953195

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JMEXXX10.1177/1052562920953195Journal of Management EducationPervez et al.

Article
Journal of Management Education

An Empirical
2021, Vol. 45(1) 126­–158
© The Author(s) 2020
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DOI: 10.1177/1052562920953195
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Syndrome, and Social

Support in Management
Doctoral Programs

Adam Pervez1 , Lisa L. Brady2, Ken Mullane3 ,

Kevin D. Lo4 , Andrew A. Bennett5 ,
and Terry A. Nelson6

Abstract
Scholars in multiple cross-disciplinary studies have found rates of mental
illness among graduate students exceed the reported averages. Yet mental
illness among management doctoral students remains largely unexplored. In
this study, we surveyed 113 management doctoral students to ascertain the
prevalence of symptoms for two common mental illnesses, depression and
anxiety, as well as experiences of impostor syndrome and perceived sources
of social support. Empirical findings from the first phase of our research
suggest that management doctoral students are at greater risk than the
general population of experiencing symptoms of depression, anxiety, and
feelings of being an impostor. However, social support from a supervisor and

1
Mississippi State University, Meridian, MS, USA
2
University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA
3
Salem State University, Salem, MA, USA
4
University of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
5
Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA
6
University of Alaska Anchorage, Anchorage, AK, USA

Corresponding Author:
Adam Pervez, Meridian Division of Business, Mississippi State University, 2212 5th Street,
Meridian, MS 39301, USA.
Email: [email protected]
Pervez et al. 127

from friends was negatively related to symptoms of depression and anxiety,

indicating that these sources can be helpful. In phase two of our research, a
thematic analysis of data from structured interviews with nine management
doctoral students revealed themes linking impostor syndrome with social
support, highlighting that the type of social support may be as beneficial as
the source of social support. Recommendations for future research, as well
as for students, supervisors, and administrators, are provided.

Keywords
mental illness, anxiety, depression, impostor syndrome, social support,
management doctoral programs, doctoral student

Research suggests a mental illness crisis within graduate education may be

derailing students’ careers (Barry et al., 2018; Evans et al., 2018). Indeed, life
as a doctoral student can be stressful due to perceived job insecurity, low pay,
uncertainty about future employment, role conflict, poor advisor relation-
ships, pressure to publish, isolation, lack of support systems, and lack of
work–life balance (Lau & Pretorius, 2019). Collectively, these stressors can
lead to psychological distress and mental illnesses such as depression and
anxiety. For example, Evans et al. (2018) found that 41% of graduate students
from engineering, the sciences, and the humanities experienced depression-
like symptoms, while 39% experienced anxiety-like symptoms.
Many enter academia with enthusiasm only to be confronted with the real-
ities and stressors of the profession. For example, doctoral students are
increasingly taught formulaic research approaches to maximize publications
in top-tier journals, often at the expense of freely focusing on knowledge
accumulation and critical thinking (Bothello & Roulet, 2019; Harley, 2019).
Management doctoral students are often indoctrinated into a “publish or per-
ish” paradigm regarding productivity and output (De Rond & Miller, 2005).
The norm is to publish peer-reviewed journal articles to get hired. This puts
immense pressure on doctoral students to publish early on in their program.
Thus, while doctoral students in psychology and hard sciences might also be
publishing journal articles, they are often doing so in a lab with other students
under the guidance of their advisor. This is not always the case for manage-
ment doctoral students. Furthermore, the pressure for management doctoral
students to start publishing early and autonomously is compounded when
considering that the median time to complete a doctorate ranges from 5.8 to
9 years, whereas the range for management programs is only 4 to 5 years
(Most, 2008; Wao, 2010).
128 Journal of Management Education 45(1)

Moreover, external pressure on the legitimacy of business schools and our

profession, combined with the increasing dissatisfaction scholars feel about
their publishing activities, has reinforced a growing sense of anxiety and self-
doubt, known as impostor syndrome (Bothello & Roulet, 2019; Clance &
Imes, 1978). Doctoral students frequently encounter impostor syndrome
when emulating top scholars—many of whom have an unhealthy work–life
balance—creating a perception that publishing is hard and requires an imbal-
anced lifestyle (Harley, 2019). Finally, doctoral students are not exempt from
the pressures on business schools to maintain accreditation and elevate rank-
ings, which are propagated through changing curricula and pressures to pub-
lish (DeAngelo et al., 2005). These stressors exacerbate challenges unique to
the doctoral experience.
In this article, we build on previous research through survey findings and
interviews with management doctoral students. In doing so, we offer three
critical contributions to theory and practice. First, most research on doctoral
student mental health focuses on graduate students in the humanities or phys-
ical sciences, rarely including business students. Because each academic dis-
cipline has different norms (Rahmandad & Vakili, 2019), examining a
business school context could yield new theoretical insights regarding mental
health (Fisher & Aguinis, 2017).
Second, we go beyond the topics of depression and anxiety by exploring
two related factors that may influence mental health: impostor syndrome and
social support (McGregor et al., 2008). Impostor syndrome refers to an indi-
vidual’s mental state characterized by a continuous pursuit of excellence
coupled with a haunting belief that one’s efforts are inadequate and fraudu-
lent (Clance & Imes, 1978). Perceived social support is the feeling that one is
cared for, loved, and a member of a group (Cobb, 1976). Researchers have
demonstrated that those who experience impostor syndrome may find it dif-
ficult to confide in others, thereby resulting in them often suffering in isola-
tion (Zorn, 2005). Yet the relationships among impostor syndrome, social
support, and symptoms of depression and anxiety remain unexplored. This
inquiry merits attention, particularly as doctoral students are the future of our
profession. Identifying and understanding impostor syndrome and its rela-
tionship with the other three constructs extends current theoretical under-
standing and presents an opportunity for practical recommendations to
address these issues within management doctoral programs.
Third, although social support has been examined in various settings, there
is limited research specific to doctoral students (Jairam & Kahl, 2012).
Therefore, we extend previous research by offering a more nuanced approach.
In addition to traditional conceptualizations involving significant others, fam-
ily, friends, and supervisors, we include a measure of social support relevant to
doctoral students: classmates. Given that there are typically only a few students
Pervez et al. 129

within a doctoral cohort, examining social support from classmates has the
potential to illuminate relationships between classmate support and both impos-
tor syndrome and mental illness in management doctoral programs.
We used both quantitative and qualitative methods in our study of man-
agement doctoral students' mental health and psychological well-being. We
began with the collection of quantitative data via an online survey of manage-
ment doctoral students. We then conducted structured interviews with nine
management doctoral students to explore our quantitative findings.

