A MESSAGE FROM THE CHAIR

Dear Delegates ,

It gives us immense pleasure to welcome you to the 3rd edition of Garden High School
Intra Model United Nations, 2025!

MISTAKES! MISTAKES! MISTAKES!

Clearly the very ability of making mistakes is what makes us human and all the more
fascinating. Some mistakes can have small consequences but a fair few can have
repercussions that can devastate generations of humanity in a matter of seconds.
Mistakes can and have, in the past led to the fall of empires and have laid waste to
successful nations.

Diplomatic errors can clearly have wide ranging consequences. Thus, we invite you to
discuss, deliberate and solve one of the biggest diplomatic mistakes of Modern History,
the Second World War. Delegates, you will have the opportunity to save the world,
literally!

Any GOOD MUN requires logical arguments and cause for disruption and a thorough
knowledge of foreign policy. Thus, we, the Executive Board, expect nothing less from you.
We invite you to learn, research, argue, shout, scream, bang tables and most of all, have
the time of your lives!

SEE YOU IN COMMITTEE!!

Regards-
ISHAAN MUKHERJEE (Chairperson)
SOHAM RUDRA (Chairperson)
AHANA CHATTERJEE (Director)
The Context
Delegates in order to understand the context of this entire committee, which is the 2nd World
War, we have to first go through all the events preceding it, first and foremost of which being
the 1st World War.

WORLD WAR I-

I’m sure that the first world war requires no introduction to all of you. World War I or the First
World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a global
conflict between two coalitions: the Allies (or Triple Entente) and the Central Powers.
Fighting took place mainly in Europe and the Middle East, as well as in parts of Africa and
the Asia-Pacific, and in Europe. It was characterised by trench warfare; the widespread use
of artillery, machine guns, and chemical weapons (gas); and the introductions of tanks and
aircraft. World War I was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, resulting in an estimated 10
million military dead and more than 20 million wounded, plus some 10 million civilians dead
from causes including genocide.

It was, so to speak caused by a series of tiny isolated events, most of which are listed below:

THE SARAJEVO CRISIS AND BREAKOUT OF WAR

On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir presumptive to Emperor Franz
Joseph I of Austria, visited Sarajevo, the capital of the recently annexed Bosnia and
Herzegovina. Cvjetko Popović, Gavrilo Princip, Nedeljko Čabrinović, Trifko Grabež, Vaso
Čubrilović (Bosnian Serbs) and Muhamed Mehmedbašić (from the Bosniaks community),
from the movement known as Young Bosnia, took up positions along the Archduke's
motorcade route, to assassinate him. Supplied with arms by extremists within the Serbian
Black Hand intelligence organisation, they hoped his death would free Bosnia from Austrian
rule.

Čabrinović threw a grenade at the Archduke's car and injured two of his aides. The other
assassins were also unsuccessful. An hour later, as Ferdinand was returning from visiting
the injured officers in hospital, his car took a wrong turn into a street where Gavrilo Princip
was standing. He fired two pistol shots, fatally wounding Ferdinand and his wife Sophie.

The murder produced widespread shock across European royal houses, and there was
initially much sympathy for the Austrian position. Ordinary people did not really care about
what happened, and on the evening of the assassination the crowds in Vienna listened to
music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened.
Within two days of the assassination, Austria-Hungary and Germany advised Serbia that it
should open an investigation, but Secretary-General to the Serbian Ministry of Foreign
Affairs Slavko Grujić, replied: "Nothing had been done so far and the matter did not concern
the Serbian Government." An angry exchange followed between the Austrian Chargé
d'Affaires at Belgrade and Grujić. After conducting a criminal investigation, verifying that
Germany would honor its military alliance, and persuading the sceptical Hungarian prime
minister Count István Tisza, Austria-Hungary issued a formal letter to the government of
Serbia on 23 July 1914. The letter reminded Serbia of its commitment to respect the Great
Powers' decision regarding Bosnia and Herzegovina, and to maintain good neighborly
relations with Austria-Hungary. The letter contained specific demands that Serbia should
accept, including the suppression of the publication of propaganda advocating the violent
destruction of Austria-Hungary, the removal of the people behind this propaganda from the
Serbian Military, the dissolution of the Serbian nationalist organization Narodna Odbrana, the
arrest of the people on Serbian soil who were involved in the assassination plot and the
prevention of the clandestine shipment of arms and explosives from Serbia to
Austria-Hungary. It also demanded that Austro-Hungarian officials should take part in the
Serbian inquiry into the assassination plot.

This letter became known as the July Ultimatum, and Austria-Hungary stated that if Serbia
did not accept all of the demands in total within 48 hours, it would recall its ambassador from
Serbia. After receiving a telegram of support from Russia, Serbia mobilized its army and
responded to the letter by completely accepting point #8 demanding an end to the smuggling
of weapons and punishment of the frontier officers who had assisted the assassins and
completely accepting point #10 which demanded Serbia report the execution of the required
measures as they were completed. Serbia partially accepted, finessed, disingenuously
answered or politely rejected elements of the preamble and enumerated demands #1–7 and
#9. The shortcomings of Serbia's response were published by Austria-Hungary.
Austria-Hungary responded by breaking diplomatic relations.According to a 2021 study,
Franz Ferdinand's absence was key to the breakdown of diplomacy and escalation into war,
as Ferdinand had been the most powerful and effective proponent for peace in Vienna.

The next day, Serbian reservists being transported on tramp steamers on the Danube
crossed onto the Austro-Hungarian side of the river at Temes-Kubin and Austro-Hungarian
soldiers fired into the air to warn them off. The report of this incident was initially sketchy and
reported to Emperor Franz-Joseph erroneously as "a considerable skirmish".
Austria-Hungary then declared war and mobilized the portion of its army that would face the
(already mobilized) Serbian Army on 28 July 1914. Under the Secret Treaty of 1892 Russia
and France were obliged to mobilize their armies if any of the Triple Alliance
mobilized.[citation needed] Russia partially mobilized along its Austrian border on 29 July,
and on 30 July Russia ordered general mobilization. Russia's general mobilization set off full
Austro-Hungarian and German mobilizations. Soon all the Great Powers except Italy had
chosen sides and gone to war.
​
 THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES-

The Treaty of Versailles was a peace treaty signed on June 28, 1919, officially ending
World War I between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was negotiated during the Paris
Peace Conference, where the major Allied powers—primarily France, the United
Kingdom, the United States, and Italy—imposed strict terms on Germany, which had been
defeated in the war.

