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Arc Welding Processes Handbook
 Scrivener Publishing
100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J
Beverly, MA 01915-6106

Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener ([email protected])
Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Arc Welding Processes Handbook

Ramesh Singh
This edition first published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener
Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
© 2021 Scrivener Publishing LLC
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-119-81905-9

Cover image: Double headed GMAW system provided by the author

Cover design by Russell Richardson

Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines

Printed in the USA

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 Contents

List of Figures xvii

List of Tables xxv
Foreword xxix
Preface xxxi
1 Introduction to Welding Processes 1
1.1 Synopsis 1
1.2 Keywords 1
1.3 Welding 1
1.4 Defining Welding 2
1.5 Welding and Joining Processes 3
1.6 Arc Welding 3
1.6.1 Carbon Arc Welding 3
1.6.2 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) 3
1.6.3 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) 4
1.6.4 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) 7
1.6.5 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) 7
1.7 Efficiency of Energy Use 7
1.8 Welding Procedures 8
1.9 Qualification of Welders and Operators 11
2 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) 13
2.1 Synopsis 13
2.2 Keywords 13
2.3 Introduction 13
2.4 Process Fundamentals 14
2.5 How the Process Works 15
2.6 Power Sources 16
2.6.1 Constant Current and Constant Voltage Power Source 17
2.6.2 Constant Current Curve 18
2.6.3 Constant Voltage Curve 18
2.7 AC Power Sources 18
2.7.1 The Alternator Type AC Welding Machines 19
2.7.2 Movable Coil Type Control 20
2.7.3 Movable Shunt Type Control 20

v
vi Contents

2.7.4 Movable Core (Reactor) Type of Control 20

2.7.5 Magnetic Amplifier Method of Current Control 21
2.7.6 Diode 22
2.7.7 Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs) 23
2.7.8 Transistors 24
2.8 Direct Current Power Sources 24
2.8.1 Generator 26
2.8.2 Alternator 27
2.8.2.1 Power Source Remote Control 29
2.8.3 Installation of Welding Machines 29
2.8.3.1 Cooling System for Welding Power Sources 30
2.8.3.2 Welding Connections – Welding Cable and Electrode Holders 30
2.8.4 Electrode Holders 31
2.8.5 Arc Welding Power Source Classification by NEMA 32
2.8.5.1 Duty Cycle 33
2.8.5.2 Power Requirement 34
2.9 Welding Safety and Personal Protecting Equipment 34
2.9.1 Shields and Helmets 34
2.9.2 Optical Clarity for Welding 37
2.9.3 Other Essential Clothing for Welders 38
2.10 Covered Electrodes Used in SMAW Process 39
2.10.1 Coating Types 39
2.10.1.1 Cellulose-Coated Electrodes 40
2.10.1.2 Rutile-Coated Electrodes 40
2.10.1.3 Basic-Coated Electrodes 40
2.10.2 Portfolio of SMAW Electrode 41
2.10.3 Identification of Welding Electrode 41
2.10.4 Need for the Covered Electrode 45
2.10.5 Electrode Conditioning 45
2.11 Welding Training – Making of a Welder 47
2.11.1 Joint Design and Preparation 47
2.11.2 SMAW Welding of Plate 50
2.11.3 Making of a SMAW Welder 50
2.11.3.1 SMAW Welding Practice Step 1 51
2.11.3.2 SMAW Welding Practice Step 2 52
2.11.3.3 SMAW Welding Practice Step 3 56
2.11.4 Inspection of the Weld 57
2.11.4.1 Appearance of the Weld 57
2.11.5 Step 3 Practice 2 59
2.11.6 SMAW Welding Step 4 59
2.11.7 SMAW Welding Step 5 60
2.11.8 Set a Next Goal to Achieve 61
2.11.9 SMAW Welding of Pipes 62
2.11.9.1 Pipe Welding Step 1 62
2.11.10 Pipe Welding Technique and Pipeline Welding 67
2.11.10.1 Vertical Up Technique 69
 Contents vii

2.11.11 In-Plant Piping 70

2.11.12 Pipeline Welding 72
2.11.12.1 Making a Root Pass 72
2.12 Welding Other Metals 74
2.12.1 SMAW Welding Aluminum 74
2.12.2 Aluminum Alloys and Their Characteristics 75
2.12.2.1 1xxx Series Alloys 75
2.12.2.2 2xxx Series Alloys 75
2.12.2.3 3xxx Series Alloys 75
2.12.2.4 4xxx Series Alloys 76
2.12.2.5 5xxx Series Alloys 76
2.12.2.6 6XXX Series Alloys 76
2.12.2.7 7XXX Series Alloys 77
2.12.3 The Aluminum Alloy Temper and Designation System 77
2.12.4 Wrought Alloy Designation System 78
2.12.5 Cast Alloy Designation 78
2.12.6 The Aluminum Temper Designation System 80
2.12.6.1 Aluminum Welding Electrodes 82
2.12.6.2 Electrical Parameters 83
2.12.7 SMAW Welding of Stainless Steel 83
2.12.8 Introduction to Stainless-Steels 84
2.12.8.1 Cutting Stainless Steel for Fabrication 84
2.12.8.2 Finishing 84
2.12.9 Fabrication of Stainless Steel 85
2.12.9.1 Why Use Stainless Steel 85
2.12.10 General Welding Characteristics 85
2.12.10.1 Protection Against Oxidation 86
2.12.11 Welding and Joining Stainless Steel 87
2.12.12 Importance of Cleaning Before and After Welding 87
2.12.13 Filler Metals 88
2.12.14 Austenitic Stainless Steels 89
2.12.14.1 Metallurgical Concerns Associated with
Welding Austenitic Stainless Steels 89
2.12.14.2 Mechanical Properties of Stainless Steels 89
2.12.15 Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steels 90
2.12.16 Super-Austenitic Stainless Steels 91
2.12.17 Welding and Joining of Supper-Austenitic Stainless Steels 92
2.12.17.1 Difficulties Associated with Welding Stainless Steel 93
2.12.18 Martensitic Stainless Steels 96
2.12.18.1 Properties and Application 96
2.12.18.2 Welding Martensitic Stainless Steels 97
2.12.19 Welding Ferritic Stainless Steels 98
2.12.19.1 Properties and Application 98
2.12.20 Welding Ferritic Steel 99
2.12.21 Precipitation Hardening (PH) Stainless Steels 100
viii Contents

2.12.21.1 Properties and Application of Precipitation

Hardening Steels 100
2.12.22 Welding Precipitation Hardened (PH) Steels 100
2.13 Welding and Fabrication of Duplex Stainless Steels 103
2.13.1 Mechanical Properties 103
2.13.2 Heat Treatment 104
2.14 SMAW Welding Nickel Alloys 106
2.14.1 Welding of Precipitation Hardenable Nickel Alloy 109
2.14.2 Welding of Cast Nickel Alloy 110
2.14.3 Nickel – Chromium Alloys 110
2.14.4 Nickel – Copper (Cupro-Nickle Alloys) 111
2.14.5 Nickel – Iron – Chromium Alloys 111
2.15 Minimizing Discontinuities in Nickel and Alloys Welds 112
2.15.1 Porosity 112
2.15.2 Weld Cracking 113
2.15.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking 113
2.15.4 Effect of Slag on Weld Metal 113
2.16 Review Your Knowledge 114
3 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding 115
3.1 Synopsis 115
3.2 Keywords 115
3.3 Introduction to Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Process 115
3.4 Process Description 117
3.5 How the Process Works 118
3.6 Process Advantages and Limitations 120
3.7 Power Sources 122
3.7.1 AC Power Sources 122
3.7.1.1 The Alternator Type AC Welding Machines 124
3.7.1.2 Movable Coil Movable Core (Reactor) 124
3.7.1.3 Magnetic Amplifier Method of Current Control 125
3.7.1.4 AC Inverters for GTAW Process 125
3.7.2 Other Control Methods 126
3.7.2.1 Wave Forms 126
3.7.2.2 Independent Amperage Control 127
3.7.2.3 Adjustable AC Output Frequency 127
3.7.2.4 Extended Balance Control 130
3.7.3 Diode 132
3.7.4 Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs) 132
3.7.5 Transistors 133
3.7.6 A Direct Current Power Source for GTAW 134
3.7.6.1 Generator 134
3.7.6.2 Alternator 136
3.7.6.3 The Output Current 137
3.7.6.4 Duty Cycle 137
3.7.7 The Inverter Machines 138
 Contents ix