Literature Review and Theoretical Development

A recent study by the American College Health Association (ACHA) found
that over 92% of graduate students reported having average to “tremendous”
stress over the prior year (ACHA, 2017). Indeed, high levels of coursework
in some programs combined with time pressure, social isolation, and low
levels of support typically means that “doctoral education is inherently stress-
ful for students” (McCauley & Hinojosa, 2020, p. 490). Furthermore, chronic
stress is a known contributor to mental illness. The World Health Organization
(WHO, 2013, p. 9) defines mental health as “a state of wellbeing in which
every individual realizes his or her own potential, can cope with the normal
stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a
contribution to her or his community.” Conversely, mental illness is defined
as “suffering, disability or morbidity due to mental, neurological and sub-
stance use disorders, which can arise due to the genetic, biological and psy-
chological make-up of individuals as well as adverse social conditions and
environmental factors” (WHO, 2013, p. 9).
High levels of student stress are also problematic for universities. Research
findings from other disciplines suggest that doctoral program withdrawal
rates can reach 56% due to psychological distress and mental illness (Pyhältö
et al., 2012). In this study, we focus on symptoms of two of the most common
and widely researched forms of mental illness: depression and anxiety
(Keyes, 2005; Ormel et al., 1994; Wittchen, 2002) and their connection to
impostor syndrome and social support.

Depression and Anxiety in Management Doctoral Students

Both depression and anxiety are associated with a variety of symptoms.
According to the American Psychiatric Association (APA, 2013), depression
is a mental illness that causes feelings of sadness lasting 2 or more weeks.
Symptoms range from mild to severe, such as loss of interest in activities,
130 Journal of Management Education 45(1)

changes in appetite, trouble sleeping, fatigue, difficulty focusing, and suicidal

thoughts (APA, 2017). Those with symptoms of depression may also experi-
ence guilt, worthlessness, and hopelessness (APA, 2013). More than 300 mil-
lion people experience depressive symptoms, making it the leading cause of
disability in the world and a precursor to many diseases (WHO, 2020).
While there are several types of anxiety disorders (e.g., panic, phobia,
separation, etc.), our research focuses on symptoms of Generalized Anxiety
Disorder (GAD). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders–5 (DSM-5) defines GAD as the presence of excessive anxiety and
worry about a variety of topics, events, or activities, with said worry persist-
ing excessively for at least 6 months (APA, 2013). Additionally, anxiety is
manifested by at least three of the following symptoms: restlessness, tiring
easily, impaired concentration or feeling as though one’s mind has gone
blank, irritability, increased muscle aches or soreness, or difficulty sleeping.
In some cases, those who have GAD may experience sweating, nausea, an
exaggerated startle response, and diarrhea (APA, 2013).
Given their prevalence, it is unsurprising that numerous studies focus on
depression and anxiety within academia. However, these studies reveal a
wide range of prevalence across disciplines. Estimates of moderate to severe
depression range from 10% in biomedical students (Nagy et al., 2019) to
nearly 40% in master- and doctoral-level students (Evans et al., 2018).
Estimates of depressive symptoms range from 18% in economics doctoral
students (Barreira et al., 2018) and medical students (Rotenstein et al., 2016),
to 33% in Belgian doctoral students (Levecque et al., 2017), to 47% in
University of California, Berkeley doctoral students (Graduate Assembly,
2014). Across several studies of graduate student populations, scholars found
that almost 60% of graduate students experience symptoms of anxiety, while
35% experience symptoms of depression that inhibit them from functioning
at optimal levels (ACHA, 2017; Barry et al., 2018; Evans et al., 2018;
Levecque et al., 2017).
These findings reveal that rates of anxiety and depression are significantly
higher among graduate students compared with U.S. national averages of
19% for anxiety (National Institute of Mental Health, 2017) and 8.1% for
depression (Brody et al., 2018). Doctoral students appear to be especially
susceptible to depression (Peluso et al., 2011). For example, the “prevalence
of depression and anxiety symptoms among economics PhD students is com-
parable to the prevalence found in incarcerated populations” (Barreira et al.,
2018, p. 2). Research has shown a clear link between stressful job demands
and depression (De Lange et al., 2004). Collectively, these findings suggest
that the mental health and well-being of individuals in doctoral programs are
Pervez et al. 131

at great risk. Thus, given the dearth of research in the management discipline,
our first research question examines the prevalence of depression and anxiety
symptoms in management doctoral students.

Research Question 1: What is the prevalence of symptoms of depression

and anxiety among management doctoral students?

Impostor Syndrome and Mental Illness

Impostor syndrome, or impostor phenomenon, is a mental state character-
ized by feelings of persistent self-doubt, fraudulence, and fear of failure
(Clance & Imes, 1978; Ferrari, 2005). While the DSM-5 contains no official
diagnosis for impostor syndrome, psychologists recognize its existence as
a specific form of intellectual self-doubt (Weir, 2013). Studies have found
that nearly 70% of people have experienced impostor syndrome (Gravois,
2007), and that higher levels of impostor syndrome are associated with
symptoms of depression and anxiety (Clance & Imes, 1978; McGregor
et al., 2008). Despite recognitions, accolades, and achievements, individu-
als who experience impostor syndrome doubt their own skills and intelli-
gence, often attributing success to external factors such as luck rather than
their own personal talents and efforts (Villwock et al., 2016). These indi-
viduals often feel undeserving of their current position or status and there-
fore fear evaluations from others (Chapman, 2017; Clance & Imes, 1978).
Thus, impostor syndrome explains why some individuals may feel like
frauds even when they appear highly successful by objective standards
(Clance & Imes, 1978).
Most impostor syndrome research within academia has focused on under-
graduate students and faculty while largely neglecting graduate or doctoral
students (e.g., Villwock et al., 2016). Research suggests that 25% of under-
graduates experience impostor syndrome. Doctoral students may be at espe-
cially high risk for developing this syndrome given their aspirations to live up
to an ideal image of what it means to be a professor and the multidimensional
evaluations they receive from peers, students, and professors (Coryell et al.,
2013; S. Gardner & Holley, 2011; Knights & Clarke, 2014).
Individuals with impostor syndrome tend to feel anxious when their abili-
ties and intelligence may be implicitly or explicitly judged (Leary et al.,
2000). This is especially problematic for doctoral students given that a cul-
ture of critique is embedded in most doctoral programs, with professors and
peers constantly looking for weaknesses in students’ work (Patterson, 2016).
Since doctoral students often experience self-doubt regarding their own
132 Journal of Management Education 45(1)

knowledge and skills (Bothello & Roulet, 2019; Thompson et al., 1998),
those experiencing impostor syndrome may feel the need to hide their weak-
nesses so as not to be judged a fraud. As a result, these students may experi-
ence impostor syndrome in silence, resulting in psychological distress and
potentially exacerbating symptoms of depression and anxiety. Thus, we
expect that doctoral students may feel like an impostor in multiple areas (e.g.,
classwork, research, teaching, service), and that these feelings will be related
to symptoms of mental illness.