Key Provisions

●​ War Guilt Clause (Article 231): Germany accepted full responsibility for causing the
war, which justified the reparations imposed by the Allies.​

●​ Reparations: Germany was required to pay massive financial reparations to the

Allied countries, severely impacting its postwar economy.​

●​ Military Restrictions: The treaty significantly limited the size of the German military.
The army was capped at 100,000 troops, conscription was banned, and Germany
0was prohibited from having an air force, submarines, or tanks.​

●​ Territorial Losses:​

○​ Alsace-Lorraine returned to France.​

○​ The Saar Basin was placed under League of Nations control.​

○​ West Prussia and Posen were ceded to Poland, creating the "Polish
Corridor" and cutting off East Prussia from the rest of Germany.​

○​ All overseas colonies were taken away and turned into League of Nations
mandates.​

●​ League of Nations: Germany was initially excluded from the newly established
international organization aimed at maintaining peace and preventing future conflicts.​

Impact and Controversy

●​ The Treaty of Versailles is often criticized for being excessively punitive. Many
historians argue that the harsh terms fueled resentment in Germany and contributed
to the rise of Adolf Hitler and the outbreak of World War II.​

●​ U.S. President Woodrow Wilson proposed the Fourteen Points and advocated for
a more lenient peace, but many of his ideas were not fully incorporated. The U.S.
Senate later refused to ratify the treaty.​
 ●​ The treaty's legacy remains a crucial case study in diplomacy, international law, and
the consequences of peace settlements.

https://veritaspress.com/resourcefFiles/TreatyText.pdf?srsltid=AfmBOorGQHI3lKm2EbpBNs
BFwcszT4OPrXFTE1lp3T_KFn3n5YVUa07T

The above is the full document of the treaty for all those who want to go through it.
Delegates, it is very important to note that the Treaty Of Versailles was certainly one
of the major causes of the 2nd World War itself.

THE RISE OF NAZIS AND THE FASCISTS-

Nazism, formally named National Socialism, is the far-right totalitarian socio-political

ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in
Germany. During Hitler's rise to power in
1930s Europe, it was frequently referred to as
Hitler Fascism (German: Hitlerfaschismus)
and Hitlerism (German: Hitlerismus).

Nazism is a form of fascism, with disdain for

liberal democracy and the parliamentary
system. Its beliefs include support for
dictatorship, fervent antisemitism,
anti-communism, anti-Slavism, anti-Romani
sentiment, scientific racism, white supremacy,
Nordicism, social Darwinism, homophobia,
ableism, and the use of eugenics. The
extreme nationalism of the Nazis originated in
pan-Germanism and the ethno-nationalist
Völkisch movement which had been a prominent aspect of German ultranationalism since
the late 19th century. Nazism was strongly influenced by the Freikorps paramilitary groups
that emerged after Germany's defeat in World War I, from which came the party's underlying
"cult of violence". It subscribed to pseudo-scientific theories of a racial hierarchy, identifying
ethnic Germans as part of what the Nazis regarded as a Nordic Aryan master race. Nazism
sought to overcome social divisions and create a homogeneous German society based on
racial purity which represented a people's community (Volksgemeinschaft). The Nazis aimed
to unite all Germans living in historically German territory, as well as gain lands for German
expansion under the doctrine of Lebensraum and exclude those they deemed either
Community Aliens or "inferior" races (Untermenschen).

The term "National Socialism" arose out of attempts to create a nationalist redefinition of
socialism, as an alternative to both Marxist international socialism and free-market
capitalism. Nazism rejected the Marxist concepts of class conflict and universal equality,
opposed cosmopolitan internationalism, and sought to convince all parts of the new German
society to subordinate their interests to the "common good", accepting political interests as
the priority of economic organisation, which tended to match the general outlook of
collectivism or communitarianism rather than economic socialism. The Nazi Party's
precursor, the pan-German nationalist and antisemitic German Workers' Party (DAP), was
founded in January 1919. By the early 1920s, the party was renamed the National Socialist
German Workers' Party to appeal to left-wing workers, a renaming that Hitler initially
objected to. The National Socialist Program, or "25 Points", was adopted in 1920 and called
for a united Greater Germany that would deny citizenship to Jews or those of Jewish
descent, while supporting land reform and the nationalisation of some industries. In Mein
Kampf ("My Struggle"), published in 1925–26, Hitler outlined the antisemitism and
anti-communism at the heart of his political philosophy as well as his disdain for
representative democracy, over which he proposed the Führerprinzip (leader principle), and
his belief in Germany's right to territorial expansion through lebensraum. Hitler's objectives
involved the eastward expansion of German territories, German colonization of Eastern
Europe, and the promotion of an alliance with Britain and Italy, against the Soviet Union.

The Nazi Party won the greatest share of the vote in the two Reichstag general elections of
1932, making them the largest party in the legislature, albeit short of a majority (37% in July
1932 and 33% in November 1932). Because none of the parties were willing or able to
put together a coalition government, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany in
January 1933 by President Paul von Hindenburg through the support and connivance
of traditional conservative nationalists
who believed they could control him
and his party. With the use of emergency
presidential decrees by Hindenburg and a
change in the Weimar Constitution which
allowed the Cabinet to rule by direct
decree, bypassing both Hindenburg and
the Reichstag, the Nazis established a
one-party state and began the
Gleichschaltung. The Sturmabteilung (SA)
and the Schutzstaffel (SS) functioned as
the paramilitary organisations of the Nazi
Party. Using the SS for the task, Hitler
purged the party's more socially and economically radical factions in the mid-1934 Night of
the Long Knives, including the leadership of the SA. After the death of Hindenburg in August
1934, political power was concentrated in Hitler's hands and he became head of state as
well as head of the government, with the title of Führer und Reichskanzler, meaning "leader
and Chancellor of Germany". Hitler was now effectively the dictator of Nazi
Germany—also known as the Third Reich—under which Jews, political opponents
and other "undesirable" elements were marginalised, imprisoned or murdered.
Italian fascism (Italian: fascismo italiano), also called classical fascism and Fascism, is the
original fascist ideology, which Giovanni Gentile and Benito Mussolini developed in Italy. The
ideology of Italian fascism is associated with a series of political parties led by Mussolini: the
National Fascist Party (PNF), which governed the Kingdom of Italy from 1922 until 1943, and
the Republican Fascist Party (PFR), which governed the Italian Social Republic from 1943 to
1945. Italian fascism also is associated with the post–war Italian Social Movement (MSI) and
later Italian neo-fascist political organisations.

Italian fascism originated from ideological combinations of ultranationalism and Italian

nationalism, national syndicalism and revolutionary nationalism, and from the militarism of
Italian irredentism to regain "lost overseas territories
of Italy" deemed necessary to restore Italian
nationalist pride. Italian Fascists also claimed that
modern Italy was an heiress to the imperial legacy of
Ancient Rome, and that there existed historical proof
which supported the creation of an Imperial Fascist
Italy to provide spazio vitale (vital space) for the
Second Italo-Senussi War of Italian settler
colonisation en route to establishing hegemonic
control of the terrestrial basin of the Mediterranean
Sea.

Italian fascism promoted a corporatist economic

system, whereby employer and employee syndicates
are linked together in associations to collectively
represent the nation's economic producers and work
alongside the state to set national economic
policy.This economic system intended to resolve class
conflict through collaboration between the
classes.Italian fascism opposed liberalism, especially classical liberalism, which fascist
leaders denounced as "the debacle of individualism". Fascism was opposed to socialism
because of the latter's frequent opposition to nationalism, but it was also opposed to the
reactionary conservatism developed by Joseph de Maistre. It believed the success of Italian
nationalism required respect for tradition and a clear sense of a shared past among the
Italian people, alongside a commitment to a modernised Italy.