3.8 Shielding Gases 138

3.9 Gas Regulators and Flowmeters 139
3.10 GTAW Torches, Nozzles, Collets, and Gas Lenses 141
3.10.1 Gas Lens 142
3.11 Tungsten Electrodes 145
3.11.1 Grinding of Tungsten Electrode Tips 146
3.11.2 Tungsten Grind Angles and How They Affect Weld Penetration 148
3.11.2.1 The Impact of Tungsten Tip Angles on Weld 148
3.12 Joint Design 149
3.13 Power Source Remote Control 151
3.14 Installation of Welding Machines 151
3.15 Power Source Cooling System 151
3.16 Welding Connections – Welding Cable and Welding Torch Connections 152
3.17 Welding Power Source Classification by NEMA 154
3.18 Welding Personal Protecting Equipment 155
3.19 Other Essential Clothing for Welders 156
3.20 Filler Wires Used in GTAW Process 156
3.21 Classification and Identification of Welding Wires 157
3.21.1 Designation of Aluminum Welding Wires 157
3.21.2 Aluminum Alloys and Their Characteristics 158
3.22 The Aluminum Alloy Temper and Designation System 161
3.22.1 Wrought Alloy Designation System 161
3.22.2 Cast Alloy Designation 162
3.22.3 The Aluminum Temper Designation System 162
3.23 Welding Metals Other Than Carbon and Alloy Steels 164
3.24 GTAW Welding of Aluminum 165
3.25 GTAW Welding of Stainless Steel 176
3.25.1 Introduction to Stainless-Steels 176
3.25.1.1 Cutting Stainless Steel for Fabrication 177
3.25.1.2 Finishing 177
3.25.2 Fabrication of Stainless Steel 178
3.25.3 Why Stainless Steel 178
3.25.4 General Welding Characteristics 179
3.25.5 Protection Against Oxidation 179
3.25.6 Welding and Joining 180
3.25.7 Importance of Cleaning Before and After Welding 180
3.25.8 Filler Metals 182
3.25.9 Austenitic Stainless Steels 182
3.25.9.1 Metallurgical Concerns Associated with
Welding Austenitic Stainless Steels 182
3.25.9.2 Mechanical Properties of Stainless Steels 183
3.25.9.3 Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steels 183
3.25.10 Welding Super-Austenitic Stainless Steels 185
3.25.10.1 Material Properties and Applications 185
3.25.10.2 Welding and Joining of Supper-Austenitic
Stainless Steels 188
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x Contents

3.25.10.3 Difficulties Associated with Welding Stainless Steel 189

3.25.11 Welding Martensitic Stainless Steels - Properties and Application 190
3.25.12 Welding Martensitic Stainless Steels 191
3.25.13 Welding Ferritic Stainless Steels 192
3.25.13.1 Welding Ferritic Steel 193
3.25.14 Welding Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels 193
3.25.14.1 Welding Precipitation Hardened (PH) Steels 194
3.26 Mechanical Properties 195
3.26.1 Heat Treatment of Duplex Steels 195
3.26.2 How to Weld Duplex Stainless Steel 197
3.26.2.1 Filler Metal 197
3.26.2.2 Heat Input and Interpass Temperatures 198
3.26.2.3 Quality Checks 198
3.27 Welding Nickel Alloys 198
3.27.1 Welding of Precipitation Hardenable Nickel Alloy 200
3.27.2 Welding of Cast Nickel Alloy 200
3.27.3 Nickel – Chromium Alloys 200
3.27.4 Nickel – Copper (Cupro-Nickle Alloys) 201
3.27.5 Nickel – Iron – Chromium Alloys 202
3.27.6 Minimizing Discontinuities in Nickel and Alloys Welds 202
3.27.6.1 Porosity 203
3.27.6.2 Weld Cracking 203
3.27.6.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking 203
3.27.6.4 Effect of Inclusions on Weld Metal 204
3.28 Later Developments in GTAW Process 204
3.29 Plasma Arc Welding 204
3.30 Review Your Knowledge 207
4 Gas Metal Arc Welding 209
4.1 Synopsis 209
4.2 Keywords 209
4.3 Introduction to Gas Metal Arc Welding Process 209
4.3.1 Developmental History of GMAW Process 209
4.3.2 The Advantages of GMAW 213
4.3.2 Limitations of GMAW 213
4.4 Process Description 214
4.4.1 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Process Introduction 214
4.4.1.1 Short Circuiting Transfer (GMAW-S) 217
4.4.1.2 Globular Transfer 221
4.4.1.3 Spray Transfer 223
4.4.1.4 Pulsed Spray Transfer Mode 224
4.4.2 Gas Metal Arc Welding: Newer Variants 229
4.5 Components of the Welding Arc 231
4.5.1 Shielding Gases for GMAW 232
4.5.1.1 Argon Gas 233
4.5.1.2 Helium Gas 234
 Contents xi

4.5.2 Dissociation and Recombination 234

4.5.2.1 Dissociation and Recombination of CO2 Gas 234
4.5.2.2 Oxygen as Shielding Gas 234
4.5.2.3 Hydrogen Gas 235
4.5.3 Binary Shielding Gases 235
4.5.3.1 Argon + Helium 235
4.5.3.2 Argon + CO2 235
4.5.4 Shielding Gases by Transfer Mode 236
4.5.4.1 Common Short-Circuiting Transfer 236
4.5.4.2 Common Axial Spray Transfer 236
4.5.5 Ternary Gas Shielding Blends 237
4.5.5.1 Common Ternary Gas Shielding Blends 237
4.6 Effects of Variables on Welding 238
4.6.1 Current Density 241
4.6.2 Electrode Efficiencies 241
4.6.2.1 Calculation of Required Electrode Based on the Electrode
Efficiency (EE) 242
4.6.3 Deposition Rate 242
4.6.4 Electrode Extension and Contact Tip to Work Distance 243
4.7 Advanced Welding Processes for GMAW 244
4.8 The Adaptive Loop 245
4.9 Advanced Waveform Control Technology 246
4.9.1 Surface Tension Transfer™ (STT™) 246
4.10 Equipment for GMAW Process 248
4.11 GMAW Power Sources 249
4.11.1 The Transformer Rectifiers 249
4.11.2 Inverters 250
4.12 Installation of Welding Machines 253
4.12.1 GMAW Torches 254
4.12.1.1 Welding Torches for Automation and Robotic GMAW 257
4.12.1.2 The Wire Drive and Accessories 257
4.12.1.3 Special Wire Feeding Considerations 258
4.12.1.4 Shielding Gas Regulation 259
4.12.1.5 Welding Cables and Other Accessories 259
4.12.1.6 Welding Personal Protecting Equipment 261
4.12.1.7 Other Essential Clothing for Welders 262
4.13 Welding Various Metals 262
4.13.1 Carbon Steel 263
4.13.2 Aluminum and Aluminum Welding 263
4.13.2.1 Understanding Aluminum 263
4.13.2.2 Designation of Aluminum Welding Wires 264
4.13.3 Aluminum Metallurgy and Grades 265
4.13.3.1 1xxx Series Alloys 265
4.13.3.2 2xxx Series Alloys 265
4.13.3.3 3xxx Series Alloys 266
4.13.3.4 4xxx Series Alloys 266
xii Contents

4.13.3.5 5xxx Series Alloys 266

4.13.3.6 6XXX Series Alloys 267
4.13.3.7 7XXX Series Alloys 267
4.13.4 The Aluminum Alloy Temper and Designation System 267
4.13.5 Wrought Alloy Designation System 268
4.13.6 Cast Alloy Designation 268
4.13.7 The Aluminum Temper Designation System 269
4.13.8 Welding Aluminum 271
4.13.8.1 Electrode Selection 271
4.13.9 Welding Stainless Steel with the Gas Metal Arc Process 271
4.13.10 Introduction to and Understanding Stainless Steel  274
4.13.11 Alloying Elements and Their Impact on Stainless Steel  275
4.13.11.1 The Elements that Promote Ferrite are 276
4.13.11.2 The Elements that Promote Austenite are 276
4.13.11.3 Neutral Effect Regarding Austenite & Ferrite 276
4.13.12 Weldability of Stainless Steels 276
4.13.12.1 Welding Austenitic Steels 276
4.13.12.2 Challenges of Welding Austenitic Steels 277
4.13.12.3 Sensitization 277
4.13.12.4 Intergranular Corrosion in the Heat Affected Zone
Control of Carbide Precipitation 278
4.13.12.5 Hot Cracking 279
4.13.12.6 Design for Welding Stainless Steels 280
4.13.12.7 Determining and Measuring the Ferrite in Welds 281
4.13.12.8 Welding Ferritic Stainless Steels 282
4.13.12.9 Properties and Application 282
4.13.12.10 Welding Ferritic Steel 283
4.13.12.11 Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels 283
4.13.12.12 Welding Precipitation Hardened (PH) Steels 284
4.13.12.13 Martensitic Stainless Steels 285
4.13.12.14 Properties and Application 285
4.13.12.15 Welding Martensitic Stainless Steels 285
4.13.12.16 Duplex Stainless Steels 287
4.13.12.17 Mechanical Properties 287
4.13.12.18 Heat Treatment 288
4.14 Welding Nickel Alloys 289
4.14.1 Welding of Precipitation Hardenable Nickel Alloy 291
4.14.2 Welding of Cast Nickel Alloy 291
4.14.3 Nickel – Chromium Alloys 291
4.14.4 Nickel – Copper (Cupro-Nickle Alloys) 292
4.14.5 Nickel – Iron – Chromium Alloys 293
4.15 Minimizing Discontinuities in Nickel and Alloys Welds 293
4.15.1 Porosity 294
4.15.2 Weld Cracking 294
4.15.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking 295
4.15.4 Effect of Slag on Weld Metal 295
 Contents xiii

