1.

Define the concept of a finite state machine (FSM):

 A finite state machine has a finite number of states and

transitions.
 States change based on inputs.
 It models systems or computations.
 Includes a start state and one or more accepting states.

2. Illustrate how a transition diagram helps in recognizing languages:

 A transition diagram is a visual representation of state

transitions.
 States are represented as circles, and transitions as arrows.
 It shows valid paths for input strings.
 Helps to trace strings to determine acceptance.

3. Define language acceptance by a finite automaton:

 A language is accepted if all its strings lead to an accepting state.

 Defined over a specific alphabet.
 Only valid strings belong to the language.
 Rejects strings that don't fit the defined rules.

4. Define deterministic finite automaton (DFA):

 A DFA has one unique transition for each input symbol.

 No ambiguity in transitions.
 Recognizes regular languages.
 Easier to implement than NFAs.

5. Define non-deterministic finite automaton (NFA):

 An NFA allows multiple transitions for the same input.

 Can have epsilon (ϵ) transitions, which require no input.
 Equally powerful as DFA for recognizing languages.
 Simpler to design but harder to implement directly.

6. Describe the role of an alphabet in formal languages:

 An alphabet is a set of symbols used to define strings.

 It forms the building blocks of languages.
 Example: {a, b, c}.
 All strings and languages are derived from it.
7. Define regular expressions and list some common identity rules:

 Regular expressions represent patterns in regular languages.

 Use symbols like *, |, and concatenation to define languages.
 Example: (a|b)* means all combinations of a’s and b’s.
 Rules: (A∣B)∗=A∗∪B∗(A|B)* = A* \cup B*(A∣B)∗=A∗∪B∗,
A⋅(B∪C)=AB∪ACA \cdot (B \cup C) = AB \cup ACA⋅(B∪C)=AB∪AC.

8. Define the pumping lemma for regular sets:

 A property used to prove a language is not regular.

 States that strings longer than a certain length can be split and
"pumped."
 Proves non-regularity by contradiction.
 Example: L={anbn∣n≥0}L = \{a^n b^n | n \geq 0\}L={anbn∣n≥0} is
not regular.

9. Illustrate the closure properties of regular sets:

 Regular languages are closed under union, intersection, and

complement.
 Also closed under concatenation and the Kleene star.
 This allows combining and modifying regular languages.
 Ensures regular expressions remain consistent.

10. Discuss the significance of right linear and left linear grammars:

 Right linear grammars generate regular languages (A → aB).

 Left linear grammars have non-terminals on the left (A → Ba).
 Right linear is used for DFA and NFA.
 Left linear grammars are less common but useful in special
cases.

11. How does the pumping lemma prove non-regularity of languages?:

 Assume the language is regular.

 Use the pumping lemma to split strings and "pump" parts.
 Show strings that cannot fit the language's rules.
 Proves the language is not regular.
12. Define the significance of the acceptance of strings in automata
theory:

 Acceptance determines if a string belongs to a language.

 Helps validate inputs in systems.
 Ensures computations follow defined rules.
 Links theoretical models to practical uses.

13. Define Moore Machine:

 A finite automaton where outputs depend only on current states.

 Outputs are fixed for each state.
 Simpler and more predictable.
 Example: Traffic light systems.

14. Define Mealy Machine:

 A finite automaton where outputs depend on states and inputs.

 Outputs are dynamic and change with transitions.
 More flexible than Moore machines.
 Example: Digital counters.

15. Define: 1) Strings 2) Alphabet:

 A string is a sequence of symbols from an alphabet.

 An alphabet is a finite set of symbols.
 Example: {a, b} is an alphabet; "abba" is a string.
 Strings combine to form languages.

16. Define the significance of context-free grammars in syntax analysis:

 Context-free grammars (CFG) define rules for hierarchical

structures.
 Used in programming language syntax.
 Example: Arithmetic expressions.
 Helps build parse trees for code analysis.
17. Define ambiguity in context-free grammars with an example:

 Ambiguity occurs when a grammar allows multiple parse trees

for a string.
 Example: E→E+E∣E∗E∣idE → E+E | E*E | idE→E+E∣E∗E∣id.
 Makes parsing unclear and inconsistent.
 Needs resolution for correct interpretation.

18. Define Chomsky Normal Form (CNF):

 A CFG with rules A → BC or A → a.

 Simplifies parsing and computation.
 Used in CYK parsing algorithms.
 Efficient for language processing.

19. Define Greibach Normal Form (GNF):

 A CFG where rules start with a terminal symbol (A → aα).

 Simplifies recursive parsing.
 Ensures leftmost derivations.
 Useful for top-down parsers.

20. Define the concept of pushdown automata:

 A computational model with a stack for memory.

 Recognizes context-free languages.
 Handles nested structures like parentheses.
 Extends finite automata with stack operations.

21. Define the pumping lemma for context-free languages:

 Tests if a language is context-free.

