UNIT-IV

1)BASICS OF COUNTING

The Rules of Sum and Product

In many situations of computational work, we employ two basic rules of counting, called the
Sum Rule and the Product Rule.

i)The Sum Rule

Suppose two tasks T₁ and T₂ are to be performed. If the task T₁ can be performed in m
different ways and the task T₂ can be performed in n different ways, and if these two tasks
cannot be performed simultaneously, then one of the two tasks (T₁ or T₂) can be performed in
m + n ways.

More generally, if T₁, T₂, T₃, ..., Tₖ are k tasks such that no two of these tasks can be
performed at the same time, and if the task Tᵢ can be performed in nᵢ different ways, then one of
the k tasks (namely T₁ or T₂ or T₃ ... or Tₖ) can be performed in n₁ + n₂ + ... + nₖ ways.

Example 1:

Suppose there are 16 boys and 18 girls in a class, and we wish to select one of these students
(either a boy or a girl) as a class representative.

 The number of ways of selecting a boy is 16.

 The number of ways of selecting a girl is 18.
 Therefore, the number of ways of selecting a student (boy or girl) is:

16 + 18 = 34.

Example 2:

Suppose a College library has:

 12 books on Mathematics
 10 books on Physics
 16 books on Computer Science
 11 books on Electronics

Suppose a student wishes to choose one of these books for study. The number of ways in which
he can choose a book is:

12 + 10 + 16 + 11 = 49.
Example 3:

Suppose T₁ is the task of selecting a prime number less than 10 and task T₂ is of selecting an
even number less than 10.

 T₁ can be performed in 4 ways (by selecting 2, 3, 5, or 7).

 T₂ can be performed in 4 ways (by selecting 2, 4, 6, or 8).
 But, since 2 is both a prime and an even number less than 10, the task T₁ or T₂ can be
performed in:

4 + 4 - 1 = 7 ways.

ii)The Product Rule

Suppose that two tasks T₁ and T₂ are to be performed one after the other.

 If T₁ can be performed in n₁ different ways, and for each of these ways T₂ can be
performed in n₂ different ways, then both tasks can be performed in n₁ × n₂ different
ways.

More generally, suppose that k tasks T₁, T₂, T₃, ..., Tₖ are to be performed in a sequence.

 If T₁ can be performed in n₁ different ways, T₂ can be performed in n₂ different ways,

and T₃ can be performed in n₃ different ways, and so on, then the sequence of tasks T₁,
T₂, T₃, ..., Tₖ can be performed in n₁ × n₂ × n₃ × ... × nₖ different ways.

Example 4:

Suppose a person has 3 shirts and 5 ties. Then he has:

3 × 5 = 15 different ways of choosing a shirt and a tie.

Example 5:

Suppose we wish to construct sequences of four symbols in which:

 The first 2 are English letters.

 The next 2 are single-digit numbers.

If no letter or digit can be repeated, then the number of different sequences that we can
construct is:

26 × 25 × 10 × 9 = 58500.

If repetition of letters & digits is allowed, then the number of different sequences that we can
construct is: 26 × 26 × 10 × 10 = 67600.
Example 6:

Suppose a restaurant sells 6 South Indian dishes, 4 North Indian dishes, 3 hot beverages, and
2 cold beverages.

For breakfast, a student wishes to buy 1 South Indian dish & 1 hot beverage or 1 North
Indian dish & 1 cold beverage.

 The first choice can be made in 6 × 3 = 18 ways.

 The second choice can be made in 4 × 2 = 8 ways.

The total number of ways he can buy his breakfast items is:

18 + 8 = 26.

Example 7:

There are 20 married couples in a party. Find the number of ways of choosing one woman &
one man from the party such that the two are not married to each other.

Solution:

 From the party, a woman can be chosen in 20 ways.

 Among the 20 men in the party, one is her husband.
 Out of the 19 other men, one can be chosen in 19 ways.

Thus, the required number of ways is:

20 × 19 = 380.

Example 8:

A license plate consists of two English letters followed by four digits.

If repetitions are allowed, how many of the plates have only vowels (A, E, I, O, U) and even
digits?

Solution:

 Each of the first two positions in the plate can be filled in 5 ways (with vowels).
 Each of the remaining four places can be filled in 5 ways (with even digits: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8).

Thus, the number of possible license plates of the given type is:

(5 × 5) × (5 × 5 × 5 × 5) = 25 × 625 = 15,625.
Example 9:

There are four bus routes between the places A & B and three bus routes between the places B
& C.

Find the number of ways a person can make a round trip from A to A via B and C, if he does
not use a route more than once.

Solution:

 The person can travel from A to B in four ways.

 From B to C in three ways.
 But only in two ways from C to B.
 And only in three ways from B to A.

If he does not use a route more than once, then the number of ways he can make the round trip
under the given condition is:

4 × 3 × 2 × 3 = 72.

Example 10:

Let A be a set with n elements. How many different sequences, each of length r, can be formed
using the elements from A, if the elements in the sequence may be repeated?

Solution:

 Since repetition is allowed, each place in the sequence can be filled in n different ways.
 Thus, in a sequence of length r, there are nʳ ways of filling the r places in the sequence.