4.16 Calculating Heat Input in Pulsed Arc GMAW 295

4.17 Review Your Knowledge 296
5 Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) Process 299
5.1 Synopsis 299
5.2 Keywords 299
5.3 Introduction to Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) Process 299
5.4 Process Description 301
5.4.1 Self Shielding Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW-S) Process 302
5.4.2 Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW-G) Gas Shielding Process 303
5.5 Welding Wires/Electrodes 304
5.5.1 Construction of FCAW Electrodes 306
5.5.2 Sheath Thickness Variations 307
5.5.3 Important FCAW Variables 307
5.5.4 Contact Tip to Work Distance (CTWD) 307
5.5.5 Travel Angle 307
5.5.6 Single Pass Limitations 308
5.5.7 Thickness Restrictions 308
5.5.8 Charpy V-Notch Toughness Properties 308
5.5.9 Electrode Care and Packaging 308
5.6 Power Sources 310
5.6.1 Arc Voltage (Constant Voltage) 310
5.6.2 CTWD, ESO and WFS 311
5.7 Other Accessories to Power Source 313
5.7.1 Welding Cable 313
5.7.2 Semiautomatic Wire Feeders 313
5.7.3 Welding Guns 313
5.7.4 Reverse Bend Gun Tubes 313
5.7.5 Gun Angles 314
5.7.6 Polarity 314
5.8 Shielding Gases 314
5.8.1 Attributes of Shielding Gases 315
5.8.2 How Shielding Gas Works? 315
5.8.3 Properties of Shielding Gases 315
5.8.4 Limits on the Use of Inert Gases 316
5.8.5 Argon and Carbon Dioxide Gas Blends 316
5.8.6 How the Shielding Gas and Blends Affect the Mechanical
Properties of the Weld Metal? 317
5.8.7 Understanding the Performance of Various FCAW-G Gases 319
5.8.7.1 Shielding Gas Cost 319
5.8.7.2 Overall Operator Appeal and Impact on Productivity 319
5.8.7.3 Typical Use of Shielding Gas 321
5.9 Welding Various Metals 321
5.9.1 Applicable Base Metals 322
5.9.2 Types of Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS) 323
xiv Contents

5.9.3 FCAW Welding Austenitic, Ferritic Stainless Steels

and Duplex Steels 323
5.9.3.1 Stainless Steel 323
5.9.3.2 Duplex Steels 324
5.9.3.3 Welding Ferritic Stainless Steels 324
5.9.3.4 Choice of Shielding Gases 324
5.9.4 FCAW Welding of Aluminum 324
5.9.5 Welding Nickel and Nickel Alloys by FCAW Process 325
5.10 Tips for Good Welding by FCAW Process 325
5.11 Test Your Knowledge 326
6 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) 329
6.1 Synopsis 329
6.2 Keywords 329
6.3 Introduction to Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) Process 329
6.4 Operating Characteristics 333
6.5 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) Process 334
6.5.1 Advantages and Limitations of Submerged Arc Welding 334
6.6 How the SAW Process Works 335
6.6.1 Depositing a Root Pass with SAW Process 335
6.6.2 Travel Mechanism 335
6.6.3 Variables of the SAW Process 336
6.7 SAW Process Variants 337
6.7.1 Variants Based on Use of Welding Wire 338
6.7.1.1 Multi-Wire Systems 338
6.7.1.2 Use of Hot-Wire 338
6.7.2 Adding Iron Powder to the Flux 339
6.7.3 The Utilization of a Strip Electrode for Surfacing 340
6.8 SAW Power Source and Equipment 340
6.9 Welding Heads (Gun) 340
6.10 Fluxes 341
6.10.1 Types of Granular Fluxes 341
6.10.2 Fused Fluxes versus Bonded Fluxes 342
6.10.3 Fused Fluxes 342
6.10.4 Bonded Fluxes 342
6.10.5 Neutral Fluxes 343
6.10.6 Acid Fluxes 343
6.10.7 Basic Fluxes 343
6.10.8 Selection of Specific Flux 345
6.11 Submerged Arc Welding Various Metals 345
6.12 Test Your Knowledge 347
7 Useful Data and Information Related to Welding and Fabrication 349
7.1 Common Weld Symbols and Their Meanings 349
7.2 Fillet Welds 351
7.3 Groove Welds 353
 Contents xv

7.4 Pipe Schedule 359

7.5 Terms and Abbreviations 360
7.5.1 ASME Section IX QW 432 - F Number Table for Carbon
and Alloy Steel 363
7.6 Procedure Qualification Range as Per the Material Group 364
7.7 Material Qualification Rage for Procedure Qualification Based
on P-Numbers 364
7.8 Temperature Conversion 365
7.9 Useful Calculations 367
7.10 Effect of Temperature on Gas Cylinder Pressure 368
Index 369
 List of Figures

Figure 1.1 General lay out of welding and joining processes 4

Figure 2.3 A SMAW welder welding on a pipeline project 14
Figure 2.4 Typical SMAW setup 15
Figure 2.5 Welding arc action and various components of welding 15
Figure 2.6 Above (2 graphs), graph 1 above, shows the volt-ampere curve,
(output curve or slope) at lower stings. Graph 2 below, shows the
volt-ampere curve, (output curve or slope) the steep slope of a
“Drooper” type of constant current arc welder 17
Figure 2.7 The schematic above shows the key components of an AC transformer 19
Figure 2.7.3 Schematic of a movable shunt type transformer control 21
Figure 2.7.4 A schematic of a movable coil reactor, the position of the reactor
coil causes the inductive reactance of the secondary output coil
resulting in the variance in current output 21
Figure 2.7.5 A magnetic amplifier transformer output control, the diode allows
the current to flow in one direction, and this allows a remote control
operation possible 22
Figure 2.7.6 The top portion of the figure shows the use of diodes – shown in
Red color, and it compare it with Silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs) 23
Figure 2.7.7 A schematic drawing of single-phase DC power source with SCR
bridge control 24
Figure 2.8.1 Shows the schematic of single phase bridge type rectifier 25
Figure 2.8.2 Three phase bridge-type rectifier 25
Figure 2.8.1.1 Schematic diagram of a DC generator 26
Figure 2.8.1.2 Circuitry of an exciter system 27
Figure 2.8.3 Current conversion and resulting wave forms 28
Figure 2.8.3.1 Copper and aluminum welding leads: note the number of fine wires
that compose a cable, and the rubber sheathing that covers them 30

xvii
xviii List of Figures

Figure 2.8.3.2 Different types of SMAW electrode holders 32

Figure 2.8.4.1 Various types of cable connectors, and ground clamp. Pictures
courtesy of LENCO® catalogue 32
Figure 2.8.5.1 NEMA rating 33
Figure 2.9.1 A typical hand-held welding shield 34
Figure 2.9.2 Miller Digital Elite helmet 36
Figure 2.9.3 A typical welding helmet 36
Figure 2.10.2 Portfolio of SMAW electrodes 40
Figure 2.10.3 AWS electrode classification method  41
Figure 2.10.5.1 Shop use electrode drying oven 46
Figure 2.10.5.2 Portable electrode holder also called quivers  46
Figure 2.11.1 Different types of weld joints 47
Figure 2.11.2 Different types of weld designs 48
Figure 2.11.3 Welding positions for welding a plate, the positions are primarily
designated in relation to the position of the weld to the horizontal
surface of the earth 49
Figure 2.11.4 Positions of plate and pipe butt welds and fillet welds with both
AWS and European designations 49
Figure 2.11.5 Above figure shows the permitted angular tolerance for
specifically designated welding positions for pipe welding 51
Figure 2.11.3.1 Testing a fillet weld 53
Figure 2.11.3.2 Testing a fillet weld using a hammer 54
Figure 2.11.3.3 Size and nomenclature of fillet weld 54
Figure 2.11.3.4 A single pass fillet weld 54
Figure 2.11.3.5 A single pass fillet weld with (arc termination) stop in the middle
and restarted (arc re-initiation) from that point 55
Figure 2.11.3.6 A multi-passes fillet weld-note the termination of arc start
and stops are staggered  55
Figure 2.11.3.7 A micro-etch of a double sided two pass fillet weld – compare the
weld with the nomenclatures figure given above, to see how these
two welds meet the standard requirements 56
Figure 2.11.4.1 Weld appearances matched with arc current, and arc travel speed 58
Figure 2.11.4.2 Pictures of the weld appearances and probable cause for the
quality of weld produced  58
 List of Figures xix

