International Journal of Advancement in Development Studies, Volume 13, Number 2, 2018

ISSN: 2276-8246

CURRICULUM DEFINITION: A MISLEADING PHILOSOPHY

Uwak, Sylvanus Okon

Department of Physics
College of Education Afaha Nsit, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria

ABSTRACT
This paper looks at the ever increasing multifarious definitions of ‘Curriculum’ and
frown at it as a misleading to the learners, instructors, curriculum developers,
curriculum designers, curriculum users and the general public. Also, it sees it as mental
fight by the curriculum definers, who are not mindful of the ever increasing conflict,
confusions and misguiding in the meaning, interpretation, conception and use of the word
‘Curriculum’. The work tries to pre-suppose some measures to curb this undesirable
phenomenon.
Keyword: Curriculum, Definition, Misleading, Learning Experiences, and Learners.

INTRODUCTION
The term curriculum specifically refers to a planned sequence of instruction directed towards students’
educational activities and experiences in line with schools’ instructional goals and objectives. In education,
curriculum is taken to be race; thus curriculum is a racing agent in educational activities. However, the term
“Curriculum” has different interpretations to different scholars. According to Kelly (1999), curriculum is
negatively viewed as a “syllabus which may limit the planning of teachers to a consideration of the content
or the body of knowledge they wish to transmit or a list of the subjects to be taught or both.
The main aim and objective of curriculum is to effectively promote learning and enhance pupils’ (learners’)
knowledge that must change attitudes, characters, and positively install moral values. In Hong Kong year
book published in 2006, curriculum is more positive in nature, which could achieve the objective of
motivating learning, enhancing knowledge and abilities and developing positive values or even attitudes.
Taba (1962), in defining curriculum identified seven components to include:
1. Diagnosis of needs
2. Formulation of objectives
3. Selection of content
4. Organization of content
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. Organization of learning experiences
7. Determination of what to evaluate and the ways and means of doing it.
These are just very view of different ways of defining “Curriculum”. We are going to make some
effort to list some more few others; but before that let us look at types of curriculum.

Types of Curriculum
Core Curriculum: The curriculum that prepares students to have all the learning experiences as stipulated
in curriculum document. It is the core academic content for all learning experiences a child must have.
The Hidden (Covert Curriculum): Hidden curriculum is the kinds of learning children derive from the
very nature and organizational design of the public school, a well as from the behaviours and attitudes of
teachers and administrators who are in readiness to effect learning” examples of the hidden curriculum
includes: messages and lessons derived from the mere organization of schools. It is lesson learned without
purposeful intention from social environment such as transmition of values norms and beliefs.
The Null Curriculum: The learning experiences a child suppose to have which is not taught. It is the
curriculum that the schools do not teach. Since it is not practicable to teach everything in schools, some
topics and subject areas may be intentionally removed from the overt curriculum.
Written (Overt or Explicit) Curriculum: The academic activities written as part of formal instruction of
learning experiences for a child. This might be curriculum documents, text books, films and other
instructional materials.
Phantom Curriculum: This refers to the message or learning experiences a child may have through
exposure to some forms of media, example newspaper, radio, television and internet etc.

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Societal Curriculum (Social Curricula): This has to do with educational experiences a learner gets from
social media, example: Facebook, Twitter, Youtube etc. Cortes (1981), defines societal curriculum as …
massive, ongoing, informal curriculum of family, peer groups, neighbours, churches, organizations,
occupations, mass media and other socializing forces that “educate” all of us through our lives.
Concomitant Curriculum: The learning experiences received at home, churches, families. The lesson that
teaches morals, values, structured behaviours and or ethics.
The Internal Curriculum: This is the combination of all or total experiences of a child to create new
knowledge. It comes in the form of the knowledge that is a part and parcel of the learners’ experiences. It is
always unique to a particular student and differ in another.
Received Curriculum: This is the learning experiences a child gets from the teacher while the lesson is on.
It is the actual learning experiences a child gets and can remember in the course of learning, they are those
concepts and contents that are truly learned and remembered.
Rhetorical Curriculum: These are the ideas offered by school officials, administrators, policy makers,
politicians, professional bodies or publicized works. The knowledge gained here may lead to curriculum
change and innovation.
The Electronic Curriculum: The learning experiences gained through internet search. According to Wiles
(2008), it is those lesson learned through searching the internet for information or through using electronic
form of communication. This type of curriculum may be formal or informal overt or covert, correct or
incorrect, good or bad due to the views of individuals.
Curriculum-in-Use: This is curriculum written in the form of textbooks and contents and spelt out in
curriculum guides. It is the concepts actual curriculum that is presented and delivered by each teacher.