This means that the number of possible sequences of the required type is:

nʳ.

Example 11:

Find the number of binary sequences of length n.

 A binary sequence of length n contains n positions.

 Each of these positions can be filled in two ways (with 0 or 1).

Therefore, the number of ways of filling n positions is 2ⁿ.

Example 12:

A bit is either 0 or 1. A byte is a sequence of 8 bits.

Find:
(i) The number of bytes,

(ii) The number of bytes that begin with 11 & end with 11,

(iii) The number of bytes that begin with 11 & do not end with 11,

(iv) The number of bytes that begin with 11 or end with 11.

Solution:

(i) Since each byte contains 8 bits & each bit is 0 or 1 (two choices), the number of bytes is:

2⁸ = 256.

(ii) In a byte beginning & ending with 11, there are 4 open positions. These can be filled in:

2⁴ = 16 ways.

Therefore, there are 16 bytes that begin & end with 11.

(iii) There are 6 open positions in a byte that begins with 11. These positions can be filled in:

2⁶ = 64 ways.

Thus, there are 64 bytes that begin with 11. Since 16 of them also end with 11, the number of
bytes that begin with 11 but do not end with 11 is:

26-24 = 64 - 16 = 48.

(iv) As in (iii), the number of bytes that end with 11 is also 64.

 The number of bytes that begin & end with 11 is 16.

 Therefore, the number of bytes that begin OR end with 11 is:

64 + 64 - 16 = 112.
Example 13:

Find the number of 3-digit even numbers with no repeated digits.

Solution:

Here we consider numbers of the form xyz, where each of x, y, z represents a digit under the
given restrictions.

Since xyz has to be even, z has to be 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8.

 If z = 0, then x has 9 choices (since x cannot be 0).

 If z = 2, 4, 6, or 8 (4 choices), then x has 8 choices (excluding z).

Therefore, z and x can be chosen in:

(1×9)+(4×8)=41 ways

For each of these ways, y can be chosen in 8 ways.

Thus, the desired number is:

41×8=328

2)Permutations
Suppose that we are given n distinct objects and wish to arrange r of these objects in a line.

 There are n ways of choosing the first object.

 After this, n - 1 ways of choosing the second object.
 Finally, n - r + 1 ways of choosing the r-th object.

It follows by the product rule of counting that the number of different arrangements (or
permutations) is: n(n−1)(n−2)…(n−r+1).

We denote this number by p(n,r) and is referred to as the number of permutations of

size r of n objects.

Thus by definition:

P(n,r)=n(n−1)(n−2)(n−3)…(n−r+1)

Using factorial notation defined by: k!=k(k−1)(k−2)…2×1

For any positive integer k! & 0!=1, we find that:

As a particular case of this, we get:

P(n,n)=n!

That is, the number of different arrangements (permutations) of n distinct objects, taken all at a
time, is n!.This is simply called the number of permutations of n distinct objects.

Permutations of Objects with Repetitions

In the above analysis, we have considered the situation where all objects are distinct.

Suppose it is required to find the number of permutations that can be formed from a collection
of n objects where:

 n1 are of one type,

 n2 are of a second type,
 ...,
 nk are of the k-th type,

with: n1+n2+⋯+nk=n

Then, the number of permutations of the n objects is:

n!
n1!n2!…nk!
Example 1:

How many different strings (sequences) of length 4 can be formed using the letters of the
word "FLOWER"?

Solution:

The given word has 6 letters, all of which are distinct. Therefore, the required number of strings
is:

Example 2:

Find the number of permutations of the letters of the word "SUCCESS".

Solution:

The given word has 7 letters, of which:

 3 are S,
 2 are C,
 1 each of U & E.

Therefore, the required number of permutations is:

7!
3!×2!×1!×1!

=480

Example 3:

How many 9-letter "words" can be formed using the letters of the word "DIFFICULT"?

Solution:

The given word contains 9 letters, of which:

 2 are F's,
 2 are I's,
 1 each of D, C, U, L, T.
The number of permutations of these letters is the required number of "words":

9!
2!×2!×1!×1!×1!×1!×1!

=90720.

Example 4:

Find the number of permutations of the letters of the word "MASSASAUGA".

a)In how many of these are all four A’s together?

b)How many of them begin with S?

Solution:

The given word has 10 letters, of which:

 4 are A's,
 3 are S's,
 1 each of M, U, G.

10!
4!3!1!1!1!1!
=25,200.

a)If, in a permutation, all A’s are to be together, we treat all four A’s as one single letter.
Then, the letters to be permuted become:

1-(AAAA),3-S’s,1-M,1-U,1-G

The number of permutations is:

7!
1!3!1!1!1!

=840.

b)For permutations beginning with S, there are 9 open positions to fill, where:

 2 are S,
 4 are A,
 1 each of M, U, G.
The number of such permutations is:

9!
4!2!1!1!1!
=7,560.

Example 5:

How many positive numbers n can we form using the digits 3,4,4,5,5,6,7 ,if we want n to
exceed 5,000,000?

Solution:

The number n must be of the form:

n=x1.x2.x3.x4.x5.x6.x7

where x1,x2,...,x7 are the given digits.