Figure 2.11.5.1 Offsetting the weld setup for distortion control 59

Figure 2.11.9 This is a rotator with one end of the pipe held in a three-jaw,
self-centering chuck the free end of the pipe rests on a free
rotating roller, it can be raised or lowered to level the pipe to
align the weld ends 64
Figure 2.11.10 This rotator is similar to the one above except that the pipe end is
placed on a motor driven set of rollers on one end, and the other
end is on the set of idle rollers, which can be lowered or raised to
align and level the weld joint 64
Figure 2.11.11 A heavy-duty rotator 65
Figure 2.11.12 Weld tacks bridging two pieces of pipe 65
Figure 2.11.13 Shows a removable tack 66
Figure 2.11.14 This picture shows both the bridge tack using external pieces
of metal below, and just above that is the tack within the groove
using welding 66
Figure 2.11.15 Typical CS pipe weld 67
Figure 2.11.10.1 Bevel edge preparation for vertical-up pipe in 6G position 69
Figure 2.11.10.2 The vertical up progression - note the direction of electrode
movement70
Figure 2.11.11.1 Vertical down progression 71
Figure 2.11.11.2 Weld profile of each pass 71
Figure 2.11.11.3 The sketch above shows a typical weld layers of several passes –
note the sequencing numbers on each pass 72
Figure 2.12.6 Aluminum fillet weld-bend testing  83
Figure 2.12.12 Typical stainless-steel pipe weld, and weld-o-let on the header 87
Figure 2.12.13 Pipe is assembled and prior to welding, the welder is tacking
them with the GTAW process 88
Figure 2.12.18 Schaeffler diagram 93
Figure 2.12.19 DeLong diagram 94
Figure 2.14 Nickel alloy plate being welded 106
Figure 214.1 Nickel is in 10th group and 4th period in the periodic table, its
atomic number is 28 107
Figure 2.14.2 Typical nickel welding electrodes – note the electrode
identification making on the electrode 108
Figure 2.14.3 Nickel alloy welding (note the fillet weld in upward progression) 109
xx List of Figures

Figure 3.3.1 Typical GTAW welding 116

Figure 3.3.2 A GTAW welder, note the welding torch, and the filler wire
in each hand 116
Figure 3.4.1 Typical GTAW welding process with details of the welding torch  117
Figure 3.5.1 A typical GTAW set-up with positions of gas cylinder, welding
machine, electrode holder and work-piece 118
Figure 3.5.2 The cleaning process by the current cycle 119
Figure 3.5.3 High and low frequency currents in pulsing 120
Figure 3.6.1 DC HF output circuit  121
Figure 3.7.1 The graph  123
Figure 3.7.2 Four AC wave forms 126
Figure 3.7.2.2 Effect of Independent AC amperage control on weld
penetration and weld bead profile 128
Figure 3.7.2.3 Effect of variation in AC frequency on the weld profile
and penetration 129
Figure 3.7.2.4 Provides an example of a weld done at 150 Hz and 40 Hz 130
Figure 3.7.2.5 Weld profile as a result of extended EN of the cycle 131
Figure 3.7.2.6 Weld profile as a result of reduced EN cycle 131
Figure 3.7.4.1 A schematic drawing of single-phase DC power source with
SCR bridge control 133
Figure 3.7.6.1 Schematic diagram of a DC generator 135
Figure 3.7.6.2 DC excitation circuit 135
Figure 3.9.1 Gas flow meters (A) shows the tube type flow meter, and the
bottom (B) has a gauge type flow meter both calibrated in L/min  140
Figure 3.10.1 A typical manual welding torch, note the water cooling, gas
supply and tungsten electrode assembly 141
Figure 3.10.2 Various nozzles types and sizes 142
Figure 3.10.3 A gas lens, with mesh, and holding circlip 143
Figure 3.10.4 An assortment of manual welding GTAW torch components  143
Figure 3.11.1 Electrode tips  146
Figure 3.11.2.1 The tip angle 60 , note the depth of the deeper penetration
o

and the shape and depth of the HAZ  148

Figure 3.11.2.2 The tip angle 30o, note the depth of the shallower penetration
and the shape of the HAZ  149
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Exploring the Variety of Random
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 In this difficulty D. John told Monsignor Sega, and, showing him
all the trouble of the situation, asked him to lend the 50,000 golden
crowns destined by Gregory XIII for the unlucky expedition to
England, to pay the soldiers, pledging his word and oath, in the
name of his brother, that they should be quickly and surely returned.
Escovedo was able to negotiate, for his part, by pledging his credit
and oath, for the rest of the amount that remained to pay off this
dangerous debt, at the cost of D. John's hopes and the self-denial of
the secretary. By these means the famous troops at last left Flanders
for Italy, commanded by the Count de Mansfeld, amid the great
rejoicing of the Flemish rebels, who then saw the coast clear for the
further treasons they were plotting.
This put an end to the pretext for not receiving D. John and
making over the command to him, and he was proclaimed Governor
at Louvain amid a crowd of gentlemen, and the real joy of some and
the false and feigned enthusiasm of the rest. From there he went to
Brussels, in spite of the fact that the loyal Count of Barlaimont
warned him that they were conspiring against his life and liberty. He
came in sight of the city on the 4th of May, and an hour before his
entry an insurrection broke out, promoted by the followers of the
Prince of Orange. One Cornelius Straten, a known agent and leader
of highwaymen, began to harangue the crowd, telling them that
they should not let the Austrian traitor enter Brussels, who, with
falseness and deceit, was bringing them death. Upon this a mass of
riotous people dashed towards the gates of the city, overthrowing
the guards, and lowered the portcullis. The magistrates arrived in
haste, and, arresting Straten, quieted the tumult and cleared the
gates. D. John arrived a few minutes later, calm and quiet, showing
his bravery and greatness by dismissing his guard of halberdiers, as
a proof of his confidence in the people. This is how Famiano Strada
refers to D. John's entry into Brussels and his first acts as Governor:
"But the Austrian, at the time the Spaniards left, entered
Brussels with extraordinary pomp, between the Pontiff's
delegate and the Bishop of Liége and a complete deputation
of all the States. It was he who made the brilliance of the
 show, with his debonair person—he was not thirty-two—
laden with fame and triumphs by land and sea, and with
these adornments representing his father, the Cæsar Charles,
beloved and popular name among Flemings. Having solemnly
sworn at the beginning of his government, he started to fulfil
these promises with incredible clemency, rare affability, and
all sorts of kindnesses, and an unheard-of liberality,
exercised towards those who had the least claim, to such an
extent that the citizens, attracted by his gentle bearing,
forgetting their first ideas, and how much they had said
against him, outbid each other in praising him, principally for
having seen him one day without the foreign militia, and
they congratulated themselves that the Austrian had brought
its former happiness back to Flanders."
Philip II wrote to thank D. John for his trouble, very pleased with
his conduct, and letting him plainly understand that there was no
reason for definitely giving up the English plan.
"On the 14th of last month," he says, "I told you of the
arrival of Concha, and of the receipt of the dispatches which
he brought, and how pleased I was to learn the good state
of affairs through the arrangement you have made with the
States, and the satisfaction everything you have done has
given me, and this to the extent that I do not content myself
with what I wrote then, without again thanking you for it,
and certifying that it has given me such satisfaction, that,
although nothing could add to the love I have for you, the
desire to prove to you how much I esteem your work, and
the fruit and success which has followed from it in all the
business of my service, that I shall praise you more each
day, and my care will grow for all that concerns you, knowing
that every day you are putting me under fresh obligations by
remaining in the same cares and work as heretofore, in order
that the affairs of these States may become settled, and that
which is best for the service of God and my service may be
established; and although what you have done hitherto is
 much, what is before you is indescribably more. And as I
know this, you may believe that it gratifies me much to show
you the good-will which I have towards you in all that
occurs, and that things will go on in such a way that that of
England will be effected."
In the next line, and as if it were a means of arriving at this
conquest, so desired by D. John, he insinuates his approval of the
new and strange plans, invented by we know not whom, of
substituting the marriage of D. John and Mary Stuart, which would
cost blood and money, for that of D. John with Elizabeth of England,
to which she seemed inclined.
"As to the marriage with the Queen of England, what I can
tell you is that if in this way and with this view it could be
treated of and brought about, it would be doing a great
service and sacrifice to Our Lord, converting this kingdom to
the Catholic Religion, which is in itself such an honour and
glory that nothing can surpass it."
But D. John did not desire to be King of England by any and every
means, but by those of justice and nobleness, conquering the
kingdom with his sword, setting the lawful Queen, Mary Stuart, at
liberty, and sharing her throne by her own wish. He therefore
protested against this short cut of ignominy, which would lead him
peaceably to the English throne, with no more exertion than that of
joining his fate to that of a usurper, by her own apostasy and vices
the scandal of Europe. "The favours the Queen of England is
everywhere conferring," answered D. John to his brother, "are not so
unimportant as to be disregarded and steps not taken to prevent
them; as the world is so full already of heretics, she has very
efficient ministers everywhere. It is natural to those whom God
rejects to take much thought for things here, and thus does this
unhappy Queen and her followers, of whose life and morals I have
heard and hear so much, that I do not care to jest even about
marrying her."
The summer was drawing on, and the letters from Madrid began
to grow fewer in a strange way, and nothing was said in them of the
absolute want of money, or of the loans which D. John and Escovedo
had raised, pledging their own word and credit, until at last D. John
decided to send the secretary to Rome, and from there to Spain, to
tell Gregory XIII everything about the English expedition, and to
require from the King the prompt acknowledgment and repayment
of the debt contracted with the Pope, and of the letters honoured by
Escovedo, compromising his credit and honour.
Escovedo set out at the beginning of July, and D. John said good-
bye to him at Mechlin, little thinking he was sending him to be
treacherously killed by a sword-thrust in a lane at Madrid.
 CHAPTER XVI