After World War I (1914–1918), despite the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946) being a full-partner
Allied Power against the Central Powers, Italian nationalism claimed Italy was cheated in the
Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919), thus the Allies had impeded Italy's progress to
becoming a "Great Power". Thenceforth, the PNF successfully exploited that perceived slight
to Italian nationalism in presenting Fascism as best suited for governing the country by
successfully claiming that democracy, socialism and liberalism were failed systems.
Originally, many Italian fascists were opposed to Nazism, as fascism in Italy did not espouse
Nordicism nor, initially, the antisemitism inherent in Nazi ideology; however, many fascists, in
particular Mussolini himself, held racist ideas (specifically anti-Slavism) that were enshrined
into law as official policy over the course of fascist rule. As Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany
grew politically closer in the latter half of the 1930s, Italian laws and policies became
explicitly antisemitic due to pressure from Nazi Germany (even though antisemitic laws were
not commonly enforced in Italy), including the passage of the Italian racial laws. When the
fascists were in power, they also persecuted some linguistic minorities in Italy. In addition,
the Greeks in Dodecanese and Northern Epirus, which were then under Italian occupation
and influence, were persecuted.
 THE ASIAN FRONT
The Kuomintang party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords
and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against
its former Chinese Communist Party (CCP) allies and new regional warlords. In 1931, an
increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan, which had long sought influence in China as the
first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia, staged the Mukden
incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo.

China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan
withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria.
The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai, Rehe and Hebei, until the Tanggu
Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to
Japanese aggression in Manchuria, and Chahar and Suiyuan. After the 1936 Xi'an Incident,
the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose
Japan.

EVENTS PRECEDING THE WAR

i) Italian Invasion of Ethiopia(1935)

The Second Italo-Ethiopian War, also referred to as the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, was a
war of aggression waged by Italy against Ethiopia, which lasted from October 1935 to
February 1937. It is seen as an example of the expansionist policy that characterized the
Axis powers and the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations before the outbreak of World
War II.

On 3 October 1935, two hundred thousand soldiers of the Italian Army commanded by
Marshal Emilio De Bono attacked from Eritrea (then an Italian colonial possession) without
prior declaration of war. At the same time a minor force under General Rodolfo Graziani
attacked from Italian Somalia. On 6 October, Adwa was conquered, a symbolic place for the
Italian army because of the defeat at the Battle of Adwa
by the Ethiopian army during the First Italo-Ethiopian War.
On 15 October, Italian troops seized Aksum, and an
obelisk adorning the city was torn from its site and sent to
Rome to be placed symbolically in front of the building of
the Ministry of Colonies.

Exasperated by De Bono's slow and cautious progress,

Italian prime minister Benito Mussolini replaced him with
General Pietro Badoglio. Ethiopian forces attacked the
newly arrived invading army and launched a
counterattack in December 1935, but their poorly armed forces could not resist for long
against the modern weapons of the Italians. Even the communications service of the
Ethiopian forces depended on foot messengers, as they did not have radio. It was enough
for the Italians to impose a narrow fence on Ethiopian detachments to leave them unaware
of the movements of their own army. Nazi Germany sent arms and munitions to Ethiopia
because it was frustrated over Italian objections to its attempts to integrate Austria. This
prolonged the war and sapped Italian resources. It would soon lead to Italy's greater
economic dependence on Germany and less interventionist policy on Austria, clearing the
path for Adolf Hitler's Anschluss.

The Ethiopian counteroffensive managed to stop the Italian advance for a few weeks, but the
superiority of the Italians' weapons (particularly heavy artillery and airstrikes with bombs and
chemical weapons) prevented the
Ethiopians from taking advantage of
their initial successes. The Italians
resumed the offensive in early March.
On 29 March 1936, Graziani bombed
the city of Harar and two days later the
Italians won a decisive victory in the
Battle of Maychew, which nullified any
possible organized resistance of the
Ethiopians. Emperor Haile Selassie
was forced to escape into exile on 2
May, and Badoglio's forces arrived in
the capital Addis Ababa on 5 May. Italy announced the annexation of the territory of Ethiopia
on 7 May and Italian King Victor Emmanuel III was proclaimed emperor on 9 May. The
provinces of Eritrea, Italian Somaliland and Abyssinia (Ethiopia) were united to form the
Italian province of East Africa. Fighting between Italian and Ethiopian troops persisted until
19 February 1937. On the same day, an attempted assassination of Graziani led to the
reprisal Yekatit 12 massacre in Addis Ababa, in which between 1,400 and 30,000 civilians
were killed. Italian forces continued to suppress rebel activity by the Arbegnoch until 1939.

Italian troops used mustard gas in aerial

bombardments (in violation of the Geneva
Protocol and Geneva Conventions) against
combatants and civilians in an attempt to
discourage the Ethiopian people from
supporting the resistance. Deliberate Italian
attacks against ambulances and hospitals of
the Red Cross were reported. By all
estimates, hundreds of thousands of
Ethiopian civilians died as a result of the
Italian invasion, which have been described
by some historians as constituting genocide.
Crimes by Ethiopian troops included the use
of dumdum bullets (in violation of the Hague
Conventions), the killing of civilian workmen (including during the Gondrand massacre) and
the mutilation of captured Eritrean Ascari and Italians (often with castration), beginning in the
first weeks of war.

ii) Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)

The Spanish Civil War was a military conflict fought from 1936 to 1939 between the
Republicans and the Nationalists. Republicans were loyal to the left-leaning Popular Front
government of the Second Spanish Republic. The opposing Nationalists were an alliance of
Falangists, monarchists, conservatives, and traditionalists led by a military junta among
whom General Francisco Franco quickly achieved a preponderant role. Due to the
international political climate at the time, the war was variously viewed as class struggle, a
religious struggle, or a struggle between dictatorship and republican democracy, between
revolution and counterrevolution, or between fascism and communism.The Nationalists won
the war, which ended in early 1939, and ruled Spain until Franco's death in November 1975.

The war began after the partial failure of the coup d'état of July 1936 against the Popular
Front government by a group of generals of the Spanish Republican Armed Forces, with
General Emilio Mola as the primary planner and leader and General José Sanjurjo as a
figurehead.[12][13] The Nationalist faction was supported by several conservative groups,
including CEDA, monarchists, including both the opposing Alfonsists and the religious
conservative Carlists, and the Falange Española de las JONS, a fascist political party.[14]
The uprising was supported by military units in Morocco, Pamplona, Burgos, Zaragoza,
Valladolid, Cádiz, Córdoba, Málaga, and Seville. However, rebelling units in almost all
important cities did not gain control. Those cities remained in the hands of the government,
leaving Spain militarily and politically divided. The Nationalist forces received munitions,
soldiers, and air support from Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany while the Republican side
received support from the Soviet Union and Mexico. Other countries, such as the United
Kingdom, France, and the United States, continued to recognise the Republican government
but followed an official policy of non-intervention. Despite this policy, tens of thousands of
citizens from non-interventionist countries directly participated in the conflict, mostly in the
pro-Republican International Brigades.