CURRICULUM DEFINITIONS
1. Curriculum is a plan for providing sets learning opportunities to achieve broad goals and related
specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school center for persons to be
educated – J. Galen Saylor, William M. Alexander, and Arthur J. Lewis (1974).
2. Curriculum is the formal and informal content and process by which learners gain knowledge and
understanding, develop skills, and alter attitudes, appreciations, and values under the auspices of that
school – Doll (1988).
3. Curriculum may be considered as a syllabus, a body of knowledge to be transmitted to the learners.
Syllabus means a concise statement or table of the heads of discourse, the contents of a treatise and
the subjects of a series of lectures…Smith (2000).
4. Curriculum could be considered, in its widest possible manifestation as the totality of learning,
situations connected to the subsequent learning experiences which occur in a human beings life –
Rodica M. Miculescu (2009).
5. The curriculum must consist essentially of disciplined study in five great areas: (1) command of
mother tongue and the systematic study of grammar, literature, and writing (2) mathematics (3)
sciences (4) history (5) foreign language –A. Bestor (1956).
6. Curriculum is the offering of socially valued knowledge, skills, and attitudes made available to
students through a variety of arrangement during the time they are at school, college or university –
Bell (1971).
7. Curriculum is a master plan for selecting content and organizing learning experiences for the
purpose of changing and developing learners’ behaviours and insights – David G. Armstrong
(1989).
8. Curriculum is composed of all of the experiences children have under the guidance of the teacher –
Caswell and Campbel (1935).
9. Curriculum is that reconstruction of knowledge and experience systematically developed under the
auspices of the school (or university), to enable the learner to increase his or her control of
knowledge and experience – Daniel Tanner and Laurel N. Tanner (1988).
10. Curriculum is all curricula, no matter what their particular design, are composed for certain
elements. A curriculum usually contains a statement of aims and of specific objectives, it indicates
some selection and organization of content; it either implies or manifests certain patterns of learning
and teaching, whether because the objectives demand them or because the content organization
requires them. Finally, it includes a program of evaluation of the outcomes – Hilda Taba (1962).
11. Curriculum is a goal or set of values which are activated through a development process culminating
in classroom experiences for students – Jon Wiles and Joseph Bondi (1989).