T here was so much brave daring in D. John's act of entering alone

a country, for the most part rebel and not a little heretical, his
Spanish troops already dismissed, and without other guards than the
Duke of Arschot's Flemings, that the Prince of Orange and his
followers were amazed and understood that nothing would stop D.
John if he were not deprived of life or liberty. They determined,
therefore, to effect one or the other, and the numerous agents of
Orange, helped by those of the Queen of England, went about the
country spreading clever calumnies against him, to prepare the way,
maliciously interpreting all his acts and gradually making him and his
government hated. Faithful to the policy of peace which had been
enjoined on him, D. John wished to confer with Orange, and sent
the Duke of Arschot to tell him that the Provinces of Holland and
Zeeland were the only two which had not signed the "Perpetual
Edict," and as they were under his command D. John confided this
task to him. Orange then threw off that mask, which had gained for
him the surname of "Silent," and with which he had covered his
ambitions and mischievous designs, and answered Arschot that
Holland and Zeeland would never sign the "Perpetual Edict," as both
these provinces were Calvinistic and neither would promise to keep
the Roman faith, and taking off his hat and showing his bald head,
he said to the Duke, with a smile, "You see my head is bald (calva)!
Then know that it is not more so than my heart." This play upon
words signified that the traitor meant he was also a Calvinist, and his
apostasy being now known, all hopes of agreement were at an end.
In truth, Orange continued his infamous war of calumnies and
perfidious intrigues against D. John even more openly from this
time, and with the greatest effrontery as also all that he had hitherto
done in secret to the Catholic Church in the provinces of Holland and
Zeeland: persecuting the clergy, expelling monks and nuns,
destroying temples and altars, melting bells to make cannon,
confiscating ecclesiastical revenues for his own purse or those of his
partisans, and from the pulpits of Catholic churches making heretic
ministers preach the doctrines of Calvin. At such impious insolence
D. John proposed to the States to join their troops with those of the
King, and make war on Orange and seize the provinces he had
usurped; but the States put off his proposal with such shallow
excuses that D. John could easily see that mutual and secret
confidence existed between them and Orange. Meanwhile, in
Brussels, the want of confidence and even the hatred which the
agents and partisans of Orange the Silent had sown against the
Austrian, grew more and more. These men became so barefaced
that they wore special caps and medals with allusive letters, and the
authorities and deputies became so arrogant that they ordered D.
John to be called the Magistrate of Brussels, as if he were what we
should now call the Mayor. He answered that they must come and
see him, because it was not usual for the Magistrate to hear anyone
outside the Hôtel de Ville.
The solemn festivity which the magistrates were accustomed to
hold in the Hôtel de Ville, a banquet, always presided over by the
Governor-General, was about to take place. D. John received several
warnings not to attend it, as something was being contrived against
his person; but he, even more afraid of showing that he distrusted
the magistrates, came to occupy his place, accompanied by eighty
musketeers of his guard, who had orders that, happen what might,
they were to wound nobody. Half-way through the banquet a crowd
of seditious people attacked the Hôtel de Ville, intending to enter by
force, uttering insults and threats against the Austrian. The
musketeers drove them back without wounding any, but many of
them were hurt. D. John retired with those who remained uninjured,
leaving the magistrates to deal with the guilty ones, but they
overlooked this and let them go free, to show D. John that they did
not consider an affront to his person worth punishing. Then it came
to D. John's knowledge that the Baron of Hesse and Count de
Lalaing, with two other great lords, confirmed heretics, had
assembled one night in the house of another noble, and had
arranged with the English ambassador and more than 500
neighbours to take D. John at the first opportunity and to kill him if
he resisted. They thought that the procession of the Holy
Sacrament, called in Brussels the "Miracle," might afford a good one.
It took place on the 3rd of July and was always presided over by the
Governor-General. D. John did not wish to break with the States,
who were consenting to all this, and preferred to avoid the danger
by going to Mechlin on the pretence of settling the pay of the
German troops, who were asking for their money, which was in
arrears. But his friends did not think him safe there and so they told
him; because the conspirators, furious at their prey having escaped
them, armed the militia and took the road to Luxemburg, which was
a quiet place where D. John and Alexander Farnese could take
refuge, and to which the Spanish troops could return. With great
patience D. John thought it wise still to dissimulate, and found
another plausible excuse for leaving Mechlin and not returning to
Brussels and getting nearer to a strong and safe place. He went to
Namur, very quietly and calmly, to receive the Queen of Navarre,
Margaret of Valois, who was passing in order to take the waters of
Spa at Liége. This lady was the celebrated Queen Margot, first wife
of Henry IV of France, then at the summit of her vaunted beauty
and in the waxing period of her coquetry, which at last degenerated,
as it generally does, into shameless and complete dissoluteness.
Queen Margot entered Namur on the 24th of July in a litter
entirely made of glass, a present from D. John of Austria. The glass
of the litter was engraved with forty verses in Spanish and Italian, all
alluding to the sun and its effects, to which the poet gallantly
compared the beautiful Queen. D. John rode on her right, and their
persons were guarded by the forty archers who surrounded them;
they were preceded by a company of arquebusiers on horseback and
one hundred Germans forming two lines, and were followed by the
Princess de la Roche sur Yonne and Mme. de Tournon in litters; ten
maids of honour, as pretty, coquettish and flighty as their mistress,
were riding amid a crowd of gentlemen, who waited on them and
flirted with them; six coaches were in the rear with the rest of the
ladies, and the female servants and an escort of lancers on
horseback.
Queen Margot stayed four days in Namur, entertained all the time
magnificently by D. John; at eleven o'clock they dined in one of the
delicious gardens of the place, and then danced till the hour of
vespers, which they went devoutly to attend in some convent of
friars. Then they went for a ride and supped at six o'clock, also out
of doors in the gardens, when more dancing followed, or romantic
walks by the river in the moonlight with delightful music. The Bishop
of Liége, who had come there, was present at all these gatherings,
also the Canons and a crowd of native and foreign gentlemen,
among whom Margot made her treacherous propaganda, because
this bad woman, (as she always was in many ways) was in
connivance with the Prince of Orange, and was working secretly in
favour of her brother the Duke of Alençon, whom Orange wished to
appoint Governor of Flanders, D. John being a prisoner or dead.
Margot knew this, and she, being very much taken with him and not
wishing any harm to befall him, gave him several very useful
warnings; through her he knew that the conspirators of Brussels had
plans for carrying out their evil designs there in Namur, and then it
was that, in agreement with the loyal Count of Barlaimont and his
sons, he resolved to retire to the castle of Namur and break with the
States.
He was, however, ignorant of the number of the soldiers in the
castle, and how far it was safe to count on the Governor de Ives;
time pressed and he then formed a scheme, the execution of which
Vander Hammen refers to as follows: "Mos. de Hierges, eldest son of
the Count of Barlaimont, said that he would go to sleep that night at
the castle, as Mos. de Ives, the Governor, was a great friend of his;
and that His Highness would come next morning to hunt, and as he
passed, if he thought he could install himself in the castle, he would
put his hand to his beard as a signal, and if not he was to commend
himself to God and fly. They agreed on the plan and executed it the
following day, without telling the Council of the States or the
deputies or trusting them. He therefore pretended to go hunting,
and passing by the gate of the castle asked what it was. They
answered, 'One of the best in Flanders.' Monsieur de Barlaimont
then said, 'My eldest son is there: would Y.H. like us to see if he
wishes to go hunting?' D. John stopped and ordered him to be
called. He came to the gate; His Highness asked why he had gone to
sleep at a castle and had left the town, and then they began a
conversation. In the middle of it he said, 'If you like to see it, it is
still early and it will please them greatly,' and made the sign. D. John
turned to the Duke of Arschot and the Marquis de Havré, and said to
them, 'It is early, let us see it.' With this he reached the door and
dismounted, carrying a pistol he had taken from the saddle-bow.
Twenty-four Spanish lackeys preceded him. As relations were not
ruptured, Mos. de Ives ordered the few Walloons (they were old
soldiers, wearied by long wars) to open the door, and the twenty-
four lackeys entered and disarmed the guard. The Lord D. John,
standing at the door, said, 'All who are servants of the King, my
Lord, come here to me,' and turning to Ives, he told him 'not to fear,
because he had taken the castle for the King, his Lord, to whom it
belonged, to free himself from a conspiracy formed against him.' He
gave him the keys and permission to leave to all those who did not
wish to stay with him. Nobody stirred, all mounted with him.
Upstairs he took Arschot and Havré on one side, and told them all
that had passed and the treaty they had made, and showed them
his letters. The Duke, being convinced, offered, in the name of the
States, to acknowledge him Lord of Flanders, and said that all would
readily obey him if he liked to take them as vassals; but the Lord D.
John reproved him very severely for the offer, and said many angry
words. It was only his courage and loyalty which could do so heroic
an action and resist such a great temptation. The talk ended by the
two leaving the castle and going to the town, where their wives
were; but on reaching it they, also Mos. de Capres and the soldiers
who had come to capture His Highness fled, so hurriedly, that they
scarcely collected their clothes, saying that there was nothing further
to do there as he had escaped them. D. John's chief almoner, the
Abbot de Meroles, who was crafty and untrustworthy, followed them
with a few others. D. John heard of the flight of the Duke and the
Marquis, and at once sent Octavio Gonzaga after them, with rather
more than twenty gentlemen, to make them return, but they fled in
such good earnest that he could not overtake them."
The Duchess of Arschot and the Marchioness of Havré, who were
at Namur, indignant at the bad conduct of their husbands, wrote to
D. John protesting and offering themselves as hostages. He
answered that his mission was to serve ladies, not to make them
captive, and sent them 600 crowns, so that they might rejoin their
husbands. So impoverished was D. John that to obtain this money
he had to borrow from the gentlemen and servants who had
followed him. Bad as this was, the worst part of D. John's situation
was that Philip II persisted in upholding that policy of peace, which
was encouraging the States more and more, forbidding the Spanish
regiments to return to Flanders to continue the war, which D. John
thought absolutely necessary, and as a means of forcing him to this
obedience, against his opinions and wishes Philip adopted the plan
of sending no money whatever to Flanders or answering the
frequent and despairing letters the poor Prince wrote, which, after
four centuries, give one pain to read. But what was the most
extraordinary, and which immersed D. John in a sea of fears and
perplexities and made him foresee grave catastrophes, was that his
false friend Antonio Pérez did not write either, and the good and
loyal Escovedo preserved the same silence.
 CHAPTER XVII