 States that long strings in context-free languages can be split and
repeated.
 Proves non-context-free languages by contradiction.
 Example: L={anbncn∣n≥1}L = \{a^n b^n c^n | n \geq
1\}L={anbncn∣n≥1}.
22. Define the role of a stack in a pushdown automaton:
o A stack stores symbols to track context and nesting.
o Operates on a last-in, first-out (LIFO) basis.
o Enables recognition of context-free languages.
o Handles structures like balanced parentheses.

23.Define context-free languages used in parsing programming

languages:
o Context-free languages define hierarchical and nested
structures.
o Used to parse if-else, loops, and function calls.
o Recognized by pushdown automata.
o Example: Arithmetic expressions in programming.

24. Enlist the application of pumping lemma:

o Proves non-regularity of languages.
o Distinguishes between regular and non-regular languages.
o Tests context-free vs. non-context-free languages.
o Identifies limits of regular and context-free grammars.

25. Define CFG and PDA inter-convertible:

o Every context-free grammar (CFG) has an equivalent PDA.
o A PDA can generate strings of a CFG.
o Ensures theoretical equivalence between grammars and
automata.
o Provides tools for both recognition and generation of
languages.
26.Define concatenation:
o Combines two strings or languages sequentially.
o Example: "a" + "b" = "ab".
o Builds more complex structures from simpler ones.
o Essential in regular and context-free languages.

27. Define a Turing machine and its components:

o A Turing machine is a theoretical model of computation.
o Components: an infinite tape, a head for reading/writing, a
state register, and a transition function.
o Solves any algorithmic problem that is computable.
o Basis of modern computation theory.

28. Illustrate the role of a tape in a Turing machine:

o The tape acts as infinite memory for input, output, and
intermediate computations.
o Tracks data and head position.
o Enables both read and write operations.
o Central to the machine's functionality.

29.Define the significance of recursively enumerable languages in

automata theory:
o Languages accepted by a Turing machine, possibly non-
halting.
o Represent the most general class of languages.
o Includes all computable problems.
o Highlights the limits of language recognition.
30. Define the relationship between context-sensitive
languages and linear bounded automata:
o Context-sensitive languages are recognized by linear
bounded automata (LBA).
o LBAs use a tape size proportional to the input.
o Extends computational power beyond context-free
languages.
o Example: L={anbncn∣n≥1}L = \{a^n b^n c^n | n \geq 1\}.

31. Define computable functions in the context of Turing machines:

o Functions solvable by a Turing machine.
o Includes arithmetic, logic, and algorithmic tasks.
o Defines the boundary of computation.
o Central to understanding decidability.

32.Define how Turing machines are used to simulate algorithms:

o Executes algorithms step-by-step with defined rules.
o Uses states and tape for data manipulation.
o Models real-world computational procedures.
o Acts as the theoretical foundation for computers.

33.Describe how a Turing machine can be used to model real-world

computations:
o Simulates any process with a clear algorithm.
o Models data manipulation, decision-making, and iteration.
o Basis for designing programming languages and algorithms.
o Explains computational limits.
34. Define the concept of decidability in the context of Turing
machines:
o A problem is decidable if a Turing machine halts on all
inputs.
o Decidability determines solvability of problems.
o Divides problems into solvable and unsolvable categories.
o Central to computation and logic.

35. State the role of Turing machines in the theory of

computation:
o Defines the limits of algorithmic computation.
o Provides a framework for studying languages and problems.
o Models both solvable and unsolvable problems.
o Basis for modern computer science.

36.Define the significance of the halting problem in Turing machines:

o The halting problem asks whether a Turing machine stops
on a given input.
o Proven undecidable for all cases.
o Highlights limits of algorithmic computation.
o Central to understanding computation theory.

37.Define the role of a compiler in software development:

o Converts high-level code into machine-readable format.
o Detects and resolves errors in source code.
o Optimizes performance.
o Bridges programming and execution.
38. Define the significance of lexical analysis in the compilation
process:
o Breaks source code into tokens for parsing.
o Detects basic syntax errors.
o First phase of compilation.
o Converts human-readable code into manageable units.

39.Discuss the various phases involved in the compilation process:

o Lexical analysis: Tokenizes source code.
o Syntax analysis: Checks grammatical structure.
o Semantic analysis: Validates meaning of code.
o Code generation and optimization: Produces efficient
machine code.

40. Define the front-end and back-end of a compiler:

o The front-end handles syntax and semantics.
o The back-end generates optimized machine code.
o Front-end ensures code correctness.
o Back-end ensures execution efficiency.

41. Define the concept of top-down parsing in syntax analysis:

o Parsing starts from the root of the parse tree.
o Example: Recursive-descent parsing.
o Easier to implement and understand.
o Suitable for LL grammars.

42. Define the importance of parse trees in syntactic analysis:

o Represents the structure of input code.
o Helps validate syntax according to grammar rules.
o Used for debugging and optimizing code.
o Essential in compiler design.

43. Define differences between LL and LR parsing techniques:

o LL parsing: Top-down, scans left-to-right, constructs
leftmost derivations.
o LR parsing: Bottom-up, scans left-to-right, constructs
rightmost derivations.
o LL is simpler but less powerful.
o LR handles more complex grammars and languages.