Franco gradually emerged as the primary leader of the Nationalist side. The Nationalists
advanced from their strongholds in the south and west, capturing most of Spain's northern
coastline in 1937. They besieged Madrid and the area to its south and west. After much of
Catalonia was captured in 1938 and 1939, and Madrid cut off from Barcelona, the
Republican military position became hopeless.
On 5 March 1939, in response to an alleged
increasing communist dominance of the
Republican government and the deteriorating
military situation, Colonel Segismundo Casado
led a military coup against the Republican
government, intending to seek peace with the
Nationalists. These peace overtures, however,
were rejected by Franco. Following internal
conflict between Republican factions in Madrid
in the same month, Franco entered the capital
and declared victory on 1 April 1939.
Hundreds of thousands of Spaniards fled to
refugee camps in southern France. Those
associated with the losing Republicans who stayed were persecuted by the victorious
Nationalists. Franco established a dictatorship.

The war became notable for the passion and political division it inspired worldwide and for
the many atrocities that occurred. Organised purges occurred in territory captured by
Franco's forces so they could consolidate their future regime. Mass executions also took
place in areas controlled by the Republicans, with the participation of local authorities
varying from location to location.

iii) Invasion of China

The Second Sino-Japanese War was fought between the Republic of China and the Empire
of Japan between 1937 and 1945, following a period of war localized to Manchuria that
started in 1931. It is considered part of
World War II, and often regarded as the
beginning of World War II in Asia. It was
the largest Asian war in the 20th century
and has been described as The Asian
Holocaust, in reference to the scale of
Japanese war crimes against Chinese
civilians.It is known in China as the War
of Resistance against Japanese
Aggression. On 18 September 1931,
the Japanese staged the Mukden
incident, a false flag event fabricated to
justify their invasion of Manchuria and establishment of the puppet state of Manchukuo. This
is sometimes marked as the beginning of the war. From 1931 to 1937, China and Japan
engaged in skirmishes, including in Shanghai and in Northern China. Chinese Nationalist
and Communist forces, respectively led by Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong, had fought
each other in the Chinese Civil War since 1927. In late 1933, Chiang Kai-shek encircled the
Chinese Communists in an attempt to finally destroy them, forcing the Communists into the
Long March, resulting in the Communists losing around 90% of their men. As a Japanese
invasion became imminent, Chiang still refused to form a united front before he was placed
under house arrest by his subordinates who forced him to form the Second United Front in
late 1936 in order to resist the Japanese invasion together.

The full-scale war began on 7 July 1937 with the Marco Polo Bridge incident near Beijing,
which prompted a full-scale Japanese invasion of the rest of China. The Japanese captured
the capital of Nanjing in 1937 and perpetrated the Nanjing Massacre. After failing to stop the
Japanese capture of Wuhan in 1938, then China's de facto capital at the time, the Nationalist
government relocated to Chongqing in the Chinese interior. After the Sino-Soviet
Non-Aggression Pact, Soviet aid bolstered the National Revolutionary Army and Air Force.
By 1939, after Chinese victories at Changsha and with Japan's lines of communications
stretched deep into the interior, the war reached a stalemate. The Japanese were unable to
defeat Chinese Communist Party forces in Shaanxi, who waged a campaign of sabotage
and guerrilla warfare. In November 1939,
Chinese nationalist forces launched a large
scale winter offensive, and in August 1940,
communist forces launched the Hundred
Regiments Offensive in central China.

In December 1941, Japan launched a

surprise attack on Pearl Harbor and
declared war on the United States. The US
increased its aid to China under the
Lend-Lease Act, becoming its main
financial and military supporter. With
Burma cut off, the United States Army Air
Forces airlifted material over the Himalayas. In 1944, Japan launched Operation Ichi-Go, the
invasion of Henan and Changsha. In 1945, the Chinese Expeditionary Force resumed its
advance in Burma and completed the Ledo Road linking India to China. China launched
large counter offensives in South China, repulsed a failed Japanese invasion of West Hunan,
and recaptured Japanese occupied regions of Guangxi.

Japan formally surrendered on 2 September 1945, following the atomic bombings of

Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Soviet declaration of war and subsequent invasions of Manchukuo
and Korea. The war resulted in the deaths of around 20 million people, mostly Chinese
civilians. China was recognized as one of the Four Policemen, regained all territories lost,
and became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. The
Chinese Civil War resumed in 1946, ending with a communist victory and the Proclamation
of the People's Republic of China in 1949.
iv)The Soviet-Japanese Border Conflicts

The Soviet–Japanese border conflicts were a series of minor and major conflicts fought
between the Soviet Union (led by Joseph Stalin), Mongolia (led by Khorloogiin Choibalsan)
and Japan (led by Hirohito) in Northeast Asia from 1932 to 1939.

The Japanese expansion in Northeast China created a common border between

Japanese-occupied Manchuria and the Soviet Far East. This led to growing tensions with the
Soviet Union, with both sides often engaging in border violations and accusing the other of
doing so. The Soviets and Japanese, including their respective client states of Mongolia and
Manchukuo, fought in a series of escalating small border skirmishes and punitive expeditions
from 1935 until Soviet-Mongolian victory over the Japanese in the 1939 Battles of Khalkhin
Gol, which resolved the dispute and returned the borders to status quo ante bellum.

The Soviet–Japanese border conflicts heavily contributed to the signing of the

Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in 1941.
v) The Munich Pact(1938)

In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany
annexed Austria, again provoking little response from other European powers.Encouraged,
Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland, an area of Czechoslovakia with a
predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the
appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory
to Germany in the Munich Agreement, which was made against the wishes of the
Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands.Soon
afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary,
and Poland annexed the Trans-Olza region of Czechoslovakia.

Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately
Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of
Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish
"war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to
challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of
Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and
Moravia and a pro-German client state, the Slovak Republic. Hitler also delivered an
ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region,
formerly the German Memelland.

German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop (right) and the Soviet leader Joseph
Stalin, after signing the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, 23 August 1939
Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig, the
United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence; when Italy
conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of
Romania and Greece. Shortly after the Franco-British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy
formalised their own alliance
with the Pact of Steel. Hitler
accused the United Kingdom
and Poland of trying to "encircle"
Germany and renounced the
Anglo-German Naval Agreement
and the German–Polish
declaration of non-aggression.

The situation became a crisis in

late August as German troops
continued to mobilise against
the Polish border. On 23 August
the Soviet Union signed a
nonaggression pact with Germany,[60] after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance
between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled. This pact had a secret
protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (western Poland and
Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Bessarabia for the
Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. The pact
neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured
that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War
I. Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon
hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland
and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it.

In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands
on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations. On 29 August, Hitler demanded
that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig,
and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on
secession. The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of
30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassador Nevile Henderson,
Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected.