 Suppose we take x1=5, then x2.x3.x4.x5.x6.x7 is an arrangement of the remaining 6

digits, which contains:
o Two 4’s
o One each of 3, 5, 6, 7

The number of such arrangements is:

6!
2!1!1!1!1!
=360.

 Suppose we take x1=6, then x2.x3.x4.x5.x6.x7 is an arrangement of 6 digits, which

contains:
o Two each of 4 and 5
o One each of 3 and 7

The number of such arrangements is:

6!
2!2!1!1!
=180.

Similarly, if we take x1=7, the number of arrangements is...

6!
1!2!2!1!
 =180

Accordingly, by the Sum Rule, the number of nnn's of the desired type is:

360+180+180=720

Example 6:

It is required to seat 5 men and 4 women in a row so that the women occupy the even
places. How many such arrangements are possible?

Solution:

The 5 men may be seated in odd places in 5! ways, and The 4 women may be seated in even
places in 4! ways.

Corresponding to each arrangement of the men, there is an arrangement of the women.

Therefore, the total number of arrangements of the desired type is:

5!×4!=120×24=2880.

Example 7:

In how many ways can 6 men and 6 women be seated in a row?

(i) If any person may sit next to any other.

(ii) If men and women must occupy alternate seats.

Solution:

(i) If any person may sit next to any other, no distinction needs to be made between men &
women in their seating.

Accordingly, since there are 12 persons in all, the number of ways they can be seated is:

12!=479,001,600.

(ii) When men & women are to occupy alternate seats, the six men can be seated in 6! ways in
odd places, & the six women can be seated in 6! ways in even places.
Corresponding to each arrangement of the men, there is an arrangement of the women.

Therefore, the number of ways in which the men occupy the odd places and the women the
even places is:

6!×6!=720×720=518,400.
Similarly, the number of ways in which the women occupy the odd places & the men the even
places is 518,400.
Accordingly, the total number of ways is:
518,400+518,400=1,036,800.

Example 9:

Four different mathematics books, five different computer science books, & two different
control theory books are to be arranged on a shelf. How many different arrangements are
possible if:

(a) The books in each particular subject must all be together?

(b) Only the mathematics books must be together?

Solution:

(a) The mathematics books can be arranged among themselves in 4! different ways,the
computer science books in 5! ways,the control theory books in 2! ways,& the three groups in
3! ways.

Therefore, the number of possible arrangements is:

4!×5!×2!×3!=24×120×2×6=34,560.

(b) Consider the four mathematics books as one single book.Then we have 8 books which can
be arranged in 8! ways.

In all of these ways, the mathematics books are together.But the mathematics books can be
arranged among themselves in 4! ways.

Hence, the number of arrangements is:

8!×4!=40320×24=967,680.

Example 10:

Find the total number of positive integers that can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4 if no digit
is repeated in any one integer.

Solution:

We first note that no integer of the required type can have more than 4 digits.
Let S₁, S₂, S₃, S₄ denote the number of integers of the required type containing one, two, three,
four digits, respectively.
Since there are four digits, there are four integers containing exactly one digit (S₁ = 4).
There are 4×3=124 integers containing exactly two digits (S₂ = 12).
There are 4×3×2=24 integers containing exactly three digits (S₃ = 24).
There are 4!=24 integers containing exactly four digits (S₄ = 24).

Therefore, the required number is:

S1+S2+S3+S4=4+12+24+24=64.

Example 11:

How many 8-digit telephone numbers have one or more repeated digits?

Solution:

The number of 8-digit numbers in which repetitions are allowed is 108.

Of these, P(10,8) numbers do not contain repetitions.

Therefore, the required number is:

108−P(10,8).

Example 12:

Find the value of n so that: 2P(n,2)+50=P(2n,2).

Solution:

From the given condition, we have:

2×n!/(n−2)!+50=(2n)!/(2n−2)!
i.e., 2n(n−1)+50=2n(2n−1).
2n2-2n+50=4n2-2n
n2=25
n=5
Since n cannot be negative, the value of n should be 5.
Example 13:

Prove that for all integers n, r ≥ 0, if n + 1 > r, then:

Solution:

3)Combinations
Suppose we are interested in selecting (choosing) a set of r objects from a set of n ≥ r
objects without regard to order. The set of r objects being selected is traditionally called a
Combination of r objects.

The total number of combinations of r different objects that can be selected from n different
objects can be obtained by proceeding in the following way. Suppose this number is equal to C,
say; that is, suppose there is a total of C number of combinations of r different objects chosen
from n different objects. Take any one of the combinations. The r objects in this combination
can be arranged in r! different ways. Since there are C combinations, the total number of
permutations is (C . r!). But this is equal to P(n, r).
Thus,

Example 1

How many committees of five with a given chairperson can be selected from 12 persons?

Solution:

The chairperson can be chosen in 12 ways, and, following this, the other four on the
committee can be chosen in C(11,4) ways.

Therefore, the possible number of such committees is:

Example 2

Find the number of committees of 5 that can be selected from 7 men and 5 women if the
committee is to consist of at least 1 man and at least 1 woman.

Solution:

From the given 12 persons, the number of committees of 5 that can be formed is C(12,5).
Among these possible committees, there are C(7,5) committees consisting of 5 men and 1 =
C(5,5) committee consisting of 5 women.