Hypothesis 1: Impostor syndrome will be positively related to (a) symp-

toms of depression and (b) symptoms of anxiety among management doc-
toral students.

Social Support and Mental Illness

Social support represents the belief that one is “cared for and loved, esteemed,
and a member of a network of mutual obligations” (Cobb, 1976, p. 300). It
often manifests in the form of emotional, instrumental, informational, or
appraisal support, such as empathy, physical assistance, information aiding
problem-solving, and information aiding self-evaluation, respectively
(Langford et al., 1997). Social support is generally regarded as a positive
component to a healthy life, and in many cases is viewed as a beneficial
resource (Halbesleben et al., 2014; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Social sup-
port from a significant other, family, or friends can serve as a psychological
buffer in stressful circumstances (Bhagat et al., 2012; Cobb, 1976; Cohen &
Wills, 1985), and protect against stressors leading to mental illness (Bolger &
Amarel, 2007; Thoits, 2011; Uchino, 2004).
In organizational settings, sources of social support also include cowork-
ers and supervisors (Halbesleben, 2006). Given the challenges facing doc-
toral students, one’s advisor or classmates can be sources of emotional and
instrumental support, thus playing an important role in helping doctoral stu-
dents cope with stressors. However, a recent study found that doctoral stu-
dents often perceive an insufficient amount of institutional support to meet
their candidature needs (Beasy et al., 2019). This is problematic, as students
who have regular interactions with their advisors tend to complete their
degrees more quickly (Wao & Onwuegbuzie, 2011). Previous studies of doc-
toral students have found that those who have more social support report less
stress, as well as fewer health and emotional problems (Hodgson & Simoni,
1995). Building on these ideas, we offer:
Pervez et al. 133

Hypothesis 2: Social support from (a) significant others, (b) family, (c)
friends, (d) supervisors, and (e) classmates will be negatively related to
symptoms of depression among management doctoral students.
Hypothesis 3: Social support from (a) significant others, (b) family, (c)
friends, (d) supervisors, and (e) classmates will be negatively related to
symptoms of anxiety among management doctoral students.

Impostor Syndrome and Social Support

The dynamics of impostor syndrome suggest that individuals’ perceptions
can vary and are shaped by external factors (Clance & Imes, 1978; R. G.
Gardner et al., 2019). Consequently, the cognitive distortions associated with
impostor syndrome can produce anxiety and depression for students (R. G.
Gardner et al., 2019; McGregor et al., 2008), affecting them both personally
and professionally. While impostor syndrome in doctoral students has been
noted (e.g., S. Gardner & Holley, 2011; Villwock et al., 2016), research on
effective management and coping mechanisms is slowly emerging (R. G.
Gardner et al., 2019). Thus, the link between impostor syndrome and social
support in this population is not well understood. While studies indicate that
social support increases job satisfaction and commitment, reduces depressive
symptoms, and improves both mental health (Chen et al., 2009) and physical
health (R. G. Gardner et al., 2019), there is an indication that social support
as a coping strategy can be both effective and maladaptive (Lazarus &
Folkman, 1984). For some doctoral students, social support may serve to
exacerbate impostor syndrome. For other students, it may help them better
manage these feelings, thus decreasing the possibility of experiencing symp-
toms of depression and/or anxiety.
Social support can serve as an adaptive coping strategy for managing
impostor syndrome when the individual is able to foster and use social sup-
port networks appropriately. Actively seeking and using social support
resources can normalize impostor tendencies by providing feedback about an
individual’s performance and recognizing his/her successes. For example,
advice from a supportive advisor may include discussions of the advisor’s
own experiences of feeling like a fraud, thereby normalizing these feelings
and potentially mitigating the effects of impostor syndrome among their
mentees. In contrast to professors, classmates may be less threatening sources
of feedback and social support. Support from other doctoral students may
boost an individual’s self-confidence and combat feelings of impostor syn-
drome (Coryell et al., 2013), and the collective sharing of experiences might
lessen the mental burden and reduce ambient feelings of impostor syndrome.
For example, Jairam and Kahl (2012) studied 31 doctoral students and found
134 Journal of Management Education 45(1)

that they were receptive to the emotional support from their peers since they
were experiencing similar challenges and conflicts.
While social support can contribute to adaptive coping under certain cir-
cumstances, it can also contribute to maladaptive coping when individuals
with impostor syndrome are unable to effectively cultivate and utilize their
social support networks. For doctoral students, there are risk factors that may
contribute to these maladaptive strategies. For instance, transitioning into a
doctoral program can create an environment of self-doubt since doctoral stu-
dents are often in new settings at new institutions and not physically near
family, friends, or other supportive individuals. This can amplify existing
feelings of fraudulence and perceived isolation, thereby preventing such a
vulnerable population from reaching out for help and using social support
effectively (Ali & Kohun, 2006; Coryell et al., 2013).
Additionally, the structure of doctoral programs and inappropriate forms
of social support from advisors or classmates may contribute to maladaptive
coping. Doctoral programs can foster competition among students for cov-
eted assistantships, scholarships, and more lucrative academic positions,
which can exacerbate feelings of judgment and fear of failure. Furthermore,
while one’s advisor or fellow students can serve as a positive source of sup-
port, these individuals can also be a source of stress (Anderson & Swazey,
1998). Research has shown that unwanted social support from a supervisor
can threaten one’s self esteem (Kelloway et al., 2005), and even a supportive
advisor can cause feelings of insecurity due to their superior knowledge and
experience. In another study, undergraduates who had an ambivalent or nega-
tive experience when seeking support from their peers maintained or ampli-
fied their perceptions of impostor syndrome, subsequently producing stress
(R. G. Gardner et al., 2019).
In conclusion, there are instances in which social support may lead to
adaptive or maladaptive outcomes for those experiencing impostor syn-
drome. Therefore, we propose the following research question:

Research Question 2: What is the relationship between impostor syn-

drome and social support from management doctoral students’ supervisors
and classmates?

