Waves

A wave is a mode of transfer of energy from one point to another through a medium or
vacuum. There are two types of waves: Longitudinal Waves (e.g. sound waves) need a
medium to pass through and Transverse waves (e.g. light waves) not require medium to
pass through. However, transverse waves can pass the through a medium experiencing
retardation. The longitudinal and transverse waves pass through a same medium with
different speed. Moon has no atmosphere, so no sound can travel on the moon.

Formulae
Progressive Wave:
• The longitudinal or transverse waves pass through a medium and the medium does not
move so these waves are called progressive or transverse waves. The equation of a
progressive waves is given by
y ( x, t ) = A sin (kx - ωt +  ) .

• Displacement: The displacement y ( x, t ) of wave motion from mean position (or the
particle that set into motion by wave energy) at any time t.
• Amplitude: The amplitude of a wave ‘a’ is maximum displacement.
• Time Period: The time taken by a wave to complete one cycle of displacement: 0 to
maximum (A) to 0 again is called the time period T of the wave.
• Frequency f: The total number of complete cycles in 1 second.
• Angular frequency of wave ω = 2πf = 2π / T .
• Wavelength: The wavelength λ of a wave is distance travelled by a wave in one cycle.
• Wave vector k (Propagation factor) indicates the direction of wave and its magnitude
is k = 2π / λ .
• The angle  is called initial phase. (at t = 0)

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Speed of Wave:
• The relation between velocity v , wavelength λ and frequency of f is given as v = fλ .
• The speed v of a wave in a string of linear mass density (mass/ length) stretched with
T
tension T is calculated by the formula, v = .
m
• The velocity of a wave in an elastic medium of density d and coefficient of elasticity E is
E
given by v = .
d
• The velocity of a wave in gases of coefficient of elasticity B (Bulk modulus) and density d
B
is given v = .
d
• The velocity of a wave in solids of coefficient of elasticity Y (Bulk modulus) and density
Y
ρ d is given v = .
ρ
P
• The velocity of sound waves in air/ gas is given by v = , P the pressure, d the density
d
Cp B=P
of air and  = . Actually, the velocity of wave in gas should be v =
but with this
Cv d
formula the velocity comes v= 300 m/s but correct value is 332 m/s to 340 m/s. To
correct the formula Laplace included  that is why  is known as Laplace correction.

Superposition of Waves:
• The resultant displacement (resultant effect) of two or more waves at a point equals the
algebraic sum of all the waves under consideration. The resultant displacement of two
waves y1 ( x, t ) = A sin (kx - ωt ) and y 2 ( x, t ) = A sin (kx - ωt +  ) is again a wave given by
y ( x, t ) = y1 ( x, t ) + y 2 ( x, t )
    
= A sin (kx - ωt ) + A sin (kx - ωt +  ) = 2Acos sin  kx - ωt +  = AR sin  kx - ωt + 
2  2  2

• A R = 2Acos is the resultant amplitude whose maximum value is 2A.
2
 π
• The waves are called out of phase when = .
2 2
Reflection of Waves:
• A wave reflected when it strike a rigid boundary. If y ( x, t ) = A sin (kx - ωt ) is a forward
wave, its reflected wave will be yR ( x, t ) = A sin (kx - ωt + π ) .
• A wave y ( x, t ) = A sin (kx - ωt ) reflected from open boundary remains the same.
• The phenomenon of echo is an example of reflection by a rigid boundary.

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• When a wave incidents obliquely on the boundary between two different media, the
transmitted wave is called the refracted wave. The incident and refracted waves obey
Snell’s law of refraction, and the incident and reflected waves obey the laws of reflection.

Standing Waves and Normal Modes:

• The reflection of a wave y ( x, t ) = A sin (kx - ωt ) as new wave y ( x, t ) = A sin (kx + ωt ) from
rigid boundary is shown in Fig. here.