WAR BREAKS OUT (1939)

On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag
border incidents as a pretext to initiate the invasion.The first German attack of the war came
against the Polish defences at Westerplatte. The United Kingdom responded with an
ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum
was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany. During the Phoney War period,
the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a cautious French probe
into the Saarland. The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany, which aimed
to damage the country's economy and war effort. Germany responded by ordering U-boat
warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of
the Atlantic. On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw. The Polish
counter-offensive to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was
outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht. Remnants of the Polish army broke through to
besieged Warsaw. On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a cease-fire with Japan,
the Soviet Union
invaded Poland
under the supposed
pretext that the
Polish state had
ceased to exist. On
27 September, the
Warsaw garrison
surrendered to the
Germans, and the
last large operational
unit of the Polish
Army surrendered on
6 October. Despite
the military defeat,
Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a
clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. A significant part of Polish military
personnel evacuated to Romania and Latvia; many of them later fought against the Axis in
other theatres of the war.

Germany annexed western Poland and occupied central Poland; the Soviet Union annexed
eastern Poland; small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia.
On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but
said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet
Union. The proposal was rejected and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France,
which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather.

Mannerheim Line and Karelian Isthmus on the last day of the Winter War, 13 March 1940
After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania with
military invasion, forcing the three Baltic countries to sign pacts allowing the creation of
Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military
contingents were moved there.
Finland refused to sign a similar pact
and rejected ceding part of its
territory to the Soviet Union. The
Soviet Union invaded Finland in
November 1939, and was
subsequently expelled from the
League of Nations for this crime of
aggression. Despite overwhelming
numerical superiority, Soviet military
success during the Winter War was
modest, and the Finno-Soviet war
ended in March 1940 with some
Finnish concessions of territory.

In June 1940, the Soviet Union occupied the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and
Lithuania, as well as the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the
Hertsa region. In August 1940, Hitler imposed the Second Vienna Award on Romania which
led to the transfer of Northern Transylvania to Hungary. In September 1940, Bulgaria
demanded Southern Dobruja from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to the
Treaty of Craiova. The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against
King Carol II, turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal Ion Antonescu, with
a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee. Meanwhile,
German-Soviet political relations and economic co-operation gradually stalled, and both
states began preparations for war.
In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from
Sweden, which the Allies were attempting to cut off. Denmark capitulated after six hours,
and despite Allied support, Norway was conquered within two months. British discontent
over the Norwegian campaign led to the resignation of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain,
who was replaced by Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940.

Delegates this brings us to the end of the timeline as the FREEZE DATE for the committee
is 10 May 1940. For all those who don’t know what a freeze date is - It is the date to which
we have figuratively time-travelled back in the past. So no information or development or
event which has taken place in the real world after this date will be admissible in
committee.

7. THE GERMAN NUCLEAR PROJECT

One of the major developments which took place in the timeline is the German Nuclear
Project. It marked the beginning of a new race - The race for nuclear weapons. Nazi
Germany undertook several research programs relating to nuclear technology, including
nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors, before and during World War II. These were
variously called Uranverein (Uranium Society) or Uranprojekt (Uranium Project). The first
effort started in April 1939, just months after the discovery of nuclear fission in Berlin in
December 1938, but ended shortly ahead of the September 1939 German invasion of
Poland, for which many German physicists were drafted into the Wehrmacht. A second effort
under the administrative purview of the Wehrmacht's Heereswaffenamt began on September
1, 1939, the day of the invasion of Poland. The program eventually expanded into three main
efforts: Uranmaschine (nuclear reactor) development, uranium and heavy water production,
and uranium isotope separation.

The program was split up among nine major institutes where the directors dominated
research and set their own objectives. Subsequently, the number of scientists working on
applied nuclear fission began to diminish as many researchers applied their talents to more
pressing wartime demands. The most influential people in the Uranverein included Kurt
Diebner, Abraham Esau, Walther Gerlach, and Erich Schumann. Schumann was one of the
most powerful and influential physicists in Germany. Diebner, throughout the life of the
nuclear weapon project, had more control over nuclear fission research than did Walther
Bothe, Klaus Clusius, Otto Hahn, Paul Harteck, or Werner Heisenberg.

In December 1938, German chemist Otto Hahn and his assistant Fritz Strassmann sent a
manuscript to the German science journal
Naturwissenschaften ("Natural Sciences")
reporting that they had detected and identified
the element barium after bombarding uranium
with neutrons. Their article was published on 6
January 1939. On 19 December 1938, eighteen
days before the publication, Otto Hahn
communicated these results and his conclusion
of a bursting of the uranium nucleus in a letter
to his colleague and friend Lise Meitner, who
had fled Germany in July to the Netherlands and then to Sweden. Meitner and her nephew
Otto Robert Frisch confirmed Hahn's conclusion of a bursting and correctly interpreted the
results as "nuclear fission" – a term coined by Frisch. Frisch confirmed this experimentally
on 13 January 1939. The concept of nuclear fission as we now know helped create weapons
of mass destruction, which we now call Atomic Bombs and Hydrogen Bombs.

1. ADOLF HITLER

Adolf Hitler played the central role in starting and escalating World War II. As the dictator of
Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945, his aggressive expansionist policies, ideology of racial
superiority, and totalitarian rule were the driving forces behind the deadliest conflict in human
history. After coming to power through a combination of political maneuvering and mass
propaganda, Hitler quickly dismantled the democratic framework of the Weimar Republic,
establishing a fascist regime rooted in ultranationalism and militarism.

One of Hitler’s main goals was to overturn the Treaty of Versailles, which he viewed as a
humiliating punishment for Germany after World War I. He began to rearm the country in
violation of international agreements, and pursued the unification of all German-speaking
peoples. This culminated in the annexation of Austria in 1938 (Anschluss) and the
occupation of Czechoslovakia’s Sudetenland through the Munich Agreement.

His invasion of Poland in 1939, under the false pretense of defending ethnic Germans,
triggered the outbreak of World War II, as Britain and France declared war on Germany.
Employing rapid military tactics known as “blitzkrieg” or lightning war, Hitler’s forces swiftly
conquered large parts of Europe. At the height of Nazi power, Hitler controlled most of
continental Europe and had formed powerful alliances with Fascist Italy and Imperial Japan.

Hitler’s worldview, deeply rooted in anti-Semitism and ideas of Aryan supremacy, also led to
the systematic persecution and genocide of Jews and other minorities. The Holocaust,
orchestrated under his leadership, resulted in the murder of six million Jews and millions of
Romani people, disabled individuals, political dissidents, and others deemed “undesirable”
by the Nazi regime.

Despite early military successes, Hitler’s strategic miscalculations—including the failed

invasion of the Soviet Union and the declaration of war on the United States—ultimately led
to Germany’s defeat. As Allied forces closed in on Berlin in April 1945, Hitler committed
suicide in his underground bunker. Days later, Germany surrendered, marking the end of the
war in Europe.

Hitler’s legacy is one of destruction, tyranny, and genocide. His actions not only caused
unimaginable human suffering but also reshaped the global political landscape for decades
to come.