Methodology
Sample and Procedure
The present study included two phases of data collection. The first phase
involved two waves of data collection. First, in June 2019, we collected
Pervez et al. 135

publicly available management doctoral student email addresses on doctoral

program webpages and invited 664 students to participate in the survey via
email. We also invited doctoral students to participate using multiple email
listservs (e.g., AOM, MOBTS). From this first wave of data collection, 130
students started the survey (19.6% response rate). Second, in March 2020, we
invited 203 first-year doctoral students to participate as well as students
whose information was not previously publicly available, of which 53 started
the survey (26.1% response rate). Participants were incentivized to complete
the survey with a drawing for $10-$25 gift cards. On completion of the sur-
vey, participants were redirected to another survey to collect email addresses
for the optional gift card drawing. After cleaning the data set and removing
individuals who missed quality control checks (e.g., finishing the survey too
quickly, not responding to all survey items of interest), the final sample
included 113 management doctoral students (61.7% survey completion rate)
from at least 51 institutions in seven countries. To maintain participant ano-
nymity in a survey about potentially sensitive topics related to mental illness,
we only asked participants for two demographic identifiers: gender identity
and doctoral program stage (i.e., early stage before comprehensive exams
and late stage during dissertation completion). Sample characteristics data
are presented in the results section. Data collection for this article was
approved by Old Dominion University using two separate institutional review
board applications, one for the quantitative portion (project 1439508-1) and
another for the qualitative portion (project 1399896-3) in phase two. Informed
consent was obtained via written means.

Variable Measures
Depression. Depression symptoms were measured using the PRIME-MD (Pri-
mary Care Evaluation of Mental Disorders) Patient Health Questionnaire
(Spitzer et al., 1999). This nine-item scale measures depression symptoms on
a 4-point Likert-type scale. The scale aids medical professionals in diagnosing
the severity of depression if present. Severity is measured by assigning scores
of 0 to “not at all” responses, 1 to “several days,” 2 to “more than half the
days,” and 3 to “nearly every day.” Responses are summed for a minimum
value of 0 and a maximum of 36. Cutoff points of 5, 10, 15, and 20 denote
mild, moderate, moderately severe, and severe depression, respectively. Nor-
mative data yield a 5.6% prevalence of moderate, moderately severe, or severe
depression (Kocalevent et al., 2013). Respondents were instructed to consider
the degree to which each item bothered them over the past 2 weeks, such as
experiencing “Little interest or pleasure in doing things” and “Thoughts that
you would be better off dead or of hurting yourself in some way” (α = .82).
136 Journal of Management Education 45(1)

Anxiety. Anxiety symptoms were assessed using the GAD-7 Scale (Spitzer
et al., 2006). This seven-item scale is assessed on a 4-point Likert-type scale
for items such as “feeling nervous, anxious, or on edge” and “feeling afraid
as if something awful might happen.” Respondents are instructed to respond
based on how often they have been bothered by each item over the past two
weeks. The level of anxiety is calculated by assigning scores of 0 to “not at
all sure” responses, 1 to “several days,” 2 to “over half the days,” and 3 to
“nearly every day” (α = .90). Responses are summed for a minimum value
of 0 and a maximum of 28. Totals of 5, 10, and 15 correspond to cutoff points
for mild, moderate, and severe anxiety, respectively. Normative data yield a
5% prevalence of moderate or severe anxiety (Löwe et al., 2008).

Impostor Syndrome. Impostor syndrome was assessed using the Clance

Impostor Syndrome Scale (Clance, 1985). This 20-item scale uses a 5-point
Likert-type scale ranging from 1 for not at all true to 5 for very true. Each
item is rated based on how true it is for the respondent. Item examples include
“Sometimes I feel or believe that my success in my life or in my job has been
the result of some kind of error” and “It’s hard for me to accept compliments
or praise about my intelligence or accomplishments” (α = .92). Impostor
syndrome severity is determined by summing the responses for a minimum
score of 20 and a maximum score of 100. Scores from 20 to 40 indicate low
impostor syndrome, 41 to 60 indicate moderate impostor syndrome, 61 to 80
indicate strong impostor syndrome, and scores above 81 indicate intense
impostor syndrome.

Social Support. Social support derived from a significant other, family, and
friends was assessed using the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social
Support (Zimet et al., 1988). This 12-item, 5-point Likert-type scale includes
four items for each source of support. Item examples include “There is a
special person who is around when I am in need” and “There is a special
person in my life who cares about my feelings.” Score response options range
from 1 for “strongly disagree” through 5 for “strongly agree.” Social support
derived from supervisors and classmates was assessed using the Job Content
Questionnaire (Karasek et al., 1998), though we adapted coworker support
items to classmate support items by substituting the word “classmate” for
“coworker.” This 10-item, 6-point Likert-type scale includes items such as
“My supervisor shows concern for me” and “My classmates are helpful.”
Five items are used to measure social support from a supervisor, and another
five items measure social support from classmates. Response options ranged
from 1 for “very untrue of me” through 6 for “very true of me.” Higher mean
scores indicate higher levels of social support from each source. Reliability
Pervez et al. 137

coefficients for social support scales were sufficient: social support from a
significant other (α = .94), from family (α = .93), from friends (α = .88),
from a supervisor (α = .84), and from classmates (α = .90).

Results
Before analyzing data, we evaluated whether the variables of interest dif-
fered across the two survey groups (June 2019 and March 2020). Results did
not yield evidence of mean differences between survey groups for variables
of gender, t(108) = 1.49, p = .14; symptoms of depression, t(111) = 1.14,
p = .26; symptoms of anxiety, t(111) = 1.25, p = .21; impostor syndrome,
t(110) = 1.50, p = .14; social support from significant others, t(111) = 0.40,
p = .69; social support from family, t(111) = 0.99, p = .33; social support
from friends, t(111) = 1.65, p = .10; social support from a supervisor, t(111)
= 0.51, p = .61; or social support from classmates, t(111) = 1.93, p = .06.
There was a statistically significant mean difference in doctoral program
status, t(111) = 4.24, p < .01, indicating that we had more early stage doc-
toral students participate in the March 2020 survey. This was expected
because we targeted first-year doctoral students in this survey wave who
would not have been eligible to participate in the June 2019 survey.
Research Question 1 asked about the prevalence of management doctoral
students’ depression and anxiety symptoms. The results in Table 1 show the
rates of moderate, moderately severe, and severe depression symptoms are
15.0%, 7.1%, and 3.5%, respectively, yielding an overall rate of 25.6%. Rates
of moderate and severe anxiety symptoms were 20.4% and 8.8%, respec-
tively, yielding a 29.2% rate of anxiety symptoms. Overall, these results indi-
cate very high levels of depression and anxiety symptoms for management
doctoral students compared with a general adult population. Our results are
4.7 times and 5.8 times higher than the normative data rates of 5.6% and 5%
for depression and anxiety symptoms, respectively (Kocalevent et al., 2013;
Löwe et al., 2008), and similar to graduate students in other programs
(ACHA, 2017; Barry et al., 2018; Brody et al., 2018; Evans et al., 2018;
Levecque et al., 2017).
Hypothesis 1 proposed that impostor syndrome would be positively
related to depression and anxiety symptoms. Means, standard deviations, and
correlations among all variables are provided in Table 2. Regression results
in Table 3 are used to test all hypotheses. In our sample overall, 11.5% of
doctoral students had scores indicating low impostor syndrome, 31% moder-
ate, 46% strong, and 11.5% intense. Impostor syndrome was positively
related to symptoms of both depression (β = .43, p < .01) and anxiety (β = .47,
p < .01), supporting Hypotheses 1a and 1b, respectively. Adding impostor
138 Journal of Management Education 45(1)

Table 1. Sample Characteristics.