• The resultant wave of above two waves is yR ( x, t ) = A sin (kx - ωt ) + A sin (kx + ωt ) =
yR ( x, t ) = 2A sin (kx ) cos ( ωt ) .
• The resultant wave yR ( x, t ) = 2A sin (kx ) cos ( ωt ) is confined between two rigid boundary
is called standing wave.
• The resultant of two waves is zero at points called Nodes of standing wave. For which
2π λ
2A sin (kx ) cos ( ωt ) = 0 ,sin (kx ) = 0  kx = nπ  x = nπ  x = n , n = 0,1,2,… ,
λ 2
λ 3
• Nodes occur at x = 0, , λ, λ, …
2 2
• The resultant of two waves is zero at points called Antinodes of standing wave.
For which,

2A sin (kx ) cos ( ωt )max  sin (kx )max = kx = (2n + 1) π2  2π

λ
x = (2n + 1 )
π
2
λ
 x = ( 2n + 1) , n = 0,1,2,…
4
λ 3λ 5λ
• Antinodes occur at points x = , , ,…
4 4 4

• The nodes and antinodes in stationary or standing waves are called normal modes of
vibrations or oscillations

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• If the stationary or standing

waves occur in a stretched
string of length L then for nodes
λ
L = n , so L = n
(v / f )
2 2
v
 f = n , n = 1,2,3, .
2L

• The mode with lowest possible

v v v
frequency f = is called ‘Fundamental mode’ or first harmonic. f = 2 = 2 is called
2L 2L 2L
second harmonic.
• Nodes are the points where the displacement is minimum, strain is maximum and
change in pressure and density also maximum.
• Antinodes are the points where the displacement is maximum, strain is minimum and
no change in pressure and density.

Energy Density (Level) of Sound Waves:

• The sound waves carry energy and this energy per unit volume of space is known as the
energy density denoted by w and given by
E pv
w = = particle J / m3 , or kg/ms2 or Pascal (Pa).
V v wave
• The level (L) of energy density (E) of sound waves is measured in Decibel or dB given by

E
L(E) = 10log10   dB , where E 0 is the standard energy density E0 = 10-12Pa .
 E0 

• Some sound levels in dB are: Breathing (normal)- 10 dB, Whispering – 30 dB, Normal
conversation – 60 dB, city traffic 85-90 dB, Train pressure horns -95-100 dB, Music
stereo music systems – 105-110 dB, shouting/barking 110 dB, Sirens 120 dB and Fire-
crackers 140-150 db.

Normal Modes of Oscillations in Pipes:

Case I- Pipe Closed at One end: When pipe is closed at one end only odd harmonics
 1 v
fn =  n +  are possible shown in Fig here:
 2  2L
v
Case II- Pipe open at both ends: When pipe is closed at one end only odd harmonics fn = n
2L
are possible shown in Figure here

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End Correction:
Lord Raleigh observed that at the open end of the pipe the antinode does not formed form
exactly at the end of the pipe rather it forms at distance e  0.6r , r the radius of the pipe. So,
v
for an open pipe fundamental frequency of closed (at one end) pipe is n1 = and for
4 (l + 0.6r )
v
open (at both ends) is n1 = .
2 (l + 1.2r )
Resonance Tube:

It is a closed pipe set-up to determine velocity or frequency of sound wave/ tuning fork etc.
Resonance is a condition when frequency of sound wave match with the sound producing
device generally tuning fork. If first high sound occurs at length L1 of the pipe and second
occurs at length L 2 then L1 = λ / 4 and L2 = 3λ / 4 , so λ = 2 (L 2 -L1 ) and the frequency f of sound
v v
producing device is f = = .
λ 2 (L2 -L1 )

Phenomenon of Beats:
• When two sound waves of nearly same frequency superimpose then there is ups and
down in the intensities of resultant wave. This phenomenon is known as the beats.
• Suppose two sound waves or harmonics y1 = acosω1 t , ω1 = 2πf1 , and y2 = acosω 2 t ,
ω2 = 2πf2 superimpose then the beat frequency is fbeat = f1 f2 .
• Formation of beats is shown here:

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