T o understand properly the complicated reasons which induced

Philip II to leave his brother D. John of Austria without help in
such an uncalled-for way, it is necessary to disentangle the skein,
among whose threads will be found the mysterious and tragic death
of the secretary Juan de Escovedo. Some light has been thrown on
the gloomy drama which shows that various figures are stained with
this innocent blood. By these sinister signs we are able to trace, and
through many winding ways to establish, the connection of certain
deeds which show by themselves the characters and degree of
responsibility of these persons.
We must retrace our steps to the year 1569, and on a beautiful
June afternoon we shall see slowly entering Pastrana a covered
waggon of the sort still called "galeras." The mysterious vehicle
excited much curiosity, and a crowd of men, women and children
gathered round it when it stopped at the threshold of the ducal
palace of Pastrana, whose heavy doors opened to receive it, leaving
the curious outside. In the first courtyard Prince Ruy Gómez de Silva
and his wife the Princess de Évoli were waiting with all their children,
even down to the babies in the arms of their nurses and maids, the
duennas, waiting-maids, pages and other retainers in rows,
according to their standing. All eyes were fixed on the waggon, with
curiosity mingled with respect, and those in the back row stood on
tiptoe to see better. The curtains of the cart were at last withdrawn,
and Ruy Gómez and his wife went forward respectfully; all heads
were stretched out, and an old woman, who had been in the service
of the Condesa del Mélito, the mother of the Princess, fell on her
knees and beat upon her breasts. Three strange figures alighted,
such as were never seen about the streets at that time; they wore
tunics of coarse cloth, white cloaks of the same material, and their
bare feet were shod with sandals of esparto grass; long, thick black
veils covered their faces and almost all their persons. A small bundle
tied up in a cloth was carried under the cloak by the last figure to
alight.
All these marks of curiosity and respect, however, were well
justified, as the woman who was first to get out, dressed in the
coarse cloth, was St. Theresa de Jesus, who was come to found a
convent of barefooted Carmelites at Pastrana. It was not two years
since Ruy Gómez had come into possession of his duchy, and he was
hastening to do all he could for the material and moral welfare of his
vassals. He wished to establish a monastery in his town, and the
Princess a convent for women, which she had given over to Mother
Theresa, attracted by the wonderful things she had heard of this
marvellous woman, and anxious to flatter her own curiosity and
vanity by associating herself with one with whom God held familiar
intercourse and to whom He showed such stupendous wonders. The
saint accepted the offer; she was just beginning her great reforms,
and for this purpose went from Toledo to Pastrana, passing by
Madrid, where she stayed with an old friend of ours and a devoted
follower of the saint, Doña Leonor Mascareñes, in the Franciscan
convent which Doña Leonor had founded and to which she had
retired. She gave Mother Theresa many details of the Princess's
difficult temper, having known her well at Court. Well primed with
this information the saint went to Pastrana, where she arrived
towards the end of June. Here, she says in her book about her
foundations, "I found the Princess and the Prince Ruy Gómez, who
received me very well; they gave me a private apartment, which was
more than I could have expected, because the house was so small
that the Princess had had much of it pulled down and rebuilt, not
the walls, but many things. We were there for three months, hard
times, the Princess asking me things contrary to our religion. I had
even determined to leave rather than give in, but the Prince Ruy
Gómez, in his gentle way (he was very gentle and sensible), made
his wife come to reason." Besides the troubles alluded to by the
saint the Princess made others from her capricious, domineering
character and want of fine feeling. She had heard that St. Theresa
was very beautiful, in spite of being fifty-four, and she was dying of
curiosity to see her face, but the saint would not consent to show it
to her, nor did she or her companions ever lift their veils before the
Princess or anybody else. This exasperated the Princess, and she
was always peeping through the windows and keyhole hoping to
surprise Theresa in one of her trances, in which Our Lord used to
appear to her. Theresa laughed at what she calls stupidities, but in
the end this constant prying worried and became intolerable to her.
The Princess also gave her another real cause for annoyance;
knowing that her confessor had ordered her to write her wonderful
life, the Princess, full of curiosity, wished to read it. Mother Theresa
refused with much firmness; this piqued the capricious lady, who
wrote to the saint's superiors, asking them to order her to let the
Princess read the manuscript she had with her at Pastrana. They,
being either very complacent or not knowing the Princess's
character, did not hesitate to give the order. Theresa obeyed without
delay, and then the Princess triumphed. She greedily read the
ingenuous pages in which the divine marvels are told with such
sublime simplicity; they excited her imagination, and, like all
talkative women, feeling the necessity of imparting her feelings, she
committed the breach of confidence of giving the manuscript to her
duennas, waiting-maids and pages. So from hand to hand, in hall
and antechamber, went the mysterious outpouring of the Virgen del
Carmel, and so many comments were made that they reached the
ears of the Inquisitor, who sent for the book. The severe tribunal
kept it for ten years and then returned it without observation or
alteration, but not before all this had caused very great annoyance.
At last the foundation was finished, and Mother Theresa left for
Salamanca and the Prince and Princess for Madrid, where a year
afterwards Ruy Gómez died in his house in the lane of St. Mary. He
expired in the arms of his old and faithful friend Juan de Escovedo;
his last moments were aided by two barefooted Carmelite friars who
came from Pastrana. The Princess gave way to paroxysms of grief,
which were more like fits of temper; in the first moments she roared
rather than wept over her sorrow, as she really loved the worthy
man who had gratified her vanity and her senses, the only two poles
which guided this lady's life. Suddenly, thinking herself like St.
Theresa, inspired by Heaven, she determined at once to retire to the
Carmelite convent at Pastrana and end her days in retirement and
prayer. In vain the two monks, her relations and friends put before
her her obligations as a mother, the duties which the will of Ruy
Gómez imposed on her by making her guardian of her children, and
her strict obligation to administer the properties and fortunes of
these minors.
The widow's obstinacy was fanned by this opposition, and as her
only answer she requested the two friars to give her the habit. They
replied that they could not do so without the permission of the
superiors and the authorisation of Mother Theresa. The Princess
shrugged her shoulders and ordered a new habit, but as one was
not forthcoming at once, she attired herself in an old, dirty one and
covered herself with a black veil, as she had seen St. Theresa do,
never raising it to show her face. As the sandals of esparto grass
hurt her bare feet she ordered them to be lined with the softest
cloth. She also ordered a waggon covered with an awning like St.
Theresa's, and with her duennas and maids set out for Pastrana,
without taking leave of anyone and abandoning the body of her
husband. Her mother, the Princess del Mélito, got into the cart
almost by main force, so as to accompany her to the convent. One
of the friars, Bartholomé de Jesus, seeing that she was really going,
outstripped the Princess's waggon and arrived at the convent at two
in the morning to warn the nuns. The Prioress, Elizabeth de San
Domingo, a discreet woman of rare virtue, came downstairs, and on
hearing that the Princess was arriving in a few hours, already
habited as a nun and with the intention of remaining at the convent,
exclaimed, clasping her hands in amazement, "The Princess a nun—
then I give up this house as lost."
 CHAPTER XVIII

T he author of the "History of the Reforms of the Barefooted Order

of Our Lady of Carmel," Fr. Francisco de Santamaria, thus
describes the arrival of the Princess de Évoli at the convent of
Pastrana. "The Prioress called the nuns, got ready the house, and
prepared two beds, one for the Princess, the other for her mother,
who arrived at eight o'clock in the morning. The Princess changed
her habit, as the one she had taken in Madrid was neither suitable
nor so clean as it might have been. She rested for a while, and
suddenly showing her determination wished that the habit should be
given at once to the two waiting-maids she had brought with her,
paying with a little sackcloth the salaries of long years. The Prioress
answered that the licence of the prelate was necessary. She said,
very much offended, 'What have friars to do with my convent?' Not
without resentment on the Princess's part, the Mother Prioress
deferred doing it until she had consulted the Father Prior. Having
conferred with him she resolved to give them the habit. This was
done in the parlour, the Princess being placed between the two, so
that she might also attain the blessings. They took her to eat meat
with her mother in a room apart. She dispensed with this service
and went to the refectory, and leaving the place near the Prioress
which had been prepared for her took one of the lowest, without
giving in to prayers and exhortations, preserving superiority in an
inferior place.
"The Prioress, considering that such self-will would cause much
trouble, consulted with the Princess, her mother, that it would be
better if the lady took a part of the house, where she could live with
her servants and be visited by secular people, with a door to go to
the cloister when she wished, but not any secular person to use it.
This seemed to everyone good advice, but she thought it bad, as it
was not hers, and she remained as she was in the convent.