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12. The curriculum is all of the experiences that individual learners have in a program of education
whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives, which is planned in terms of
a framework of theory and research or past and present professional practice – Hass (1980).
13. The curriculum embodies all the teaching-learning experiences guided and directed by the school –
Harnack (1968).
14. Curriculum is a set of abstractions from actual industries, arts, professions, and civic activities, and
these abstraction are brought into the school-box and taught – Goodman (1963).
15. A curriculum consists of those matter: A. that teachers and students tend to do together, B. that
students, teachers, and others concerned generally recognize as important to study and learn, as
indicated particularly by using them as a basis for judging the success of both school and scholar, C.
the manner in which these matters are organized in relationship to one another, in relationship to the
other elements in the immediate educational situation and in time and space – Decker Walker
(1990).
16. Curriculum is a set of events, either proposed, occurring, or having occurred, which has the potential
for reconstructing human experience – Duncan and Frymier (1967).
17. Curriculum is the educational program of the school and divided into four basic element (1) program
of studies, (2) program of experience (3) program of service (4) hidden curriculum – Albert Oliver
(1977).
18. Curriculum is a sequence of potential experiences set up in the school for the purpose of discipline
children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting. This set of experiences is referred to as the
curriculum – B. Othanel Simth (1957).
19. Curriculum is that series of things which children and youth must do and experience by way of
developing abilities to do the things well that make up the affairs of adult life; and to be in all
respects what adults should be – Bobbit (1918).
20. Curriculum is a set of learning goals articulated across grades that outline the intended mathematics
content and process goals at particular points in time throughout the K-12 school program – Ray,
Lapan, Holliday and Wasman (2003).
21. Curriculum incorporates the planed interaction of pupils with instructional content, materials,
resources and processes for evaluating the attainment of educational objectives – James R. (2011).
22. The term curriculum is also used to refer to the actual material that comprises curriculum.
Curriculum in these terms can be a syllabus to be transmitted or it can be a product or an intention.
The material can be concerned with praxis or a manual of detail. It can refer to something that is
supported by research or an ongoing process guided by the preferences of the user. – Niculescus, R.
M. (2009).
23. Curriculum is all the experiences children have under the guidance of teachers – Hollis L. Caswell
and Doak S. Campbell.
24. Curriculum consists of all the means of instruction used by the school to provide opportunities for
student learning experiences leading to desired learning outcomes – Krug (1957).
25. Curriculum is a structural series of intended learning outcomes. Curriculum prescribes (or at least
anticipates) the results of instruction. It does not prescribe the means…to be used in achieving the
results – Johnson (1967).
26. Curriculum is a goal or set of values, which are activated through a development process
culminating a classroom experiences for students. The degree to which those experiences are a true
representation of the envisioned goal or goal is a direct function of the effectiveness of the
curriculum development efforts –Jon Wiles and Joseph Bondi (1989).
27. Curriculum is the contrived activity and experience – organized, focused, systematic-that life,
unaided, would not provide-Musgrave (1986).
28. The curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which comes from the disciplines … education
should be conceived as a guided recapitulation of the process of inquiry which gave rise to the
fruitful bodies of organized knowledge comprising the established disciplines – P. Phenix (1962).
29. Curriculum is the program, a plan, content, and learning experiences – Peter F. Oliva (1989).
30. We define curriculum as a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad goals
and related specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school center for
persons to be educated – J. Galen Saylor, William M. Alexander, and Arthur J. Lewis (1974).

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31. Curriculum is the planned and guided learning experiences and intended learning outcomes,
formulated through systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experience, under the auspices of
the school for the learner’s continuous and willful growth in personal-social competence – Tanner
and Tanner (1975).
32. Curriculum is the content pupils are expected to learn – Smith and Orlovsky (1978).
33. The curriculum is all of the learning of students which is planned by and directed by the school to
attain its educational goals – Ralph Tyler (1957).
34. Curriculum is the formal and informal content and process by which learners gain knowledge and
understanding, develop skills, and alter attitudes, appreciations, and values under the auspices of that
school – Ronald C. Doll (1988).
35. Curriculum is a situation or an activities arranged and through into play by the teacher to effect
student learning – Shaver and Berlak (1968).
36. The curriculum should consist of permanent studies-rules of grammar, reading, rhetoric and logic,
and mathematics (for the elementary and secondary school), and the greatest books of the western
world (beginning at the secondary level of schooling) – Robert Hutchins (1936).
37. Curriculum is a plan for a sustained process of teaching and learning- While Pratt (1997).
38. Curriculum is “all the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in
groups or individual, inside or outside the school. By this conception, four ways are identified to
include:
1. Curriculum as a body of knowledge to be transmitted
2. Curriculum as an attempt to achieve certain ends in students – products
3. Curriculum as a process.
4. Curriculum as praxis. – John Kevr and Vickelly (1969)
39. The curriculum is a means to control individuals, but social reconstructionists use it to liberate
people. The emanicipatory curriculum has been used to free the oppressed from opressors (Friere,
1970).
40. In the early years of the 20th century, the traditional concepts held of the “curriculum is that it is a
body of subjects or subject matter prepared by the teachers for the students to learn”. It was
synonymous to the “course of study” and “syllabus”. Thus, curriculum can be viewed as a field of
study. It is made up of its foundations (philosophical, historical, psychological, and social
foundations); domains of knowledge as well as its research theories and principles. Hence,
curriculum is taken as scholarly and theoretical. It is concerned with broad historical, philosophical
and social issues and academics (Historical Perspective).
41. On the other hand, to a progressivist, a listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of study, and list of
courses of specific discipline do not make a curriculum. These can only be called curriculum if the
written materials are actualized by the learner. Broadly speaking, curriculum is defined as the total
learning experiences of the individual. This definition is anchored on John Dewey’s definition of
experience and education. He believed that reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular
elements. Thought is not derived from action but tested by application (Conceptualized by
Progressivist).
42. Caswell and Campbell viewed curriculum as “all experiences children have under the guidance of
teachers”. This definition is shared by Smith, Stanley and shores when they defined “curriculum as a
sequence of potential experiences set up in schools for the purpose of disciplining children and
youth is group ways of thinking and acting”. Curriculum as a process is when a teacher enters a
particular schooling situation with: an ability to think critically, in-action; an understanding of their
role and the expectations others have of them; and a proposal for action which set out essential
principles and features of the educational encounter. Guided by these, they encourage conversations
between, and with, people in the situation out of which may comes a course of thinking and action.
Plus, the teacher continually evaluates the process and what they can see of outcomes
(Conceptualized by Caswell and Campbell).
43. This curriculum is aimed to help students discover themselves as they move through school.
Humanists conceptualize the curriculum as a spontaneous and exploratory tool. The function of the
curriculum is to foster intrinsic rewards for learning. In end, self-actualization is the goal (McNeil,
2009). To this end, the teacher builds relationships with the students and promotes individual
learning. These relationships and beliefs will inspire students to innovate, and help students
confidently take risks in learning (Conceptualized by The Humanistic Curriculum on Individualism).