Number Proportion, %
Gender
Male 52 46.0
Female 56 49.6
Gender nonbinary 1 0.9
Prefer not to answer 4 3.5
Current doctoral student role
 Early stage doctoral student (e.g., before 50 44.2
comprehensive exams)
 Late stage doctoral student (e.g., working on 63 55.8
dissertation)
Doctoral program specialization
Management or Business Administration 4 3.5
 Human Resources, Organizational Behavior, 56 49.6
Organizational Development, or Leadership
 Strategic Management, Entrepreneurship, or 37 32.7
Organizational Theory
 International Business 9 8.0
Other 7 6.2
Imposter syndrome
Low (score of 20-40) 13 11.5
Moderate (score of 41-60) 35 31.0
Strong (score of 61-80) 52 46.0
Intense (score of 81-100) 13 11.5
Depression
Low or no depression (score of 0-4) 50 44.3
Mild (score of 5-9) 34 30.1
Moderate (score of 10-14) 17 15.0
Moderately severe (score of 15-19) 8 7.1
Severe (score of 20-36) 4 3.5
Anxiety
Low or no anxiety (score of 0-4) 43 38.1
Mild (score of 5-9) 37 32.7
Moderate (score of 10-14) 23 20.4
Severe (score of 15-28) 10 8.8

Note. N = 113.

syndrome in our regression models explained 18% to 22% more variance

beyond control variables of gender and doctoral program status.
 Table 2. Descriptive Statistics and Correlations.

Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. Gendera 1.52 0.50 —
2. Doctoral program stage 1.56 0.50 .03 —
3. Depression 6.57 5.48 −.12 −.15 (.82)
4. Anxiety 6.73 5.30 −.06 −.16 .85** (.90)
5. Imposter syndrome 63.25 15.95 .07 −.12 .43** .48** (.92)
6. Social support: Significant 4.26 1.09 .14 .14 −.11 −.01 .07 (.94)
other
7. Social support: Family 4.16 1.05 .16 .15 −.23* −.10 −.06 .60** (.93)
8. Social support: Friends 4.18 0.81 .28** −.01 −.21* −.20* .01 .49** .39** (.88)
9. Social support: Supervisor 4.85 0.96 .07 .02 −.27** −.22* .01 .15 .22* .23* (.84)
10. Social support: Classmates 4.55 0.98 .21* −.16 −.10 −.11 −.06 .21* .25** .35** .23* (.90)

Note. N = 113 for all variables except gender. Pairwise deletion. Gender coded as 1 for male, 2 for female. Depression summative score ranges
from 0 to 36. Anxiety summative scores range from 0 to 28. Imposter syndrome summative scores range from 20 to 100. Social support from
significant others, family, and friends are scale mean values ranging from 1 to 5; social support from supervisor and classmates are scale mean values
ranging from 1 to 6. Reliability coefficients (Cronbach’s α) presented in parentheses on diagonal.
a
N = 108 for gender.
*p < .05. **p < .01.

139
140 Journal of Management Education 45(1)

Table 3. Standardized Regression Coefficients Predicting Depression and Anxiety.

Depression Anxiety

β β β β β β
Gender −.11 −.14 −.09 −.05 −.09 −.03
Doctoral program stage −.15 −.09 −.08 −.16 −.10 −.12
Imposter syndrome .43** .43** .48** .47**
Social support: Significant other .05 .10
Social support: Family −.11 .02
Social support: Friends −.13 −.21*
Social support: Supervisor −.23** −.19*
Social support: Classmates .05 −.01
R2 .04 .22 .31 .03 .25 .33
ΔR2 .18 .09 .22 .08

Note. N = 113 for all variables except gender. N = 108 for gender. Pairwise deletion.
Standardized coefficients shown.
*p < .05. **p < .01.

Hypotheses 2 and 3 posited that sources of social support (i.e., significant

others, family, friends, supervisor, and classmates) would be negatively
related to depression and anxiety symptoms, respectively. When asking
about social support from outside the academic environment, survey
response values could range from 1 (minimum) to 5 (maximum). On aver-
age, participants reported moderately high levels of support from a signifi-
cant other (M = 4.26, SD = 1.09), family (M = 4.16, SD = 1.05), and friends
(M = 4.18, SD = 0.81). Regarding social support from academic sources,
rating options ranged from 1 (minimum) to 6 (maximum), with participants
reporting high social support from supervisors (M = 4.85, SD = 0.96) and
classmates (M = 4.55, SD = 0.98). Examining the regression models, social
support from these five sources explained 9% additional variance in depres-
sion symptoms and 8% additional variance in anxiety symptoms after con-
trolling for gender, doctoral program status, and impostor syndrome. Social
support from a supervisor had a negative relationship with depression symp-
toms (β = −.23, p < .01) and a negative relationship with anxiety symptoms
(β = −.21, p < .05). Social support from friends had a negative relationship
only with anxiety symptoms (β = −.19, p < .05). None of the other relationships
were statistically significant with p < .05. Thus, Hypotheses 2d, 3c, and 3d
were supported.
Last, Research Question 2 explored the relationship between impostor
syndrome and social support from supervisors and classmates. Interestingly,
Pervez et al. 141

none of the correlations between impostor syndrome and social support were
statistically significant. This finding is different from other recent studies that
found a negative relationship between impostor syndrome and external
sources of social support (e.g., R. G. Gardner et al., 2019). This difference
could be related to differences in measurement approach as Gardner et al.
combined all sources of external social support rather than examine each
source independently.

Post Hoc Analysis

Participants
To further explore the relationship between social support and impostor syn-
drome (Research Question 2), Phase 2 involved a thematic analysis of quali-
tative data collected from interviews with nine current management doctoral
students (four males and five females). Participants ranged in age from 26 to
45 years (M = 33.78 years, SD = 5.24 years), and they received no remu-
neration for participating. Participants described themselves as White (8) and
Middle Eastern (1). Participants ranged from Year 3 to Year 6 of their doc-
toral programs (M = 4.44 years, SD = 0.96 years).

