A THESIS SUBMITTED TO UNIVERSAL MINISTRIES OF

THE KING’S COLLEGE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Sustainable Municipal Solid Waste Management

A Case Study of Vientiane Capital, Laos

FEBUARY 2024
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of investigation and relentless efforts
of my own research and studies. The research was carried out at Universal Ministries of
the King’s College under supervision of Dr. Danai SARAPRUG.

This research and studies have not been accepted for any degree, and is also not being
concurrently submitted for any other degree.

-----------------------------
Virasack CHUNDARA
 ABSTRACT

Waste materials result from human activities and are often discarded because they are
considered useless or harmful. Many countries throughout the world, especially developing
countries, face rapid urban development and environmental challenges due to solid waste. Solid
waste production is a worldwide issue that continues to exhibit significant and increasing rates
in terms of quantity and variety. World cities generate about 1.3 billion tons of solid waste per
year and this is expected to increase to 2.2 billion tons by 2025 and by 2030, the world is
expected to generate 2.59 billion tons of waste annually and by 2050 waste generation across
the world is expected to reach 3.40 billion tons. Furthermore, the global annual cost for solid
waste management will increase from $205.4 billion in 2012 to about $375.5 billion in 2025.
Waste composition in high-income countries is quite different compared to low-income
countries. High-income countries generate relatively less food and green waste and more dry,
compared to low-income countries is clearly characterized by the high proportion of organic
matter or about 40-85% of waste material in low-income developing countries is biodegradable
organic with low contaminants, suitable for composting and anaerobic digestion and high
densities. In contrast to developed countries, the waste collection rate of municipal solid waste
collection is low, only around 41% of waste in cities is collected, compared to high-income
countries with collection rates averaging 98%. While the expenses costs for waste collection
also is also more efficient. The practices of waste collection in developing countries include:
Door-to-Door Waste Collection, Curbside Pick-Up, Self-Delivered, Contracted Service. -
Uncollected waste is often managed independently by households and may be openly
dumped, burned, or, less commonly, composted. About 48% of waste in urb an areas and 26%
in rural areas is collected in low-income countries.

Waste administration, operations and services in developing countries are inadequate and
difficult to maintain and are hampered by poor planning and service operation and a lack of
funding for investments in waste treatment and operations. Daily waste management is
expensive and requires institutional skills for planning, operational management, and oversight.
Where funding is limited, waste management competes with other development priorities.
Developing waste management capacity and mobilizing resources requires strong political
support. Shortage of financial resources, particularly to operate waste collection, transport and
disposal systems, is caused by a lack of revenues from households and other waste generators
or lack of budget and funding in local governments. Lack of land and resistance from local
populations hinder the development of waste facilities. Limited institutional capacity for
planning, monitoring, and enforcement are additional factors that pose challenges for effective
waste administration and operations. Low-income countries are also most likely to lack specific
laws on waste management and is often primarily addressed by municipalities or even
communities. While enforcement of laws is a common challenge requiring adequate staffing,
implementation of fees or other penalties, and cultural alignment with legislative goals.

The levels and capacities of waste management in the developing and developed countries as
well as in many ASEAN countries including Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam are very
challenges and faces many constraints due to the lack of clear responsibilities, coordination and
cooperation of management between government agencies at different levels including
ministries at the central, provincial and local levels, shortage of adequate financial investment
for waste management and lack of sufficient allocations. The main funding source comes from
the state budget with more than 90% of these funds allocated for waste collection and
transportation while the budget for waste treatment remains relatively low and is used mainly
for landfill activities. However, the solid waste management in developed countries such as
Japan and European countries have made significant improvement on waste management since
many decades ago. Significant improvement in waste treatment rates were achieved and results
in increasing rate of separation and waste recycling, incineration and composting, while
decreasing landfilling areas. Both Japan and European countries recognizes waste prevention,
re-use, recycling, incineration and landfilling as a last option for waste management principles.

In case of Lao PDR, Vientiane capital also faces similar issues related to the waste management
due to rapid urban development. Waste generation has been increased significantly in urban
centers of Lao PDR. Solid waste in the country in general, is not comprehensive and SWM
practices are not well established. The major issues associated with this are lack of awareness,
limited capacities of national and local administrative staff, insufficient funds and access to
sources of information on appropriate technology and best practices of SWM, inadequate tools
and insufficient legislation, policies and strategies for long term management of SWM.

Improper of waste management and exposure can lead to the cause serious impacts on human
health and safety as well as the environment. Poor management of solid waste also serves as a
breeding ground for disease vectors and contributes to global climate change through methane
generation and air emissions. people exposed to solid waste and potential impacts on health
range from 1). exposure to waste-by-waste generator, 2). exposure from handling waste by
waste collectors or waste pickers such as the municipal waste workers, 3). exposure from
handling waste among waste pickers who pick waste for a living and by those living or working
near disposal sites such as landfills or dump sites and incinerators and accumulation over time
of noxious substances such as heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) from open
burning of waste material that subsequently enter into the environment and food chain.

Thus, an effective management of solid waste is required and needed to establish to mitigates
not only the impacts on human health and the environment and conserves scarce resources, but
it also supports the pathway to achieving sustainable development and clean and green urban
development initiatives as well as a critical driver for achieving the United Nations 2030
Agenda on Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Management of urban waste material is
complexed; it requires an integrated approach and principle which focuses on waste prevention,
recycling, recovery, and controlled to achieve sustainable management of urban waste material.