Accordingly, the number of committees containing at least one man and one woman is:

i.e., C(12,5)-C(7,5)-C(5,5)
Example 3

At a certain college hostel, the housing office has decided to appoint, for each floor, one male
and one female residential advisor. How many different pairs of advisors can be selected for a
seven-floor building from 12 male and 15 female candidates?

Solution:

From 12 male candidates, 7 candidates can be selected in C(12,7) ways.

From 15 female candidates, 7 candidates can be selected in C(15,7) ways.
Therefore, the total number of possible pairs of advisors of the required type is:

Example 4

A certain question paper contains two parts A and B, each containing 4 questions.
How many different ways can a student answer 5 questions by selecting at least 2 questions
from each part?

Solution:

The different ways a student can select his 5 questions are:

1. 3 questions from Part A and 2 questions from Part B

o This can be done in C(4,3) × C(4,2) = 4 × 6 = 24 ways.
2. 2 questions from Part A and 3 questions from Part B
o This can be done in C(4,2) × C(4,3) = 6 × 4 = 24 ways.

Therefore, the total number of ways a student can answer 5 questions under the given
restrictions is:

24+24=48.

Example 5

A certain question paper contains three parts A, B, C, with four questions in part A, five
questions in part B, and six questions in part C.It is required to answer seven questions,
selecting at least two questions from each part.In how many different ways can a student
select his seven questions for answering?
Solution:

The different possible ways in which a student can make a selection are:

1. 2 questions from part A, 2 from part B, and 3 from part C.

2. 2 questions from part A, 3 from part B, and 2 from part C.
3. 3 questions from part A, 2 from part B, and 2 from part C.

Now, the number of ways to make these selections:

 Selection (I):

C(4,2)×C(5,2)×C(6,3)=6×10×20=1200 ways.

 Selection (II):

C(4,2)×C(5,3)×C(6,2)=6×10×15=900 ways.

 Selection (III):

C(4,3)×C(5,2)×C(6,2)=4×10×15=600 ways.

Consequently, the total number of possible selections is:

1200+900+600=2700.

Example 6

A woman has 11 close relatives, and she wishes to invite 5 of them to dinner.
In how many ways can she invite them in the following situations?

There is no restriction on the choice.

Two particular persons will not attend separately.

Two particular persons will not attend together.

Solution:

(i) Since there is no restriction on the choice of invitees, five out of 11 can be invited in:
(ii) Since two particular persons will not attend separately, they should both be invited or not
invited.

 If both of them are invited, then three more invitees are to be selected from the
remaining 9 relatives.This can be done in:

 If both of them are not invited, then five invitees are to be selected from 9 relatives.
This can be done in:

(iii) Since two particular persons (say A and B) will not attend together, only one of them can
be invited or none of them can be invited.

 The number of ways of choosing the invitees with A invited is:

 Similarly, the number of ways of choosing the invitees with B invited is


 If both A and B are not invited, the number of ways of choosing the invitees is:

C(9,5)=126.

Thus, the total number of ways in which the invitees can be selected in this case is:

126+126+126=378.

Example 7

From seven consonants and five vowels, how many sets containing four different consonants
and three different vowels can be formed?

Solution:

 The four different consonants can be selected in C(7,4) ways.

 The three different vowels can be selected in C(5,3) ways.
  The resulting seven different letters (four consonants and three vowels) can then be
arranged among themselves in 7! ways.

Therefore, the total number of possible sets is:

Example 8

A party is attended by n persons.If each person in the party shakes hands with all the
others, find the number of handshakes.

Solution:

Each handshake is determined by exactly two persons.Therefore, if each person shakes

hands with all the other persons, the total number of handshakes is equal to the number of ways
to choose two persons from n.

Thus, the required number is:

Example 9

There are n married couples attending a party.Each person shakes hands with every person
other than his or her spouse.Find the total number of handshakes.

Solution:

 The number of persons at the party is 2n.

 These 2n persons form C(2n,2) pairs, but n pairs are married couples.
 Thus, the number of pairs who are not married couples is:

Thus, the number of handshakes is 2n(n-1).

Example 10

Solution:

(i) Proof of C(n+1,r)=C(n,r−1)+C(n,r)

We have:

(ii) Proof of C(m+n,2)=C(m,2)+C(n,2)+mn

Example 11

Solution:

We have,
4) Combinations with Repetitions

Suppose we wish to select, with repetition, a combination of r objects from a set of n distinct
objects. The number of such selections is given by

Example - 1:
A bag contains coins of seven different denominations, with at least one dozen coins in each
denomination. In how many ways can we select a dozen coins from the bag?

Solution:

The selection consists in choosing with repetitions, r=12 coins of n=7 distinct denominations.
The number of ways of making this selection is:

Example - 2:
In how many ways can we distribute 10 identical marbles among 6 distinct containers?

Solution:

The required number is:

Example - 3:

Find the number of nonnegative integer solutions of the equation:

x1+x2+x3+x4+x5=8

Solution:

The required number is:

C(5+8−1,8)=C(12,8)=495.
Example - 4:

In how many ways can we distribute 12 identical pencils to 5 children so that every child gets at
least one pencil?

