ambient
air pollution (Seposo et al., 2021). Air pollution is the release of poisonous gas into the air
and it occurs when harmful gases, dust particles, smoke and odor are present Air pollution is
defined as the presence of chemicals in the atmosphere in quantities and duration that are
harmful to human health and the environment(Aniceto et al., 2021).. It occurs when the
concentration of certain substances become high enough to cause the atmospheric
environment to become toxic (Gadi et al., 2012). In the Philippines, air pollution is an all year
never-ending issue. This includes pollutants such as particulate matter (PM), carbon
monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and nitrogen oxides (NOx), which are
present in both urban and rural settings (Cassidy et al., 2007). Exposure to contaminated air is
detrimental to human health, affecting individuals across all age groups and economic classes
(Macatangay & Hernandez, 2020).
In the Philippines, air pollution is the third highest risk factor contributing to death
and disability due to non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and is the leading environmental
risk to health (IHME, 2020). In 2019 alone, air pollution was responsible for 66,230 deaths,
with 64,920 adults and 1,310 children affected (Thieriot et al., 2023). These alarming
statistics highlight the urgent need for effective air quality management (AQM) to mitigate
pollution levels and protect public health.
To address this crisis, the Philippines' Clean Air Act of 1999 (Republic Act No. 8749)
was enacted to regulate emissions and safeguard the country’s air resources (Broqueza et al.,
2024). However, the effectiveness of air quality management remains a critical concern due
to challenges in policy enforcement, limited air monitoring systems, and rapid urbanization.
Understanding the strengths and weaknesses of AQM is essential for developing sustainable
solutions that ensure cleaner air and healthier communities (Ramos et al., 2024).
Environmental deterioration in the Philippines is not at present extensive. It is rather
intensive and confined to urban centers, such as Manila, and is caused both by the general
public and by industry (Lesaca, 1974). The Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999 establishes
National Ambient Air Quality Guidelines for Criteria Pollutants. the recommendation for a
PM2.5 reduction scenario provides an actionable policy that can contribute to the sustainable
development goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being) and SDG 8
(Decent Work and Economic Growth) ((Bherwani et al., 2022)
Way back November 2000, the Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) of the
1999 Philippine Clean Air Act (CAA) became evident (Barbette et al., 2006). The law
recognizes the contribution of vehicles in causing air pollution and poor air quality (Lu,
2022). The law aims to achieve and maintain clean air that meets the National Air Quality
guideline values for criteria pollutants, throughout the Philippines, while minimising the
possible associated impacts to the economy ((Desiree et al., 2018). But Even after three
decades since the passage of the country's Clean Air Act, the Philippines is still nowhere near
achieving comprehensive air pollution control. An urgent priority is to raise the country's
PM2·5 limits to WHO standards, which will send a strong signal to industry to urgently
tackle the sources of air pollution, for instance by shifting to renewable energy and designing
low-carbon transport modalities (Tantengco & Guinto, 2022).
Furthermore, in the Philippine Clean Air of 1999, policymakers identified PM 10 as
one of the chief criteria that should be addressed to improve air quality. The Philippine
National Ambient Air Quality (PNAAQ) Guideline Values have been set at 150 μg m−3 and
60 μg m−3, which correspond to daily and annual limits, respectively (Pabroa et al., 2022).
Until recently, the PM2.5 has been also included in NAAQGV, with short-term and long-term
guidelines of 50 and 25 μg/m3, respectively, as of January 2016. Since the CAA was
declared, long-term measurements (during 2001–2008) of PM10 showed that annual PM10 is
consistently below the NAAQGV (Zhu et al., 2012). While total suspended particulate matter
(TSP), PM10 and PM2.5 are the most commonly used metrics to address health effects (Pope &
Dockery, 2006), there are several major reasons why particulate matter mass may need the
complementary measurements in supporting the evidence of the air pollution-related health
risks. One of this is when re-suspended road dust was also shown to contribute to urban
PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations (Abu-Allaban et al., 2003). While the PM metrics would suit
well to regulate air quality in situations where the re-suspended coarse mode particles are
dominant, the contribution of ultrafine soot particles to health-related effects may be then
overlooked. It means that even high soot particle number concentrations result in relatively
low particulate matter mass concentrations. And yet, high number of these particles can
deeply penetrate into the respiratory system increasing the risks of asthma, cancer, heart
malformations, and even premature deaths (Ibald-Mulli et al., 2002, Strak et al., 2010).