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44. While curriculum is still evident in teaching, especially in the primary grades, it is critiqued by
social reconstructionist. They believe the curriculum should promote social change, and humanist
focus on individuals. The social reconstructionist curriculum strive for social change, and education
is a means to achieve it. Therefore, the social reconstructionist see curriculum as the means for
social change. Education can help foster discontent for the way the world is, and provide an avenue
for change. Teachers ascribing to this conception match the goals of students with the global goals.
The teacher help students understand the socio-cultural reality, and encourage students to make a
difference (Conceptualized by Social Reconstructionists).
45. They believe if standards are implemented with an accountability system in place, students have no
choice but to learn. The curriculum is backloaded, and outcomes are particularly important in
measuring the value of the curriculum. Therefore, “teaching to the test” is also a product of the
systemic conception (McNeil, 2009). (Conception of Standards Based-Movement
Reconstructionists).
46. The academic curriculum focuses on necessary knowledge needed spring forward into the
workforce. This conception acknowledges change, and seeks to form a foundation that can be used
in various disciplines. Students should learn to ask questions, hypothesize, synthesize, execute
scientific procedures, and apply their skills in new contexts. Bruner’s (1960) structure of the
disciplines fits nicely in this conceptualization. Bruner asserts that learning methods for inquiry in a
variety of disciplines will prepares students for an unknown future. Some subjects have universal
value, and can be applied in many situations. Essentially, students learn how to learn, thereby
preparing them for problems in the future not yet imagined. (Conception of Academic Curriculum).
47. …. the curriculum is aimed to help students discover themselves as they more through school. It is a
spontaneous and exploratory tool to foster intrinsic rewards for learning in the end, self-actualization
is the goal (McNeil, 2009).
48. The curriculum is a means to control individuals, but social reconstructionists use it to liberate
people. The emancipatory curriculum has been to free the oppressed from oppressors. (Friere, 1970).
49. Curriculum is a moral philosophy for children to learn. (Dickel, 2006).
The Author would also define curriculum as:
i. A set of academic constructs that systematically drawn by the experts in the field to educate pupils,
students and or individuals on the matter arising on specific teaching and learning areas intended to
achieve desirable objectives.
ii. Set out syllabus of academic activities for learners in specific fields and at its implementation
achieves the desired objectives.
iii. A written document that spelt out systematically the roots and means of what should or must be
done to achieve specific aims and objectives in the teaching and learning situations.
The three definitions above can be fused into one thus:
50. Curriculum is a complete document of academic activities systematically drawn by experts in the
core field guided by instructors to educate learners on the matter arising on specific teaching and
learning areas and at it implementation intended to achieve the needed desirable aims, goals and
objectives.
Based on the above definitions, for a program fit to be called Curriculum, it must possess the following
characteristics.
1. Must be a written document
2. Must address or contain academic activities
3. Must be sequentially (systematically) drawn
4. Must be set up by experts (in the field)
5. Must tackle the current needful issues
6. Must be directed and guided by instructors
7. Must be learners centered
8. Must focuses on the specific subject matter
9. Must focuses on specific areas of the subject matter
10. Must involve teaching and learning processes
11. The aim, the goal and the objective must be clearly stated
12. Must at its implementation achieve the needed aims, goals and objectives.