Solution:

First, we distribute one pencil to each child. Then there remain 7 pencils to be distributed.

The number of ways of distributing these 7 pencils to 5 children is the required number.

This number is:

Example - 5:

A total amount of Rs. 1500 is to be distributed to 3 poor students A, B, C of a class. In how

many ways can the distribution be made in multiples of Rs. 100

1. If everyone of these must get at least Rs. 300?

2. If A must get at least Rs. 500, and B and C must get at least Rs. 400 each?

Solution:

Taking Rs. 100 as a unit, there are 15 units for distribution.

In case (i), each of the three students must get at least 3 units. Let us first distribute 3 units to
each of the 3 students. Then there remain 6 units for distribution.
The number of ways of distributing these 6 units to A, B, C is the required number (in this case).

This number is:

C(3+6−1,6)=C(8,6)=28.

In case (ii), A must get at least 5 units, B and C must get at least 4 units each. Let us distribute 5
units to A and 4 units to each of B and C. Then there remain 2 units for distribution.
Accordingly, the number of ways of making the distribution in this case is:

C(3+2−1,2)=C(4,2)=6.
Example - 6:

In how many ways can we distribute 7 apples and 6 oranges among 4 children so that each
child gets at least 1 apple?

Solution:

Suppose we first give 1 apple to each child. This exhausts 4 apples.

The remaining 3 apples can be distributed among the 4 children in:

C(4+3−1,3)=C(6,3) ways.

Also, 6 oranges can be distributed among the 4 children in:

C(4+6−1,6)=C(9,6) ways..

Therefore, by the product rule, the number of ways of distributing the apples and oranges is:

C(6,3)×C(9,6).

Example - 7:

A message is made up of 12 different symbols and is to be transmitted through a communication

channel. In addition to the 12 symbols, the transmitter will also send a total of 45 blank spaces
between the symbols, with at least three spaces between each pair of consecutive symbols. In
how many ways can the transmitter send such a message?

Solution:

The 12 symbols can be arranged in 12! ways.

In these arrangements, there are 11 positions between the 12 symbols.

Since there must be at least three spaces between successive symbols, 33 of the 45 spaces will be
used up. The remaining 12 spaces are to be accommodated in 11 positions. This can be done in:

C(11+12−1,12)=C(22,12)

ways. Consequently, by the product rule, the required number is:

5)PigeonHole Principle:

Suppose that there are 10 pigeons, and there are 9 pigeonholes • In the evening, each pigeon will
pick one of the pigeonholes to stay. What will happen?

One possible scenario is as follow :

Here, one of the pigeonholes has 2 pigeons

We may also find ALL the pigeons stay in one pigeonhole (though it is unlikely to happen)

There are many other situations,But in any situation, we can conclude the following :

In one of the pigeonholes, there will be at least two pigeons

Pigeonhole Principle : If k is a positive integer and k + 1 objects are placed into k boxes, then at
least one of the boxes will contain two ore more objects

(Or)

Pigeonhole Principle : If k is a positive integer and N objects are placed into k boxes, then at
least one of the boxes will contain N/ k or more objects.

Here, x is called the ceiling function, which represents the round-up value of x.
Example 1: Show that among all 80+ students in our class, 7 or more are born in the same
month.

Solution:

We can prove this using the pigeonhole principle, which states that if n objects are placed into k
containers, and if n>k, then at least one container must contain more than ⌈n/k⌉ objects.

Step 1: Define the problem in terms of the pigeonhole principle

 The objects are the students in the class.

 The containers are the 12 months of the year.
 There are more than 80 students (n>80).
 There are 12 months (k=12).

Step 2: Apply the pigeonhole principle

If we distribute more than 80 students among 12 months, the average number of students per
month is: 80/12≈6.67

Since the number of students must be whole numbers, at least one month must have at least:

⌈6.67⌉=7students.

By the pigeonhole principle, at least one month must have at least 7 students born in it.
Thus, among the 80+ students in our class, at least 7 are born in the same month.

Example 2: Show that if 33 rooks are placed in a regular 8  8 chessboard, at least 5 of them
cannot attack each other.

Solution:

We will use the pigeonhole principle to show that at least 5 of the 33 rooks placed on an
8×8 chessboard are non-attacking.

Step 1: Understanding the problem

 A rook can attack another rook if they are in the same row or column.
 The chessboard has 8 rows and 8 columns.
 We are placing 33 rooks on the board.

Step 2: Applying the pigeonhole principle

Since there are only 8 rows, and we place 33 rooks, some rows must contain multiple rooks.

 If each row had at most 4 rooks, the total number of rooks would be at most 8×4=32,
which is fewer than 33.
  Since we placed 33 rooks, at least one row must contain at least 5 rooks.

Similarly, since there are only 8 columns, and we have placed 33 rooks, some columns must also
contain multiple rooks.

Step 3: Extracting a non-attacking subset

To find 5 rooks that do not attack each other:

1. Choose any one row that contains at least 5 rooks.

2. Since they are in the same row, they do not attack each other vertically.
3. Select at most one rook per column from this row.
4. Since each selected rook is in a different column, they do not attack each other
horizontally either.