Blitzkrieg Strategy

Hitler used a fast and destructive military tactic called “Blitzkrieg”, meaning “lightning war” in
German, to rapidly overwhelm and defeat enemy nations. This strategy involved the
coordinated use of tanks, motorized infantry, artillery, and airpower to strike deep into enemy
territory with speed and surprise. The goal was to break through enemy lines quickly,
encircle and isolate enemy forces, and force a swift surrender before a full-scale defense
could be organized.

Blitzkrieg was first demonstrated during the invasion of Poland in 1939, but it was most
famously and effectively employed during the Western Campaign in 1940, when Nazi forces
overran Denmark and Norway, followed by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and
France in just six weeks. In France, Hitler bypassed the heavily fortified Maginot Line by
sending tanks through the Ardennes Forest, which was thought to be impassable, catching
the Allies off guard.

The Luftwaffe (German Air Force) played a crucial role in Blitzkrieg, bombing enemy
airfields, communication centers, railways, and supply lines ahead of the advancing troops,
creating confusion and panic. This left enemy armies disorganized and unable to respond
effectively. The use of radio communications allowed German units to maintain tight
coordination and adjust tactics quickly in response to battlefield developments.

Blitzkrieg’s effectiveness lay in its speed, surprise, and psychological impact—it left
defenders shocked, disoriented, and demoralized. However, the tactic relied on quick
victories and secure supply lines. As the war dragged on, especially in the vast landscapes
of the Soviet Union, Blitzkrieg became less effective due to stretched supply routes, strong
resistance, and harsh weather conditions.

Despite its limitations, Blitzkrieg allowed Nazi Germany to dominate much of continental
Europe by 1940 and fundamentally changed modern military strategy by demonstrating the
power of mobility and mechanized warfare.

Holocaust
Hitler orchestrated the Holocaust, one of the darkest and most horrific chapters in human
history. It was a systematic, state-sponsored genocide carried out by the Nazi regime
between 1941 and 1945, aimed primarily at the annihilation of the Jewish people. Under
Hitler’s ideology of racial purity and Aryan supremacy, Jews were portrayed as enemies of
the state, responsible for Germany’s problems and targeted for total extermination.
Over six million Jews were murdered, including 1.5 million children, but the Holocaust also
targeted millions of others deemed “undesirable” or “inferior” by the Nazi regime. These
included Romani people (Gypsies), disabled individuals, Slavic peoples, homosexuals,
Jehovah’s Witnesses, and political opponents such as communists and trade unionists.

The genocide was carried out in stages. First came the Nuremberg Laws (1935), which
stripped Jews of their citizenship and rights. Then came ghettos, where Jews were forcibly
confined in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions. Eventually, the Nazis began mass
deportations to concentration camps and extermination camps such as Auschwitz, Treblinka,
Sobibor, and Belzec. At these death camps, victims were often killed in gas chambers, shot,
worked to death, or died from starvation, disease, or medical experiments.

The Holocaust was carefully planned and carried out using modern technology, bureaucracy,
and transportation networks. Hitler and top Nazi officials referred to this plan as the “Final
Solution to the Jewish Question”—a code name for the complete extermination of Jews in
Europe.

Despite the horror, there were acts of resistance and heroism. Some Jews rebelled, such as
during the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, and many non-Jews risked their lives to save victims by
hiding them or helping them escape—these individuals are honored today as “Righteous
Among the Nations.”

The Holocaust left deep scars on humanity and led to the establishment of international
human rights laws, the founding of Israel in 1948, and the Nuremberg Trials, where key Nazi
leaders were tried for war crimes and crimes against humanity. It remains a powerful
reminder of the dangers of hatred, bigotry, and unchecked authoritarianism.
2. BENITO MUSSOLINI
He was the Fascist dictator of Italy and one of the key Axis leaders during World War II. He
rose to power in 1922 and established a totalitarian regime based on Fascist ideology, which
emphasized nationalism, militarism, and the supremacy of the state. Mussolini aimed to
revive the glory of the Roman Empire and sought to expand Italy’s influence through
aggressive foreign policy and military conquest.

In 1936, Mussolini allied Italy with Nazi Germany by forming the Rome-Berlin Axis,
solidifying their shared interests and authoritarian goals. This alliance deepened in the
following years, culminating in the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Japan in 1940, which
officially formed the Axis Powers. Mussolini admired Hitler and modeled aspects of his
regime on the Nazi system, including propaganda, secret police, and expansionist ambitions.

Italy entered World War II in June 1940, declaring war on France and Britain. However,
Mussolini’s military campaigns largely failed. The invasion of Greece in 1940 was poorly
planned and led to a humiliating retreat, requiring German intervention. In North Africa,
Italian forces suffered repeated defeats against the British, and again, German troops under
General Erwin Rommel had to provide support.

Mussolini also sent troops to fight alongside Germany on the Eastern Front, where they
suffered heavy losses in the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, Italy’s economy collapsed under the
weight of war, and public support for the regime dwindled as cities were bombed and
soldiers died

.Mussolini’s alliance with Nazi Germany was a crucial step in the formation of the Axis
Powers during the lead-up to World War II. Although initially wary of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi
regime, Mussolini began to see strategic value in cooperating with Germany as both nations
shared expansionist goals and authoritarian ideologies. In 1936, the two countries formalized
their relationship through the Rome-Berlin Axis, an agreement that laid the foundation for
military and political cooperation. A year later, Italy joined the Anti-Comintern Pact, originally
signed by Germany and Japan to oppose the spread of communism, particularly from the
Soviet Union. This marked Italy’s shift away from its previous diplomatic ties with Britain and
France.

By 1940, Mussolini took the alliance further by signing the Tripartite Pact, which officially
aligned Italy with Germany and Japan, forming the Axis Powers. Mussolini hoped that this
alliance would enhance Italy’s international status and allow it to gain territory in Africa, the
Balkans, and the Mediterranean. However, in reality, the partnership placed Italy in a
subordinate position to Hitler’s Germany, with many of Mussolini’s military campaigns relying
heavily on German support. Despite presenting the alliance as a union of equals, Mussolini’s
Italy would soon be overshadowed by the might and aggression of Nazi Germany.

Italy entered World War II on June 10, 1940, after observing Germany’s rapid and
overwhelming victories across Europe, including the fall of France. Mussolini, eager not to
be left out of what he perceived as a decisive and profitable moment in history, declared war
on Britain and France. He believed that the conflict would be short-lived and that Italy could
reap significant territorial rewards with minimal effort. Driven by ambitions to create a new
Roman Empire, Mussolini aimed to expand Italian control across North Africa, the Balkans,
and the Mediterranean Sea, envisioning it as “Mare Nostrum” (Our Sea).

However, Mussolini’s decision to enter the war was poorly calculated. Italy’s military was
unprepared for a prolonged global conflict, suffering from outdated equipment, poor logistics,
and low morale. Despite his grand ambitions, Mussolini’s forces quickly encountered
difficulties on multiple fronts, revealing the gap between his imperial dreams and Italy’s
actual capabilities. The move into the war marked the beginning of a series of costly military
campaigns that would ultimately weaken both Mussolini’s regime and Italy’s standing in the
conflict.