PRINCESA DE ÉVOLI
 From a print of her portrait by Sanchez Coello,
belonging to Duque du Pastrana

"The next day, having buried the Prince and performed the
obsequies, the Bishop of Segorbe and other persons of rank who
were there came to visit her. Mother Elizabeth told her to talk to
them at the grating, but she wished that they should come into the
cloister, and made such a point of this that, in spite of the monks,
nuns, and laymen who came to visit her, they opened the doors of
the convent and many servants entered with the lords, overthrowing
the decrees of the Council, the orders of the holy Mother, the silence
and retirement of the nuns and all good government, because lords
do not think that they need obey laws. Not content with this she
insisted on having two secular maids; the Mother Prioress offered
that she herself and everyone would wait on her, especially two
novices formerly in her service, but nothing would satisfy her, as she
thought that she should be obeyed.
"The Mother Elizabeth wrote to our Mother St. Theresa, telling her
of the death of the Prince, the resolution of the Princess, and the
first episodes she had gone through with her.
"Mother Elizabeth and two of the oldest nuns told her that if she
went on in this way, they knew that the holy foundation would take
them away and put them where they could keep their rules, of more
importance in her eyes than all the Grandees in the world. Annoyed
by this, she took her servants and went to a hermitage in the
orchard, and remained there, having nothing to do with the nuns.
They sent her, however, the novices to wait on her, they not being
yet so bound by the rules of the cloister.
"From there a door opened into the street, by which she admitted
everyone, modifying thereby the grief for her husband's death.
Because of all this the work of the church and convent stopped and
the alms which Ruy Gómez had left for its support, so that it began
to suffer great straits."
 But as all this lasted too long, and since the Princess would not
give in and the troubles went on, so that all peace and quiet were at
an end, and the "dovecot of the Virgin," as St. Theresa called it, was
turned into a nest of intrigues and gossip, the saint wrote to the
Prioress that she and all the nuns were to leave Pastrana and go to
the convent in Segovia. This, however, was not necessary, as the
superiors of the Order went to the King, and, acting with him,
obliged the Princess to leave the convent. She then retired to her
country house at Pastrana, and from there carried on such a
campaign against the nuns and persecuted them so cruelly that
Theresa, weary of it, ordered the Prioress to leave the convent with
all the nuns, taking nothing with them that had been given by the
Princess. "The beds," says the saint in her "Book of Foundations,"
"and the little things that the nuns themselves had brought, they
took away with them, leaving the village people very sad. I saw
them in peace with the greatest joy, because I was well informed
that the displeasure of the Princess was no fault of theirs, rather
they waited on her as before she wore the habit."
The Princess then sought for a Franciscan community to establish
in the empty convent, and she helped and made much of them as
she had never done before to the others. She took care that this
should reach the ears of St. Theresa, her small, vindictive nature
thinking that human jealousies could have a place in that heart
which was protected by divine love. In the midst of this wretched
strife the grief of the Princess had lessened, and in 1575 she already
thought of returning to Madrid, so her father the Prince de Mélito
wrote to the King's secretary Mateo Vázguez, that he might inform
Philip and gain his support in her lawsuits. According to his custom,
the King answered on the margin of Mateo Vázguez's letter, in these
very severe words: "Here is the paper, which I have seen, and by
the prudence, which I have exercised all my life, of not mixing
myself in the affairs of these persons, it will be well to do what is
said here; and the more as I do not know if for these affairs and
lawsuits the coming (of the Princess) is necessary, but I am certain
that for their conscience and peace, and, who knows, their honour, it
is best that she should not come here; and even for keeping the
friendship of her father and mother, as she herself says, that when
absent they are friends, but cannot be so when they are together.
And Ruy Gómez often told me, and well I know that it was much
against his will that she should come here as a widow, and that he
would be sorry if he knew that she did it; and it is not reasonable
that I should order a thing I know to have been so certainly against
his wishes. And, moreover, I do not know if this would suit all of us
of the Court, especially those who cannot leave it. Thus, although I
should have to mix in such matters, I will not in this one, particularly
as I have long since determined not to do so. Otherwise I should be
pleased to favour Ruy Gómez's relations, as his services deserve.
This for yourself, as it cannot be said to others. And you must see
how you can answer Mélito, excusing me from interfering about his
daughter's coming."
The precise date of the Princess de Évoli's arrival in Madrid is not
known; we think that she came for short and frequent visits in 1575
and settled there the next year. She would then realise that it was
not the same thing to be the widow as the wife of Ruy Gómez, and
many rude awakenings soured her proud spirit. The secretary
Antonio Pérez began to frequent her house at this time, and these
two monsters of vanity were attracted by, and suited to, each other.
He, a political puppet, sought from her the prestige that intimacy
with such a great and high-born lady as the Princess could give him,
for, in spite of all his grandeur and luxury and power, then at its
height, he never could forget his base and lowly origin. She, on her
part, sought in him what she had lost by the death of Ruy Gómez, a
share of power and influence, easier to manage from the hands of
the unworthy Antonio Pérez than from those of the level-headed
Prince de Évoli: "I can do more than ever," said the Princess proudly
a little later to one of her correspondents.
The lady was at this time thirty-six, and in spite of the superlative
praise of her beauty that Antonio Pérez gives in his "Relaciones," it
was not then extraordinary, nor ever could have been so. None of
her contemporaries mention it, and the only authentic portrait
known of her represents her as a nice-looking girl, dreadfully
disfigured by a black patch which covered her blind eye, and
specially noticeable from the whiteness of her skin and the blackness
of her hair. Antonio Pérez was forty-two, and was, according to Luis
Cabrera de Córdoba, "a good-looking man, with a handsome, manly
face, over sumptuously and curiously dressed, perfumed, and
pompous in his house." The inevitable happened: the sudden
intimacy of two people, so well known, after years of slight
acquaintance, caused them to be talked about, and the frequency
and familiarity of the visits at unsuitable hours, and, above all, the
endless exchange of presents, until mine and thine hardly existed
between them, let loose among all the Court that gossip which
previously had only been timidly circulated, as the Marqúes de
Fabara had whispered to D. John. Then, in the presence of Antonio
Pérez, she committed the treacherous act of a plotting woman; she
called her children and told them not to be astonished at his visits or
the affection he showed for them, because he was the son of Ruy
Gómez and therefore their brother.
At this historical moment Escovedo arrived from Flanders (July,
1577), sent by D. John to Madrid to represent to Philip how cut off
he was, and the grave risks that these States and his own person
ran. Escovedo had not forgotten, among his many preoccupations,
the adventure at the Chorrillos, that D. John had told him of to
moderate his zeal for the Princess de Évoli, and one of his first cares
on reaching Madrid was to inform himself of the state of the case. At
once he found that the fact was true, the scandal public, and the
honoured memory of Ruy Gómez degraded by the lightness of the
widow and the horrible ingratitude of Antonio Pérez, who owed
everything to this great patrician. Loyal Escovedo was greatly
distressed, and wishing to retrieve the honour of his dead benefactor
and friend went to the house of the Princess, intending to warn and
counsel her with all the regard he had for her. She was in the saloon
with Doña Brianda de Gúzman; he waited patiently until this lady
had left, and then spoke, not with his usual brusqueness, but with
deep and affectionate concern, of the dreadful rumours that were
going about, and said that she must close her door to Antonio Pérez
in order not to give support to them. Blind with rage on hearing him,
the Princess rose, and in an unsteady voice answered that "it did not
concern squires what great ladies did." And with this she turned and
went to the further end of the room. All of which is told by Doña
Catalina de Herrera, duenna to the Princess.
 CHAPTER XIX