Thus, we have found at least 5 rooks that cannot attack each other.

By the pigeonhole principle, at least 5 of the 33 rooks must be placed in a way that they
do not attack each other.

Example 3: Show that among six people, where each pair are either friends or enemies, there
exist either 3 mutual friends or 3 mutual enemies (or both).

Solution:

Step 1: Define the Problem in Graph Terms

 There are 6 people, and each pair is either friends or enemies.

 We want to show that there exists a group of 3 mutual friends or 3 mutual enemies.

Step 2: Apply the Pigeonhole Principle

Consider any one person, say A. Since there are 5 other people, A has relationships with all 5 of
them.

Each relationship is either:

 Friendship (F)
 Enmity (E)

Since there are only two possible types of relationships, by the pigeonhole principle, at least 3
of these relationships must be of the same type (either all friends or all enemies).

Let’s assume without loss of generality that A has at least 3 friends: say B,C,D (If instead AAA
has at least 3 enemies, the argument is the same but reversed.)

Step 3: Consider the Relationships Among B,C,D

Now, look at the relationships between B,C,D:

 If any two of them are friends, say B and C, then A,B,C form a triangle of mutual
friends.
 If none of them are friends, that means B,C,D are all mutual enemies, forming a
triangle of mutual enemies.

In both cases, we have found a group of three people who are either all friends or all enemies.
Thus, among any six people, there must always exist a set of three mutual friends or three
mutual enemies.

6)Principle of Inclusion-Exclusion

The Principle of Inclusion-Exclusion (PIE) is a fundamental counting technique in

combinatorics used to count the number of elements in the union of overlapping sets.

Basic Formula for Two Sets:For two finite sets A and B:

∣A∪B∣=∣A∣+∣B∣−∣A∩B∣

Formula for Three Sets

For three finite sets A,B,C:

∣A∪B∪C∣=∣A∣+∣B∣+∣C∣−∣A∩B∣−∣B∩C∣−∣C∩A∣+∣A∩B∩C∣|

Example - 1:

A computer company requires 30 programmers to handle systems programming jobs and 40

programmers for applications programming. If the company appoints 55 programmers to
carry out these jobs,

 How many of these perform jobs of both types?

 How many handle only system programming jobs?
 How many handle only applications programming?

Solution:
Let A denote the set of programmers who handle systems programming jobs and B
the set of programmers who handle applications programming.
Then, A ∪ B is the set of programmers.

∣A∣=30, ∣B∣=40, ∣A∪B∣=55

Therefore, the addition rule

∣A∪B∣=∣A∣+∣B∣−∣A∩B∣
gives

∣A∩B∣=∣A∣+∣B∣−∣A∪B∣
=30+40−55=15

The number of programmers who handle only systems programming is

∣A−B∣=∣A∣−∣A∩B∣
=30−15=15

Similarly, the number of programmers who handle only applications programming is

∣B−A∣=∣B∣−∣A∩B∣
=40−15=25

These results are illustrated in the following Venn diagram:

Example - 2:

In a class of 52 students,

 30 are studying C++

 28 are studying Pascal
 13 are studying both languages

Find:

1. How many students in this class are studying at least one of these languages?
2. How many are studying neither of these languages?

Solution:

Let U denote the set of all students in the class.

Let A denote the set of students in the class who are studying C++,
and B the set of students in the class who are studying Pascal.

Then,

 The set of students studying both languages is A∩B

To find the number of students studying at least one of these languages, we use:

∣A∪B∣=∣A∣+∣B∣−∣A∩B∣

Students who are studying neither of these languages belong to A∪B

From what is given, we have:

∣U∣=52, ∣A∣=30, ∣B∣=28, ∣A∩B∣=13

By the addition principle:

∣A∪B∣=∣A∣+∣B∣−∣A∩B∣
=30+28−13=45.

Also:

∣A∪B∣=∣U∣−∣A∪B∣
=52−45
=7

Thus, 45 students in the class study at least one of the two languages indicated, and 7 students
study neither of these languages. The result is illustrated in the following Venn diagram:

Example-3:

In a sample of 100 logic chips, 23 have a defect D₁, 26 have a defect D₂, 30 have a defect D₃, 7
have defects D₁ and D₂, 8 have defects D₁ and D₃, 10 have defects D₂ and D₃, and 3 have all three
defects. Find the number of chips having

(i) at least one defect (ii) no defect

Sol:

Let U denote the set of all chips (being considered), and A, B, C denote the sets of chips having
defects D₁, D₂, D₃ respectively. Then, from what is given, we have
 ∣U∣=100, ∣A∣=23, ∣B∣=26, ∣C∣=30

∣A∩B∣=7, ∣A∩C∣=8, ∣B∩C∣=10, ∣A∩B∩C∣=3

Therefore, the set of chips having at least one defect is A∪B∪CA ∪ B ∪ CA∪B∪C, and the
number of such chips is

∣A∪B∪C∣=∣A∣+∣B∣+∣C∣−∣A∩B∣−∣A∩C∣−∣B∩C∣+∣A∩B∩C∣|A ∪ B ∪ C|
=23+26+30−7−8−10+3=57= 23 + 26 + 30 - 7 - 8 - 10 + 3
= 57

The set of chips having no defect is (A∪B∪C)′ and the number of such chips is

∣(A∪B∪C)′∣=∣U∣−∣A∪B∪C∣

=100−57

=43

Example-4:
A survey of 500 television viewers of a sports channel produced the following information:
285 watch cricket, 195 watch hockey, 115 watch football, 45 watch cricket and football, 70
watch cricket and hockey ,50 watch hockey and football, and 50 do not watch any of the three
kinds of games.