Mussolini’s military campaigns during World War II were marked by overconfidence, poor
planning, and repeated failure. One of the most notable early blunders was the invasion of
Greece in October 1940. Expecting a swift victory, Mussolini launched the attack without
informing Hitler, but the Greek army pushed back the Italians into Albania, turning the
campaign into an embarrassing disaster. Eventually, Germany had to intervene in April 1941,
occupying Greece and bailing out its struggling ally—an action that delayed Hitler’s invasion
of the Soviet Union and contributed to future problems on the Eastern Front.

In North Africa, Italian forces attempted to advance into British-held Egypt from Libya, but
were quickly driven back. The British launched Operation Compass, which dealt heavy
losses to the Italians. Once again, Germany had to rescue Mussolini’s campaign by sending
General Erwin Rommel and the Afrika Korps, who temporarily reversed some of the losses
but could not ultimately turn the tide in favor of the Axis.

Mussolini also committed troops to the Eastern Front to fight alongside Nazi Germany
against the Soviet Union. The Italian Army, ill-equipped for the harsh winter and the brutal
fighting conditions, suffered catastrophic losses during the Battle of Stalingrad and the
Soviet counteroffensives. Thousands of Italian soldiers died or were captured, and the failure
deeply demoralized the Italian population. These defeats exposed the weaknesses of
Mussolini’s regime and eroded both domestic support and Italy’s position within the Axis
alliance.

However, Mussolini’s story did not end there. In a dramatic operation known as the Gran
Sasso raid, German commandos led
by Otto Skorzeny rescued Mussolini
from captivity in a mountaintop hotel.
Hitler, determined to keep Italy within
the Axis camp, installed Mussolini as
the leader of a puppet regime in
Northern Italy, known as the Italian
Social Republic or the Salò Republic.
This new government had little real
power and was completely dependent
on Nazi Germany for survival.
Mussolini, now a shadow of his former
self, remained in charge of this regime
until the final days of the war.

As the war neared its end in 1945,

Mussolini’s grip on power weakened further. The Italian Social Republic was crumbling as
Allied forces advanced from the south and German troops began retreating. Resistance
against Fascism had grown across Italy, and
partisan groups were actively fighting both the
Nazis and Mussolini’s puppet regime. Realizing
that defeat was inevitable, Mussolini attempted
to flee Italy with a small group of loyalists and
his mistress, Claretta Petacci, hoping to cross
into Switzerland. However, on April 27, 1945, he
was captured by Italian partisans near the
village of Dongo, while disguised as a German
soldier.

The next day, April 28, 1945, Mussolini and

Petacci were executed by firing squad. Their bodies were transported to Milan, where they
were publicly hung upside down in Piazzale Loreto, a location where earlier in the war
Fascist forces had executed Italian resistance fighters. This gruesome public display was a
symbol of Italy’s final rejection of Fascism and Mussolini’s brutal regime.
Mussolini’s legacy is one of destruction and failure. Though he once promised to restore
Italy’s greatness, his dictatorship led the nation into economic collapse, military humiliation,
and a devastating war. His alliance with Nazi Germany and support for anti-Semitic laws
further tarnished his reputation. Today, Mussolini is remembered not as a great leader, but
as a tyrant whose ambition and ideology brought immense suffering to the Italian people and
contributed to one of the darkest chapters in modern history.

3. WINSTON CHURCHILL
At the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, Winston Churchill was
appointed First Lord of the Admiralty, the same post he had held during the First World War.
Though he had spent most of the 1930s out of government, warning against the dangers of
Nazi Germany and criticizing the policy of appeasement, he was still widely regarded as a

powerful orator and strategist. His return to the Admiralty was seen as a signal of Britain’s

serious commitment to confronting Hitler’s aggression.

During the early months of the war, known as the “Phoney War,” Churchill was actively
involved in naval planning and operations. He pushed for aggressive actions against
German interests, including the ill-fated campaign in Norway in early 1940. While the
Norway Campaign was a military failure, it exposed the weaknesses of Prime Minister
Neville Chamberlain’s leadership and created a political crisis in Britain. Churchill, although
partly responsible for the planning, emerged with his reputation intact due to his clear
warnings and strong presence in Parliament.
On May 10, 1940, as Germany invaded France and the Low Countries, Chamberlain
resigned. Churchill was chosen to replace him as Prime Minister. His appointment came at
one of the darkest moments in British history, as Nazi forces rapidly advanced across
Western Europe. From the outset, Churchill rejected any idea of negotiating with Hitler and
rallied the British people with a series of powerful speeches, including his famous line: “I
have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat.”

Throughout the rest of 1940, Churchill led Britain through the evacuation of Dunkirk, the fall
of France, and the beginning of the Battle of Britain. By the end of the year, he had
established himself not only as Prime Minister but as the defiant symbol of British resistance
against Nazi tyranny.

4. FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT
Having been re-elected for a second term in 1936, Roosevelt watched with increasing
concern as fascist powers in Europe and Asia expanded aggressively. While most
Americans favored isolationism, Roosevelt quietly began preparing the nation for the
possibility of war.

Throughout the late 1930s, he navigated a careful path between the strong isolationist
sentiment in Congress and his own belief that the United States could not ignore the
dangers posed by Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan. He pushed for increased
military spending and modernizing the U.S. Navy, even as Congress passed a series of
Neutrality Acts aimed at keeping America out of foreign wars.

After Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, triggering war in Europe, Roosevelt
declared U.S. neutrality but looked for ways to support Britain and France. In November
1939, he succeeded in revising the Neutrality Act to allow for a “cash-and-carry”

policy—permitting the Allies to purchase arms and materials from the U.S. as long as they
paid in cash and transported the goods themselves. This marked a subtle but important shift
toward aiding the Allied cause.

By early 1940, Roosevelt continued to walk a diplomatic tightrope. He expanded U.S.

military production, quietly improved coordination with British leaders, and began laying the
groundwork for broader support to Europe without yet committing American forces. As of
May 10, 1940—the day Germany launched its major offensive in the West and Winston
Churchill became Prime Minister—Roosevelt was still officially leading a neutral United
States, but his policies and vision were already steering the country toward a more active
role in the conflict.

5. JOSEPH STALIN
Before May 10, 1940, Joseph Stalin had taken a controversial and strategic position in the
unfolding Second World War. Although he led one of the world’s largest communist powers,
the Soviet Union, Stalin had not yet entered the war against Nazi Germany. Instead, he had
chosen to secure Soviet interests through a surprising and cynical alliance with Adolf Hitler.

In August 1939, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, a non-aggression treaty with
Nazi Germany. The agreement stunned the world, as it involved two ideologically opposed
regimes—fascist Germany and communist Soviet Union—agreeing not to attack each other.
Secret protocols in the pact divided Eastern Europe into spheres of influence, allowing the
Soviet Union and Germany to carve up Poland and expand their borders without
interference.