Procedure
On completing the quantitative analysis, two authors discussed the results to
determine the interview schedule. The same two authors conducted the struc-
tured interviews online using Zoom online videoconferencing software.
Subjects were recruited by emailing Phase 1 participants and consent was
obtained via Qualtrics. The structured interviews were designed to allow for
targeted questions on the topics of mental health, impostor syndrome, and
social support. Sample interview questions included the following: “How
would you characterize your mental health?” “Do you feel as though you
experience impostor syndrome?”’ and “Who do you turn to for support when
you experience stress?” The full data collection instrument can be found in
the appendix. Respondents were instructed to respond to the best of their abil-
ity and were reminded that they could move on to the next question if they
felt uncomfortable.

Analysis
Given the underexplored theoretical relationship between social support and
impostor syndrome, we utilized thematic analysis for its flexibility and
142 Journal of Management Education 45(1)

usefulness in identifying patterns within a large body of data (Braun & Clarke,
2006). This analysis allowed for the summarization of key themes related to the
topics of interest (i.e., social support and impostor syndrome) in the absence of
an existing theoretical framework. The criteria for conducting the analysis was
based on the checklist provided by Braun and Clarke (2006), which covers best
practices for transcribing, coding, analyzing, and reporting thematic analysis.
In our analysis, we took a realist theoretical approach to coding the data (e.g.,
Boyatzis, 1998) and a semantic approach to identifying themes.
After independently reviewing the interview transcripts manually in
Microsoft Word, the two authors performed a rigorous and orthographic tran-
scription of the data. With the themes of impostor syndrome and social support
in mind, one of the authors performed the thematic analysis, which involved
generating initial codes (Tuckett, 2005) and identifying key themes. The itera-
tive and recursive process of identifying themes involved collating coded
extracts within themes while simultaneously reviewing and refining these
themes (Braun & Clarke, 2006), creating several candidate thematic maps to
organize the data. The final thematic map consisted of three main themes.

Findings
One theme identified in the analysis centered on the role of appraisal support,
which refers to the communication of information relevant for one’s self-
evaluation (House, 1981). Data highlight the importance of direct appraisal
support from faculty and appraisal support acquired indirectly by helping
other students (see Table 4). Some participants revealed that faculty are too
busy or otherwise fail to provide information that might assist students in
making self-evaluations. Others responded that appraisal support from fac-
ulty was beneficial despite dealing with major stressors across various
domains. In addition to receiving affirmational support from faculty, an indi-
rect source of this type of support was the provisioning of support to other
students. The experiences of helping students from subsequent cohorts
enabled some participants to reevaluate their own abilities. Since students
experiencing impostor syndrome might inaccurately assess their knowledge,
skills, and abilities, this finding suggests that appraisal support may help
mitigate these inaccurate self-assessments.
A second theme identified in the thematic analysis revealed that emo-
tional support from faculty, fellow students, and external sources is valuable
for several reasons. Emotional support, which involves the provision of care
and trust (House, 1981), is an affective transaction in which one conveys
admiration, love, and respect (Kahn & Antonucci, 1980). On one hand, par-
ticipants perceived a general lack of emotional support and compassion
Pervez et al. 143

Table 4. Examples of Coded Data Extracts.

Name of coded
Data extract theme
There was no one . . . saying “You know more than you (Lack of) appraisal
think you do . . . think of where you’ve come from and support
all you’ve accomplished this year. You’ve read so many
articles and you know so much. I believe you can do
this.” No one ever said, “I believe you can do this.”
(Subject #7)
Even though comps process was stressful, I continually Appraisal support
received feedback from my advisors/mentors that I
belonged in the program and that I was progressing well,
and they didn’t have any reason to believe that I would
not advance to the candidacy stage. (Subject #4)
There were some things I was comfortable sharing, but (Lack of)
then there were some things that I thought might make emotional
me look illegitimate in the eyes of other students or support
faculty. (Subject #4)
I didn’t have the confidence to get back to where I was. Emotional support
But thanks to my supervisor in the program who helped
me realize, hey, you just need to take the time you need
to get better. (Subject #5)
They tell you congratulations, you’re about to teach a (Lack of)
course, and then you have to figure it all out on your informational
own . . . It’s like, well, thank you, I’m excited, but what support
the heck!? I definitely experienced impostor syndrome
there. (Subject #5)
We have a professional development seminar the first 2 Informational
years, which was previously unstructured and allowed support
for a lot of the informal conversations between students
(e.g., advice about teaching, job market). (Subject #8)

from faculty, which was especially salient in relation to students’ vulnerabil-

ity surrounding their mental health (see Table 4). Illegitimacy is already a
concern for students experiencing impostor syndrome, and a perceived lack
of emotional support from faculty may heighten students’ vulnerability
regarding their mental health struggles. On the other hand, participants
revealed that—when received—emotional support from faculty was an indi-
cation of care and respect, with several participants sharing examples of
faculty member compassion. In addition, there were a few instances in
which participants mentioned receiving emotional support from other
144 Journal of Management Education 45(1)

students, as well as from external sources (e.g., significant others, parents,

and friends outside of the program).
The third theme relates to the importance of informational support, which
is the communication of information needed to problem-solve (House, 1981;
Krause, 1986). This type of support is particularly relevant for management
doctoral students who experience feelings of inadequacy and intellectual
self-doubt regarding their ability to teach and conduct research. While sev-
eral participants indicated that a lack of informational support from faculty
exacerbated feelings of impostor syndrome, other doctoral students emerged
as an interesting source of informational support despite their relative lack of
expertise and experience in solving research- and teaching-related problems.
Participants also noted the benefits of less formal gatherings as an opportu-
nity to exchange helpful information. Last, although instrumental support is
a recognized type of support (Langford et al., 1997), it did not emerge as a
theme in the present study.

Discussion
Overall, these results shed light on the topic of mental illness and suggest
that both compassion and other various actions may be required to support
the mental health of those aspiring to join the field of management educa-
tion (Brohan et al., 2012; Brohan & Thornicroft, 2010; Tsui, 2013). Our
results indicate that management doctoral students experience depression
and anxiety symptoms at significantly higher rates than those in the general
population (Brody et al., 2018; Kocalevent et al., 2013; Löwe et al., 2008;
National Institute of Mental Health, 2017), and about the same or slightly
higher than graduate students generally (ACHA, 2017; Barreira et al., 2018;
Barry et al., 2018; Evans et al., 2018; Levecque et al., 2017). We also found
that many management doctoral students reported high levels of impostor
syndrome and social support from various sources. While the quantitative
results did not reveal significant relationships between social support
sources and impostor syndrome, the qualitative interviews allowed for a
deeper analysis of the relationship between these variables. Specifically, it
allowed for a focus on the type of social support (e.g., appraisal, emotional,
informational, and instrumental; Langford et al., 1997) in addition to the
source of support.
Consistent with previous research, impostor syndrome appears to be
highly related to both depression and anxiety symptoms in management
doctoral students. In addition, social support from supervisors was consistently
negatively related to depression and anxiety symptoms. Though we did not
find a statistically significant relationship between sources of social support
Pervez et al. 145