(a) How many viewers in the survey watch all three kinds of games?
(b) How many viewers watch exactly one of the sports?

Sol: Let U denote the set of all viewers included in the survey, A denote the set of viewers who
watch cricket, B denote the set of viewers who watch hockey, and C denote the set of viewers
who watch football, then from what is given, we have

∣U∣=500, ∣A∣=285, ∣B∣=195, ∣C∣=115,

∣A∩C∣=45, ∣A∩B∣=70, ∣B∩C∣=50, ∣(A∪B∪C)′∣=50,
SINCE, ∣(A∪B∪C)′∣= |U|-|A∪B∪C|
50 = 500- |A∪B∪C|
|A∪B∪C|=450
Using the addition principle for three sets:
∣A∪B∪C∣=∣A∣+∣B∣+∣C∣−∣A∩B∣−∣A∩C∣−∣B∩C∣+∣A∩B∩C∣

a)∣A∩B∩C∣=∣A∪B∪C∣−∣A∣−∣B∣−∣C∣+∣A∩B∣+∣A∩C∣+∣B∩C∣
=450−285−195−115+70+50+45=20.= 450 - 285 - 195 - 115 + 70 + 50 + 45
= 20
Thus, the number of viewers who watch all three kinds of games is 20.
b)Let A1 denote the set of viewers who watch only cricket, B1 denote the set of viewers who
watch only Hockey and C1 denotes the set of viewers who watch only Football then,
|A1|=|A|−∣A∩B∣−∣A∩C∣+∣A∩B∩C∣
=285-70-45+20
=190
|B1|=|B|-∣B∩C∣-∣A∩B∣+∣A∩B∩C∣
=195-50-70+20
=95
|C1|=|C|-∣A∩C∣−∣B∩C∣+∣A∩B∩C∣
=115-45-50+20
=40
Therefore, viewers watch exactly one of the sports : |A1|+|B1|+|C1|=190+95+40=325

The venn diagram for the above is as follows:

Example-5:

A survey of a sample of 25 new cars being sold by an auto dealer was conducted to see which of
the three popular options—air-conditioning, radio, and power windows—were included.

 15 had air-conditioning
 12 had radio
 11 had power windows
 5 had air-conditioning and power windows
 9 had air-condi
 tioning and radio
 4 had radio and power windows
 3 had all three options

Find the number of cars that had:(i) Only power windows(ii) Only air-conditioning(iii) Only
radio(iv) Only one of the options(v) At least one option(vi) None of the options

Solution:
Let A,R,W be the sets of cars in the sample that had air-conditioning, radio, and power
windows, respectively. Also, let U denote the set of all cars in the sample. Then, from what is
given, we have the following:

∣U∣=25, ∣A∣=15, ∣R∣=12, ∣W∣=11, |U| = 25

∣A∩W∣=5, ∣A∩R∣=9, ∣R∩W∣=4, ∣A∩R∩W∣=3
Now, let A1,R1,W1 respectively denote the only power windows ,only air-conditioning,only
radio options,then
(i) Only power windows:
|W1|=|W|-∣A∩W∣-∣R∩W∣+∣A∩R∩W∣
=11-5-4+3
=5
(ii) Only air-conditioning:
|A1|=|A|-∣A∩W∣-∣A∩R∣+∣A∩R∩W∣
=15-5-9+3
=4
(iii) Only radio
|R1|=|R|-∣A∩R∣-∣R∩W∣+∣A∩R∩W∣
=12-9-4+3
=2
(iv) Only one of the options:
|A1|+|R1|+|W1|
=4+2+5=11
(v) At least one option
∣A∪R∪W∣=∣A∣+∣R∣+∣W∣−∣A∩R∣−∣A∩W∣−∣R∩W∣+∣A∩R∩W∣
= 15+12+11-9-5-4+3
=23
(vi) None of the options

∣A∪R∪W∣=|U|-∣ A∪R∪W∣
=25-23=2

The venn diagram for the above is as follows:

Example-6:

A Student visits a sports club every day from Monday to Friday after school hours and plays
One of the three games: Cricket, Tennis, Football. In how many ways can he play each of the
three games at least once during a week(from Monday to Friday)?

Solution:

The student visits the sports club 5 days a week (Monday to Friday) and plays one of the three
games each day. We need to find the number of ways he can play each of the three games at least once
during the week.

This is a "distribution of objects into bins with constraints" type problem, and we solve it using the
principle of inclusion-exclusion.