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This is what the author calls “12-m-elements of curriculum”.

In consonant with this if curriculum is synonymous to race then elements in racing can be identified as:
1. Must be an object (body racing)
2. Must be position
3. Must be speed
4. Must be velocity
5. Must be acceleration
6. Must be momentum
7. Must be distance covered
8. Must be measurement
9. Must be force
10. Must be energy
11. Must be destination
12. Must be time
This is “12-m-elements of race”
This is in agreement to elements of curriculum. Perhaps, this is the reason some of the educators loss out to
consider when considering the definition of curriculum.
Views/Evaluation of Curriculum Definition Over-Time by Scholars
There has been no consensus among specialists as to the precise definition of the curriculum. The concept of
curriculum itself has meant different things to different people at different periods and cultures. The different
interpretations given to curriculum by specialists has been one of the greatest problems of curriculum
development in developing countries – Olaitanard Ali (1997).
The curriculum has multiple definitions which any may be accepted based on the situation under discourse.
It has been defined as the planned experiences offered to the learner under the guidance of the school.
Curriculum is all the experiences which are offered to learners under the auspices of the school-Mkpa
(1987).
Curriculum is relatively viewed as a “syllabus which may limit the planning of teachers to a consideration of
the content or the body of knowledge they wish to transmit or a list of the subject to be taught or both –
Kelly (1999).
Longstreet and Shane have dubbed divisions in curricula orientation as: child-centered, society-centered,
knowledge-centered or electic – Cortes (1981).
“… I have also noticed that almost all definitions of curriculum seem to use the term learning experience
whilst this can be useful term I am concerned that it is generally used without definition both at the ‘design
level’ of curriculum and at the same time to day-to-day curriculum realization … with this confusion in mind
I would like to suggest this working definition of curriculum for the purposes of this paper. Curriculum
could be considered, as its widest possible manifestation as the totality of learning situations connected to
the subsequent learning experience, which occur during a human beings life” – R. M. Miculescu (2009).
“The term “Curriculum” has different interpretations among scholars. In this session rather than listing
interpretations, I would take one step forward, trying to evaluate them with reference to Hong Kong
education context – Tse Nga Chung (2013).
The few just stated views acknowledge. The ever increasing confuse nature of defining or giving meaning to
the word “Curriculum” over time.

ASSESSMENT OF CURRICULUM DEFINITION

Looking at all these definitions for one word “curriculum” by different school of thoughts, what an amazing
incredible and unfounded misleading tragedy? The tautololistic tendencies are alarming and mind-blowing
the confusing nature is unquantifiable and the concept non-directional.
In my discovery curriculum has a multifactor definitions and meanings from different school of thoughts and
personalities. Some of these seem to be in unison with one another and some seem to diverse depending on
the elements content in the definition or meaning. Hence, there is no stereotype way of defining the term
“Curriculum” and hence no stereotype meaning and hence no confined interest. What is happening in the
definitions and meanings of curriculum is nothing but “mental fight”. By curriculum definers
If one would have patient enough to go through the stated definitions of this single word “Curriculum” a
truly mindful individual would have no difficulty but to say “truly the definition of Curriculum is a
misleading philosophy”.