and impostor syndrome, the lack of a correlation could be due to moderating

variables. For instance, perhaps social support has neither a positive nor neg-
ative relationship with imposter syndrome, but rather depends on the quality
of the relationship between the individuals (Bavik et al., 2020; Dutton &
Heaphy, 2003). Consequently, exploring the relationship between social sup-
port and impostor syndrome with moderators such as leader–member
exchange or team–member exchange could be a fruitful area for future
research. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) contend that depending on how an
individual cultivates and uses their social support, it can either be a source of
stress or a valuable personal resource to buffer against stress. This suggests
that if students’ relationships with advisors and classmates are not high-qual-
ity, social support may be low or nonexistent and represent a source of stress
that can leave students vulnerable to imposter syndrome.

Limitations and Future Research

One limitation of our study is its cross-sectional research design. Studying
management doctoral students using a longitudinal design opens numerous
future research directions. For example, observing fluctuations of doctoral
students’ mental health is only possible through longitudinal analysis, as is
the relationship between mental health and attrition. Exploring risk factors
for attrition among management doctoral students might help us better under-
stand how to improve retention and may also help improve applicant screen-
ing. We suspect the variables studied in this article play a role in attrition, but
establishing causality requires further research.
Another question related to causality is: Do doctoral programs cause these
high levels of depression and anxiety symptoms, or do people experiencing
depression and anxiety tend to enroll in doctoral programs? This is not yet
known in general, though studies have shown that academicians have one of
the highest incidences of mental illness when compared with other occupa-
tions (Goodwin et al., 2013). Teasing apart the effects that doctoral programs
have on students’ mental health requires a longitudinal study to establish pre-
program baselines and to study changes over time. Similarly, future longitu-
dinal research should investigate impostor syndrome over time. For example,
are individuals who experience impostor syndrome more likely to enter doc-
toral programs due to a belief that earning a doctorate will help them feel
more accomplished and less of an impostor? A longitudinal experimental
design could also build on recent findings that impostor syndrome can be
reduced among graduate students (Cisco, 2019).
An additional limitation of our study is that our data were collected via
self-report. In addition to potential biases (e.g., common method bias) that
146 Journal of Management Education 45(1)

may result from this type of data collection, the sensitive nature of the ques-
tions may introduce a self-selection sampling bias based on participants’
decisions to participate in a survey about their mental health. Although we
ensured participants’ anonymity, it is possible that the survey’s topic deterred
individuals from participating.
To ensure anonymity in the results, we only collected the demographic
variables of gender identity and doctoral program stage. However, additional
demographic variables could be a rich source for future research. For example,
do the observed relationships vary with age, marital status, parenthood, race,
ethnicity, gender, and so on, or an intersection of two or more of these factors?
Similarly, we did not ask participants for demographic variables such as
nationality or international student status. Cultural differences may play a role
in international students’ acquisition of mental illnesses (Sinha & Watson,
2007), and challenges such as a lack of social support and/or language profi-
ciency may exacerbate mental illness among international students (Sümer
et al., 2008). We did not ask participants about paid or unpaid commitments
outside of their PhD program such as another job or family/caregiving respon-
sibilities, but these might be fruitful topics to consider. Another future research
possibility would be surveying doctoral students across all disciplines to paint
a more comprehensive picture of mental illness in all doctoral students.
Finally, future research could study groups of students (e.g., cohorts within
one program or cohorts across multiple universities). A multilevel analysis
could further our understanding of how social support networks change over
time and/or between different groups. For example, our data revealed that
management doctoral students perceive high levels of support from their sig-
nificant other. However, divorce (and dissolution of relationships) is very
common in graduate school (Wedemeyer-Strombel, 2018). Since social sup-
port reduces the risk of acquiring mental illness and improves recovery if it
develops (Leach, 2014), it could be valuable to explore how students nurture
their crucial social support infrastructure when facing overwhelming job
demands. Do students who nurture these relationships excel in doctoral pro-
grams? Answering this question could inform both students’ and graduate
school administrators’ understanding of the key factors that contribute to doc-
toral student success.

Recommendations for Students, Supervisors, and Administrators

Tying together streams of research on mental illness, impostor syndrome, and
social support has yielded a variety of recommendations on how to alleviate
doctoral students’ struggles. Based on our findings, we highlight specific
approaches to empower management doctoral students, supervisors, and
Pervez et al. 147

u­ niversity or department administrators to mitigate doctoral students’ mental

illness struggles and reduce impostor syndrome.

Students. There are a variety of means by which students can ameliorate the
stressors of a doctoral program that lead to psychological strains. First, stu-
dents in doctoral programs commonly experience loneliness (Barry et al.,
2018; Johns Hopkins University, 2018), and minority students (e.g., race,
international status, socioeconomic status) are more likely to experience
loneliness and social isolation (Hefner & Eisenberg, 2009). Despite the com-
petitive nature of some doctoral programs, students should endeavor to create
a culture of inclusiveness and support that facilitates openness and sharing.
One such initiative is to form support groups where participants discuss any
struggles they have such as workload, supervisor issues, time management,
and feelings of self-doubt inherent in impostor syndrome. When these initia-
tives combine positive psychology with relaxation practices, they have been
found to reduce stress and anxiety symptoms among doctoral students
(Marais et al., 2018), and thus may be an effective means to help students
cope with depression, anxiety, and impostor syndrome.
Moreover, many of the common stressors affecting students’ mental health
are beyond the control of individual students. These include the global rise in
the number of doctoral students, labor market fluctuations, and stiffer compe-
tition for tenure-track positions (Levecque et al., 2017). Learning how to
cope with these anxiety-inducing stressors, and the multitude of rejection that
even top scholars face, is critical to maintaining positive mental health.
Mindfulness practice, for example, has been found to greatly reduce depres-
sion and increase self-efficacy, hope, and resilience among doctoral students
(Barry et al., 2019).
Finally, role conflict and role strain also impact students’ mental health,
with role strain often stemming from job demands, work–family conflict, and
family–work conflict (Levecque et al., 2017). While this may be inevitable,
students and their families should have a clear understanding of the arduous
nature of the journey before starting a doctoral program and develop various
mechanisms to cope with the high demands at work and at home.