Step 1: Total Number of Ways Without Restriction

Each day, the student can choose any one of the 3 games, so without any restrictions, the total number of
ways is:35=243 (since for each of the 5 days, there are 3 choices).
Step 2: Using Inclusion-Exclusion to Remove Invalid Cases
We now remove cases where at least one of the three games is not played at all.
1. Removing cases where at least one game is missing
If the student plays only 2 out of the 3 games, we treat it as if he is choosing between only 2
games each day.So the number of ways to choose only 2 games over 5 days is:25=32
Since there are 3 games, and each could be the missing game, the number of ways where at least
one game is missing is:3×32=96.
2. Adding back cases where one game is missing and another game is also missing
If the student plays only 1 game (ignoring 2 games), he has just 1 choice per day, so there is
only 1^5 = 1 way per game.
Since there are 3 games, the number of cases where only one game is played is:3×1=3
Since we subtracted cases where one game is missing, we added extra cases where two
games are missing, so we need to add these back.

Step 3: Apply Inclusion-Exclusion Formula

Using the principle of inclusion-exclusion:

Valid Cases=Total Cases−Cases missing at least one game+Cases missing at least two games
=243−96+3
=150.

Thus, the number of ways the student can play each of the three games at least once
during the week is 150.
Example-7

Let X be the set of all three-digit integers; that is, X = {x is an integer |100 ≤ x ≤999}. If Ai is the
set of numbers in X whose ith digit is i, compute the cardinality of the set A1UA2UA3.

Solution:

We first observe the following:

A₁ = { 100, 101, 102, ..., 199 },

so that | A₁ | = 100,

A₂ = { 120, 121, 122, ..., 129, 220, 221, 229, 320, 321, 329, ..., 920, 921, 922, ..., 929 }.
So that | A₂ | = 90,

A₃ = { 103,113,123,...,193,203,213,223,...,293,303,313,323,...,393, ...,903,913,923,..., 993 }.

So that | A₃ | = 90.

Further, we find that

A₁ ∩ A₂ = { 120, 121, 122, ... 129 } so that | A₁ ∩ A₂ | = 10,

A₁ ∩ A₃ = { 103, 113, 123, ... 193 } so that | A₁ ∩ A₃ | = 10,

A₂ ∩ A₃ = { 123, 223, 323, ... 923 } so that | A₂ ∩ A₃ | = 9,

A₁ ∩ A₂ ∩ A₃ = { 123 } so that | A₁ ∩ A₂ ∩ A₃ | = 1.

Therefore,

| A₁ ∪ A₂ ∪ A₃ | = | A₁ | + | A₂ | + | A₃ | - | A₁ ∩ A₂ | - | A₂ ∩ A₃ | - | A₃ ∩ A₁ | + | A₁ ∩ A₂ ∩ A₃ |.

= 100 + 90 + 90 - 10 - 10 - 9 + 1 = 252.
7)Binomial and Multinomial Theorems:

One of the basic properties of C(n, r) = is that it is the coefficient of xⁿ⁻ʳ yʳ in the expansion
of the expression (x + y)ⁿ, where x and y are any real numbers. In other words,

This result is known as the Binomial Theorem for a positive integral index.

The numbers for r = 0, 1, 2, ..., n in the above result are known as the binomial coefficients.

The following is a generalization of the binomial theorem, known as the Multinomial Theorem.

Theorem:

For positive integers n and t, the coefficients of x₁ⁿ¹, x₂ⁿ², x₃ⁿ³, ..., xₜⁿₜ in the expansion of (x₁ + x₂
+ ... + xₜ)ⁿ is

where each nᵢ is a nonnegative integer ≤ n, and n₁ + n₂ + n₃ + ... + nₜ = n.

Proof:

We note that in the expansion of (x₁ + x₂ + ... + xₜ)ⁿ, the coefficient of x₁ⁿ¹ x₂ⁿ² ... xₜⁿₜ is the
number of ways we can select x₁ from n₁ of the n factors, x₂ from n₂ of the n - n₁ remaining
factors, x₃ from n₃ of the n - n₁ - n₂ remaining factors, and so on.

Therefore, this coefficient is, by the product rule,

This proves the required result.

Another way of stating the Multinomial Theorem is:

The general term in the expansion of (x₁ + x₂ + x₃ + ... + xₜ)ⁿ is

where n₁, n₂, ..., nₜ are non-negative integers not exceeding n and

n1+n2+n3+⋯+nt=n.

The expression

is also written as

and is called a multinomial coefficient.

Example - 1:

Prove the following identities for a positive integer n:

Solution:

The Binomial Theorem for a positive integral index n reads:

 (i) When x = y = 1, this becomes

(ii) when x = -1 and y = 1, we get

Example - 2:

Find the coefficient of x9y3in the expansion of (2x−3y)12

Solution:
We have, by the Binomial Theorem,

=−3,041,280
Example:3

Evaluate

Example - 4:

Find the term which contains x11 and y4 in the expansion of (2x3−3x2 y+z)6

Solution:
By the Multinomial Theorem, the general term in the given expansion is

Example - 5:

Determine the coefficient of:

1. xyz2 in the expansion of (2x−y−z)4

2. a2b3c4d5 in the expansion of (a+2b−3c+9d+5)16.
Solution:

By the Multinomial Theorem, we note that the general term in the expansion of (2x−y−z)4

2. By the Multinomial Theorem, we note that the general term in the expansion of
(a+2b−3c+2d+5)16