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In my deep assessment, every curriculum definer wants to gain prominent; such prominent is categorically
“cheap” and “weightless”. Curriculum has no generally acceptable definition. Everyone wants to place
prominent on his or her mental conception, not minding the confused nature in circulation. The confusion
cuts across every facet of Tom, Dick and Harry: the learners, the teachers, the curriculum definers,
curriculum designer, the schools, the society, the curriculum developers, the curriculum implementers, the
general public and the world at large.
However, the author upholds that for a curriculum to be a curriculum it must capture 12-essential elements
known as “12-m-elements of curriculum” as stated in the body of the work. Conceptions as well as types of
curriculum toe the line of the definitions with their confused nature. It is worth to note that even in the
author’s definitions of curriculum, confusion is not voided.
The author is of the opinion that the curriculum definers should first and foremost find out:
 Who was or were the initiator(s) of the word “curriculum”.
 Was there any aim and objective as well as goal or did they have aims objectives and goals for the
term curriculum?
 If “yes” what was the aim, the objective, and the goal of curriculum?
 Did the initiator give the definition and the meaning of the term curriculum?
 If “yes” what was the definition and what was the meaning?
 And the alike questions.
If the answers to these questions are on the positive, then we should go back to the “drawing board”
and stop confusing our minds, readers, issues, the general public and the world. The author is of the opinion
that this “child-play: should be reduced or stop by policy makers to issue out a parametric regulation guiding
the privileges of individual on the use, definition, and conception of the word “Curriculum”.

RECOMMENDATION
 Especially, in education, if curriculum is to be an instrument for change, then, its meanings, definitions
and operational terms must be put in an unambiguous platform to profit clarity, direction and focus in
attainment of specific goals and objectives.
 The government in particular should formulate a policy that restricts way-ward definitions and meanings
of “curriculum”, if she sees it as a working toll for economic, political and national development.
 The history and genesis of the word “curriculum” should be traced by the “users” and adopt as well as
holding clear to the original tenet.
 A body constituting experts should be set-up to deeply look into the means and ends of “curriculum and
possibly come out with a convincing and generally accepted definition and meaning of “curriculum”.
 The curriculum definers should avoid making tuatoristic and non-directional definitions of “curriculum”.
 If need be, “curriculum” generally accepted definition (if there is for now) may be slightly modified with
no impact on the meaning and content.
 Government (of Nigeria) should come up with a policy that regulate or control the free choice of
defining “curriculum”.
 Curriculum designer, development, formulation, and implementation should be learners-centred.

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Arthur Levine, Handbook on Undergraduate Curriculum (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1981).

Cortes, C. E. (1981). The Societal Curriculum: Implications for Multiethnic education. In Banks, J. A. (ed)
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Geofferey Squires, First Degree: The Undergraduate Curriculum (Buckingham, England: Society for
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Geoffery Squires, First Degree: The Undergraduate Curriculum (Buckingham, England: Society for
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“Curriculum Theory and Curriculum Change: What Can We Learn from History?” Journal of
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Harold Taylor, ed., Essays in Teaching (New York: Harper, 1950), p. 220.

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Henry F. May, The Enlightenment in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), p. 33.

http://www.homeofbob.com/pedagogy/plan/curDev/defList.htm

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Joan S. Stark and others, Reflections on Course Planning, Technical Report 88-C-002.2 (Ann Arbor:
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Joseph Ben David, American Higher Education (New York: McGraw Hill, 1972), p. 58; Joseph Ben
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Laurence Veysey, “Stability and Experiment,” in Content and Context, ed. Carl Kaysen (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1973), p. 22.

Mkpa, A. M. (1987). Curriculum Development and Implementation. Owerr.: Totan Publishers Ltd.

Olaitan, S. O. and Ali, A. (1997). The making of a curriculum (Theory, process, product and evaluation)
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Peter Caws, “Instruction and Inquiry,” Daedalus 103 (No. 4 1974): 24.

R. M. Niculescu (2009). Trying to understand curriculum I n the New Millennium. Bulletin of the
Transilvania University of Brasov. Vol. 2(51). Series VII: Social Sciences and Law.

Richard L. Kagan, “Universities in Castille, 1500–1810,” in The University in Society, vol. 2, ed. Lawrence
Stone (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975), p. 355.

Taba Hilda (1962). “Curriculum Development” Theory and practice. Bra and World Inc. New York. Pp. 11-
22.

The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971).

Tse Nga Chung (2013). The Active Classroom. The Hong Kong Insitute of Education.
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IRDI-2018-141/I.S.Udofia/ [email protected]/30-10-2018/cash Register

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