While clear air act is still not being achieved, Air pollution can be resulted from both
natural and human activities. Natural events that pollute the air include forest fires, volcanic
eruptions, wind erosion, pollen dispersal, evaporation of organic compounds and natural
radioactivity. Pollution from natural sources is not very often. On the other hand, human
activities that result in air pollution include emissions from industries and manufacturing
activities, and burning of fossil fuels (Desiree et al., 2018).
An exemplary case of unsustainable urbanization is the megacity of Metro Manila, the
capital of the Philippines. It accounts for more than 12.9 million inhabitants and 2.3 million
registered motor vehicles as of 2015. the inefficient public transport system and the rapid
increase of vehicular fleet resulted in congested streets being filled with private cars, taxis,
old buses and public utility Jeepneys (PUJs) (Kecorius et al., 2017). Equipped with pre-
EURO diesel engines, PUJs emit high concentration of combustion generated aerosol
particles, which in turn became a dominant aerosol in the urban atmosphere. The emission
inventories reported that traffic-related sources are responsible for more than 71% of the total
country's particulate matter emission in the Philippines (Vergel and Tiglao, 2013). Despite
relatively low particulate matter mass values the incidences of lung cancer are rapidly
increasing (Laudico et al., 2010). It suggests that the megacity of Metro Manila faces a
much different pollution problem than previously reported cases in other, more industrial
urban environments due to Metro Manila’s traffic flow.
Fig. 1. The traffic intensity of light duty vehicles (LDVs) and public
utility Jeepneys (PUJs) during working days (WD) and weekends (WE).
While there have been efforts to monitor air quality and implement pollution control
measures in the Philippines, the availability of ground-level air quality monitoring in many
regions remains limited. This will account for uncertainties in pollutant concentration
estimates and economic valuations when conducting health impact assessments in the
country(Lesidan et al., 2025) that’s why In the Philippines, encouraging sustainable
behaviors and reducing air pollution depend heavily on the inclusion of environmental
education in the curriculum.. By utilizing creative teaching strategies, interactive classes,
and hands-on learning exercises, instructors may get students thinking critically about air
quality, pollution causes, and remedies. The Philippines can overcome these obstacles and
enable kids to become responsible environmental stewards by providing environmental
literacy as a top priority and funding teacher training (Sanlad, 2020). By integrating
environmental education into formal curricula, vocational training programs, and professional
development initiatives, societies can ensure that environmental considerations are integrated
into various sectors and decision-making processes (Fang et al, 2023).
Furthermore, National status reports, as required by the Clean Air Act of 1999 were
also released every three years for an extensive inventory of emission count and some
evaluations on promulgated policies. The Bureau trusts that knowing the air quality level of
an area would promote public awareness and stimulus to the community, organizations, and
local government units to resolve the underlying air pollution problems through legislation
and policy making (Siador & Promentilla, 2016).
Mainly, It is clear that the Metro Manila area is in “nonattainment” status for
particulate concentrations. This status has implications for the introduction of emissions
charges to stationary sources, because the implemeting rules and regulations of the act
require that in nonattainment areas, a 50% surcharge be applied to the emissions fees
which suggest of using transportation instead of individually car(Krupnick et al., 2003).
Also, The capacity of plants to reduce air pollution is well known. plants still play a
crucial role in maintaining ecological balance and reducing environmental pollution by
capturing and storing air pollutants through their extensive leaf surfaces . Their leaves
provide surface area &for impingement, accumulation, absorption, adsorption and integration
of various air pollutants (Escobedo et al 2008), thereby mitigating the problem. (Escobedo et
al 2008). Furthermore, trees function as natural air pollutant sinks by absorbing PMs and
decreasing pollutant concentrations in the atmosphere (Prajapati & Tripathi 2008). A better,
efficient, and natural way to combat air pollution is increasing the vegetation cover in cities
by planting trees (Kapoor et al 2013). Plants are significant tool in improving air quality of
urban areas and consequently the life quality of inhabitants (Beckett et al 2000).
The study shows that PM10 (mg) can be adsorbed by each tree leaf species along
Brgy. Kauswagan Street and Masterson Avenue mainly the Gmelina arborea Roxb has
greater adsorption capacity of particulate matter among the four leaf species with an
amount of 8.1889 mg. Its leaf size and trichomes have greatly influenced its
adsorptive capacity other than wider canopy cover. The leaf species that adsorbed the
least amount of PM10 among the four species was the P. guajava L(Estoque et al.,
2018). Furthermore, as per the Environmental Management Bureau's air quality index,
Butuan City's air quality is rated as 'good,' indicating favorable air quality conditions and
that is because Butuan City is fund with a lot of trees (Natividad et al., 2024) which
concludes that trees contrivute a lot in controlling air pollution.
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