Supervisors. Supervisors act both as a mentor and as a source of social sup-

port for doctoral students. There are many proposed interventions that can
help faculty improve their ability to mentor and support students. Training
faculty about mental illness can help them recognize signs of distress in a
student and facilitate better support and access to appropriate resources
should a student disclose mental illness struggles with his or her supervisor
(Johns Hopkins University, 2018). Furthermore, by being aware of the
148 Journal of Management Education 45(1)

mental illness struggles doctoral students face, advisors can be more open
and receptive to discussing mental illness with their doctoral students.
Additionally, faculty can adopt leadership styles that lead to more construc-
tive work relations. For example, laissez faire leadership styles have been
found to lead to mental illness while an inspiring leadership style lowers the
risk of mental illness (Levecque et al., 2017). Faculty can involve doctoral
students in their teaching, a common area in which doctoral students experi-
ence impostor syndrome, to improve confidence when doctoral students begin
teaching (Bonner et al., 2020). Faculty can also enhance the frequency and
quality of communication with students, such as setting goals and regularly
meeting to discuss hurdles in achieving those goals (Cornér et al., 2017; Evans
et al., 2018). Finally, students who abandon their doctoral program were more
likely to cite emotional exhaustion as a reason when they were paired with less
experienced faculty advisors (Hunter & Devine, 2016). Thus, students may
benefit from being mentored by both junior and senior faculty.

Administrative Policies. A common issue identified in the literature is the

“black box” nature of one’s progression through a doctoral program (Stokes
& McCulloch, 2006). Unwritten rules, lack of transparency, unclear expecta-
tions, closed decision-making, and poor procedural communication all con-
tribute to doctoral student anxiety (Barry et al., 2018). As such, calls have
been made to develop and enforce a more structured and transparent program
of study at the doctoral level to avoid these issues and reduce misunderstand-
ings between students and their departments around policies and procedures
(Geven et al., 2018).
Another common issue relates to financial support from doctoral pro-
grams and the financial insecurity students face. In a recent survey, 50% of
students report financial issues as something they are most concerned with
since starting their doctorate (Woolston, 2017). Students with financial strug-
gles, both current and in the past, have a greater risk for depression (Eisenberg
et al., 2013), and older students are particularly prone to depressive symp-
toms given increased family and financial responsibilities (Hyun et al., 2006).
Universities can work toward better understanding the financial needs of
their doctoral students and ensuring that they are fairly compensated while
keeping pace with inflation (Geven et al., 2018; Groenvynck et al., 2013). In
turn, this could help alleviate a portion of the psychological distress associ-
ated with being a doctoral student.
Finally, universities could work toward improving their mental health ser-
vices and take steps to improve student access (Johns Hopkins University,
2018). For example, a recent investigation revealed that over the past 5 years
enrollment at state flagship institutions has grown 5% while the number of
Pervez et al. 149

students receiving mental health treatment has grown 34%; despite this increase
in demand, the number of counselors has largely remained the same (Binkley
& Fenn, 2019). For students experiencing mental illness or experiencing the
self-doubt and vulnerability inherent in impostor syndrome, the lack of access
to treatment and/or long waits to begin treatment can be detrimental. In a recent
survey published in Nature, 36% of doctoral students reported seeking help for
depression or anxiety caused by their doctoral studies; moreover, of these stu-
dents who sought help from their university for depression or anxiety, 18% felt
unsupported (Woolston, 2019). Improvements could be achieved in several
ways. Waight and Giordano (2018) recommend clear signposting in buildings
as well as online promoting mental health services, online self-help resources,
proactive workshops designed to build resilience and sustain mental health
(e.g., mindfulness training), institutional support groups for those at a higher
risk of low support such as international students, and training supervisors
about the role of nonacademic support for doctoral students.

Conclusion
In this study, we examined mental illness among management doctoral stu-
dents. We aimed to learn more about the prevalence of depression and anxi-
ety symptoms, especially as they relate to the understudied constructs of
impostor syndrome and social support. Findings from a quantitative survey
offered breadth on these issues, and analysis of qualitative data from struc-
tured interviews offered depth on management doctoral student experiences.
Apart from our findings regarding social support, these results are similar to
those from studies of doctoral students in other disciplines. A connection
between mental illness symptoms and impostor syndrome exists for manage-
ment doctoral students. We also found that all five dimensions of social sup-
port had a negative relationship with mental illness symptoms, though only
family, friends, and supervisor support were significant with depression
symptoms while only friends and supervisor support were significant with
anxiety symptoms. No significant empirical connection was found between
impostor syndrome and social support, though the qualitative survey found
meaningful connections. Finally, we offer recommendations for theory as
well as recommendations for doctoral programs to address the issues identi-
fied throughout the article.
150 Journal of Management Education 45(1)

Appendix
Structured Interview Prompts and Questions
Introduction: Hi [name]. Thank you very much for agreeing to speak with me
about your experience as a doctoral student. Your responses will help us bet-
ter understand the management doctoral experience, and we appreciate your
help as we pursue this research. Next, I will ask you a series of questions.
Please respond to the best of your ability. If you do not feel comfortable
answering a question, ask us to move on to the next question.

•• How would you describe your doctoral program thus far?

•• What is your greatest challenge as a doctoral student?
•• What causes you stress as a doctoral student?
•• Have you ever considered leaving your doctoral program? If yes,
why?
•• How would you characterize your mental health?
•• How would you say your mental health has changed since you started
your doctoral program?
•• Are you familiar with impostor syndrome or impostorism?
○ If yes:
▪ Do you feel as though you experience impostorism? In what areas
of your job do you experience it? Why do you think?
○ If no:
▪ Individuals with impostorism doubt their accomplishments and
have a persistent internalized fear of being exposed as a “fraud.”
Despite external evidence of their competence, those experienc-
ing this phenomenon remain convinced that they are frauds, and
do not deserve all they have achieved. Individuals with imposto-
rism incorrectly attribute their success to luck, or as a result of
deceiving others into thinking they are more intelligent than they
perceive themselves to be.
○ Do you feel as though you experience impostorism? In what
areas of your job do you experience it? Why do you think?
•• Who do you turn to for support when you experience stress?
•• Do you feel supported by the faculty? Why or why not?
•• Do you feel supported by your supervisor? Why or why not?
•• Do you feel supported by your cohort/classmates? Why or why not?
•• Would you describe the climate of your faculty or your program as
compassionate?
•• Last, we have a few demographic questions. You may choose not to
respond to any of these questions as well.
Pervez et al. 151

•• What is your age?

•• Including this year, how many years have you been in the program?
•• What year are you expecting to graduate?
•• What is your gender identity?
•• What races or ethnicities do you identify with?

Thank you again for your time!

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publi-
cation of this article.

ORCID iDs
Adam Pervez https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4009-4377
Ken Mullane https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3256-5618
Kevin D. Lo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4622-7994
Andrew A. Bennett https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1991-3611

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