D uring this time the diabolical craftiness of Antonio Pérez had

again stirred into a flame Philip's slumbering suspicions of his
brother. Absolute master of the King's confidence, and also master of
that which he had treacherously obtained by pretending to favour
the interests of D. John and Escovedo, it was easy for this past
master of perfidy and intrigue to tangle the skein. The unfortunate
troubles in Flanders had put an end to the English scheme; and
Philip's tenacity in following the policy of peace when only that of
war was possible helped Antonio Pérez very much. D. John and
Escovedo often wrote to him, as faithful friends pursuing the same
end, telling him of their plans and their fears, grumbling to him, and
begging for his powerful support with the King. For his part Antonio
Pérez took the echo of all this to D. Philip, but not as it was, sincere
and frank, always loyal and noble, if sometimes violent, but changed
in its meaning, exaggerated, its text even altered when deciphered
by Fernando de Escobar, a creature of Antonio Pérez. He answered
them, in agreement with Philip, trying to maintain their confidence,
and his hypocrisy went the length of letting disrespectful words
against the Monarch slip into his letters, in the hope that seeing
these they would imitate his example, which he never succeeded in
making them do.
Sending one of these insidious letters for D. John to the deceived
Sovereign for his approval, Antonio Pérez wrote:
"Sir, It is necessary to hear and write in this manner for
your service, because thus they fall into the net, and one is
better able to judge what course to take on behalf of your
Majesty. And I would ask your Majesty to be careful not to
be overlooked when reading these documents, as if my
 artifice were discovered, I could not serve you, and should
have to give up the game. For the rest, I very well know,
that for my conscience and duty I am acting as I ought in
this matter, and I have need of no more casuistry than I
possess to know it."
The King answered Pérez on the margin of the letter: "Believe me,
I am very discreet, and my casuistry agrees with yours; and not only
are you doing your duty, but you would fail in doing it towards God
and everyone if you acted differently, in order that I may be well
enlightened of all that is necessary according to the twists and turns
of the world and its affairs, which certainly frighten me."
Thus deceiving Philip II and betraying and calumniating D. John
and Escovedo, Antonio Pérez made the false and subtle plot by
which the hero of Lepanto lost his credit with the King, and honest
Escovedo his life by a treacherous sword-thrust. Pérez, in his
"Memorial," shows the threads of the plot, whose falseness Philip II
found out later, and which modern history has proved by many
authentic documents. That D. John had disobeyed the King by
refusing to dismantle Tunis, the better to raise himself in that
kingdom; that behind the King's back he had sought protection from
Rome; that he put the English expedition before all the King's
interests; that he exaggerated the state of affairs in Flanders, in
order to get aid from Spain to use in the said expedition; that, once
master of England, he contemplated invading Spain at Santander,
making over the castle of Mogro to Escovedo, who had solicited its
lieutenancy; that the hope of the English expedition over, he thought
of going to the help of the King of France at the head of the Spanish
troops; that his wish to return to Spain was only to obtain a canopy
and take possession of the government; that behind the King's back
he had made a league with the Guise Princes, called the "Defence of
the two Crowns," going back to the idea of invading England.
All these absurd, senseless plans Antonio Pérez did not attribute
entirely to D. John. As formerly he represented Juan de Soto, so now
he held up Escovedo as the instigator and principal agent, and D.
John as a weak prince, who, devoured by ambition and blind
through his vivid imagination, allowed himself to be dragged into
disloyal adventures. For this, and perhaps because he loved D. John
and was frightened of him, Philip II never showed his suspicion, nor
took any steps against him, and took much trouble afterwards to
hide his vengeance from him; so all his wrath fell on Escovedo, and
he came to look on this rough and honest mountaineer as a
dangerous man, capable of every treason and every crime. It is not
wonderful that Escovedo's unexpected coming to Madrid in July,
1577, which we noted in a former chapter, should have given D.
Philip a great shock; writing, as usual, on the margin of the letter in
which Antonio Pérez announced the arrival of Escovedo at
Santander, he says, "It will be necessary to be well prepared, and to
make haste to dispatch him before he kills us."
Escovedo came, furious at what he considered the
incomprehensible way D. John had been left without soldiers or
money; furious also at Philip's policy of peace, which he presumed to
describe as overdone, writing to the King himself, and finally
determined, with all his rough energy, to claim the acceptance of the
bills he had negotiated in Brussels, and the payment of the 80,000
gold crowns lent to D. John by the Pope's Nuncio, that the troops
might be dismissed from Flanders. This he did with such hard words
and bitter reproaches, that Philip sent one of Escovedo's letters to
Pérez, adding on the margin, "That you should see how he comes
thirsting for blood." And shortly afterwards, lamenting over another
letter from Escovedo, he wrote, "Certainly if he said to me what he
writes, I do not know if I could have helped losing my temper as he
does."
 Photo Lacoste

PHILIP II AS AN OLD MAN

Pantoja de la Cruz. Prado Gallery, Madrid

At last the news of D. John's retirement to the castle of Namur

reached the Court, and the despairing letters of the distressed Prince
began to arrive, in which, with such painful urgency, he craves for
the return of Escovedo. "Money, money, and more money, and
Escovedo," he repeats in all his letters of this date. His anxiety to
have his secretary at his side, and the same feeling which was
noticed in Escovedo to return as quickly as possible to Flanders,
awoke in D. Philip the suspicion that something was being plotted to
continue the war there against his orders, and to favour D. John's
pretensions. Antonio Pérez fanned this new fire, and henceforward
Escovedo was in D. Philip's eyes a constant danger, a State criminal,
who could not be sent back to Flanders, for fear lest he would carry
out his work, or kept in Spain, without the risk of rousing the
dreaded ire of D. John. For several days this vexed and perplexed
Philip, until at last he made a resolution which Antonio Pérez himself
relates in a letter to Gil de Mesa.
One day Philip called him to his room in the Escorial. It was at an
inconvenient time, and the secretary hastily ran, carrying the
dispatches in a large bag. The King came to the door to meet him,
and took him, with much mystery, to a distant, isolated room, where
the furniture, ornaments and treasures for the still unfurnished
house were stored. The King ordered Pérez to shut the door and put
the bag of papers on the table. The furniture was stacked at the two
sides, leaving a passage in the middle, up and down which Philip
began to walk, his hands behind his back, preoccupied and
thoughtful. Pérez kept a respectful silence, waiting for the King to
break it, which he did at last, standing in front of Pérez, and saying
very slowly and in measured tones, "Antonio Pérez, I have passed
many sleepless nights on account of my brother's affairs, or rather
those of Juan de Escovedo and his predecessor Juan de Soto, and
the point to which their plots have come, and I consider it is very
necessary to take a resolution quickly, or we shall not be in time.
And I can find no better remedy, in fact there is no other, than
getting rid of Juan de Escovedo. Imprisoning him would result in
exasperating my brother as much as killing him would. So I have
determined on it, and trust this deed to no one but you, because of
your well-proved fidelity and your ingenuity, as well known as your
fidelity. Because you know all the plots, and I owe the discovery of
them to you, yours shall be the hand to effect the cure. Speed is
very necessary for the reasons you know."
As he himself affirms, the heart of Antonio Pérez leapt, and he
answered the King with great devotion that he was entirely his, and
that he had no more wish or movement than the hand as regards its
owner. But, as his cunning forethought always saw a long way
ahead, he at once realised the risk that he ran in a matter so secret
and with so powerful an accomplice, if he did not have a witness in
his interest to note the facts, if things were ever discovered, and to
share the responsibilities in case of disagreement, so he craftily
added, "But, Sir, let Y.M. permit me to speak with the presumption of
love. I consider Y.M. outside this affair, although your prudence and
presence of mind prevent your being incensed at the greatest
crimes, I, as I might get angry at such offences against your person
and crown, also have much interest in this. It will be well to bring in
a third person to judge this determination, to justify it, and for the
better ascertaining of the facts. This will be much to the point."
Then he saw the King come towards him, who, stopping,
answered: "Antonio Pérez, if it is because you do not care to run the
risk of this business that you wish for a third person, it is the same
to me. To settle the matter I do not require a third person. Kings in
such extreme cases have to act like King's physicians and great
doctors among their inferiors with patients under their care: that in
grave and urgent accidents they act on their own authority with
promptitude, although in other illnesses they act with and follow the
consultations of other doctors. Moreover, in these matters (believe
me that what I say relates to my profession) there is more danger
than security in consultations."
Antonio Pérez makes the following comment on these royal words
in his letter to Gil de Mesa: "When old kings come to announcing
such principles of their art, either they love much (a rare thing) or
necessity opens the door of confidence (a certain fact)."
Well Antonio Pérez must have known and measured Philip's
necessity when he determined to press him to interpose a third
person, and even presumed to propose his friend and boon
companion the Marqués de los Vélez, D. Pedro Fajardo, who was a
Councillor of State and Lord Steward to the Queen Doña Ana. At last
Philip consented, and authorised Antonio Pérez to consult him. The
secretary had little trouble in bringing the old noble to his opinion, a
despot himself, a great soldier but absolutely illiterate, who
considered Pérez an oracle, and for some years had owed D. John a
grudge for having usurped, as he said, the triumph over the Moors.
Pérez talked to him, and both agreed that Escovedo deserved to
die as a disturber of the kingdom who was trying to make war in
Flanders; that it was impossible to arrest, judge and sentence him in
the ordinary way without risk of awaking the alarm of D. John and
provoking fresh conflicts; but the King, as supreme arbiter of his
subjects' lives, according to the precepts and practices of those
times, could judge and sentence him by the secret law of his
conscience, without any legal transactions, and entrust the execution
of this sentence to some person in his confidence, whom he should
authorise by a paper in his own writing, "and that the best and least
inconvenient way would be that with some mouthful or other similar
means he should get out of the trouble, and even this with the
greatest care, as the Lord D. John might not suspect it was the
result of the true cause and motive, but of some vengeance and
private grudge."
And then the Marqués de los Vélez, with all the customary
pomposity of a wind-bag, and with all the jealous rancour which he
nourished, pronounced these words so often quoted by the
apologists of Antonio Pérez, "That if his opinion were asked, with the
Sacrament in his mouth, who was the person it was most important
to take away, Juan de Escovedo or anyone else, he would vote for
Juan de Escovedo."
In conformity, then, with this interview Philip II judged Escovedo
and condemned him to death by the law of his conscience, and
charged Antonio Pérez with the execution of the sentence,
authorising him by a paper written by his own hand, in which he
adds, "That although it may be realised that he has nothing to do
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