After Germany invaded Poland from the west on September 1, 1939, the Soviet Union
invaded from the east on September 17. Stalin’s forces quickly occupied eastern Poland and
later annexed the Baltic states—Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania—as well as parts of Romania
(Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina). In November 1939, Stalin also launched an invasion of
Finland in what became known as the Winter War. The Red Army initially suffered
embarrassing setbacks but ultimately forced Finland to cede territory by March 1940.

Throughout this period, Stalin remained wary of Hitler, but he was also content to let the
Western powers and Germany exhaust themselves. While the Soviet Union was not officially
part of the Axis, Stalin provided Germany with oil, grain, and raw materials, effectively
helping Hitler sustain his war effort against Britain and France.

By May 10, 1940, Stalin was not yet directly involved in the broader European war beyond
his territorial expansions. He was focused on strengthening the Soviet military and
consolidating power in the new territories, while maintaining the uneasy and temporary
peace with Nazi Germany.

6. EMPEROR HIROHITO SAMA

Emperor Hirohito of Japan stood as the symbolic head of a militaristic empire that had
already been engaged in aggressive expansion across East Asia, laying the foundations for
its later role in World War II. Although the Japanese political system officially placed the
Emperor at the top, real power during this time was exercised by military leaders and
ultranationalist factions, with Hirohito’s role often described as passive yet approving.

Japan’s path to war had begun years earlier. In 1931, the Japanese army invaded
Manchuria and established the puppet state of Manchukuo, a move that marked the
beginning of a long campaign of imperial expansion. Though this happened before the
official start of World War II in Europe, it signaled Japan’s defiance of international norms. By
1937, Japan had launched a full-scale invasion of China, leading to the outbreak of the
Second Sino-Japanese War. During this brutal conflict, Japanese forces committed
widespread atrocities, including the infamous Nanjing Massacre. Throughout these
campaigns, Emperor Hirohito remained publicly silent, though his imperial sanction was
considered essential for such major military operations.

Domestically, Hirohito presided over a country increasingly dominated by the military. Civilian
governments grew weaker, and political assassinations, censorship, and militarist
indoctrination shaped public life. By 1939, as war erupted in Europe, Japan had already left
the League of Nations and signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany and Fascist
Italy. In 1940, this alignment would deepen further into the Axis alliance, though that formal
agreement was still a few months away as of May.

Leading up to May 10, 1940, Hirohito’s Japan was continuing its war in China, controlling
large parts of the eastern Chinese coast. Although Japan had not yet entered World War II in
its global form, it was already deeply involved in a regional war and was positioning itself as
a major force in the coming global conflict. Hirohito, while cloaked in ceremonial restraint,
was nevertheless the imperial figurehead under whose name these conquests unfolded.

7. ALBERT LEBRUN
Albert Lebrun was the President of France during the early years of World War II, including
the critical period leading up to May 10, 1940. As head of state under the French Third
Republic, his role was largely ceremonial and limited by the parliamentary system, but he
held office during one of the most turbulent times in French history.

By the time Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, triggering the Second World War,
Albert Lebrun was already several years into his presidency, having first taken office in 1932
and been re-elected in 1939. Although he held the highest office in the republic, real political
power was in the hands of the Prime Ministers and their cabinets. At the outbreak of war,
Édouard Daladier was Prime Minister, and Lebrun supported his decision to honor France’s
alliance with Poland by declaring war on Germany.

Between September 1939 and May 1940, France entered the so-called “Drôle de guerre” or
“Phoney War,” a period of military inactivity on the Western Front despite the state of war.
During this time, Lebrun remained a stabilizing figure, largely focused on preserving national
unity and supporting the government in its military and diplomatic efforts.

As German forces prepared for their offensive in the West, French politics became
increasingly unstable. Leadership changed hands in March 1940, when Paul Reynaud
replaced Daladier as Prime Minister. Lebrun oversaw this transition and tried to maintain a
sense of continuity and legitimacy within a government increasingly anxious about France’s
preparedness for war.

On May 10, 1940—the same day Winston Churchill became Prime Minister of
Britain—Germany launched its blitzkrieg invasion of France and the Low Countries. Though
Lebrun was still president on that day, the events set in motion would soon bring about the
collapse of the Third Republic. Within weeks, France would fall, and Lebrun’s presidency
would come to an end with the rise of Marshal Pétain and the establishment of the Vichy
regime.

7. GUSTAF MANNERHEIM
Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim was already a towering figure in Finnish history—a former
general of the Russian Imperial Army who had become the Commander-in-Chief of the
Finnish Defence Forces during some of the most crucial moments in Finland’s struggle for
independence and survival.

As Europe moved toward war, Finland found itself caught between two major powers: Nazi
Germany and the Soviet Union. The most significant event involving Mannerheim before
May 1940 was the Winter War between Finland and the Soviet Union, which lasted from
November 30, 1939, to March 13, 1940.

When the Soviet Union invaded Finland, Mannerheim was recalled to lead the country’s
defense. At the age of over 70, he took command of a much smaller and poorly equipped
Finnish army. Under his leadership, Finnish forces put up an unexpectedly fierce and
disciplined resistance. Mannerheim used Finland’s terrain, harsh winter conditions, and
tactical ingenuity to delay and frustrate the Soviet advance. Despite being heavily
outnumbered, Finnish troops inflicted severe casualties on the Red Army, and Mannerheim’s
leadership during the battles of the Karelian Isthmus and Taipale earned him enormous
respect both at home and abroad.

Eventually, due to overwhelming Soviet pressure and a lack of foreign assistance, Finland
was forced to agree to peace. The Moscow Peace Treaty, signed in March 1940, resulted in
Finland ceding significant territory to the Soviet Union, including parts of Karelia.
Mannerheim was deeply disillusioned by the outcome, believing the Western democracies
had abandoned Finland. Still, he remained a national hero, admired for defending Finnish
sovereignty and dignity under impossible odds.

By May 10, 1940, Mannerheim continued to serve as Finland’s military leader, deeply
involved in the country’s defense planning and wary of both Soviet intentions and German
ambitions. Though he was not yet allied with Germany, his strategic thinking in this uncertain
and dangerous period would eventually shape Finland’s role in the wider war.

8. KING LEOPOLD III

King Leopold III of Belgium was navigating an
extremely tense and precarious situation as
Europe edged deeper into war. He had become
King of the Belgians in 1934, after the death of his
father, King Albert I, and inherited a country still
haunted by the devastation of World War I.
Determined to keep Belgium out of another
European conflict, Leopold pursued a strict policy
of armed neutrality, distancing his nation from
alliances and resisting pressures from both the
Allies and Axis powers.

When World War II began in September 1939,

following the German invasion of Poland, Belgium
again declared itself neutral. King Leopold,
working closely with his government, reinforced
the country’s military defenses along its borders and tried to avoid any provocation that
might draw Belgium into the fighting. Despite increasing German aggression across Europe,
he maintained this position of neutrality, believing it was the best way to protect Belgian lives
and sovereignty.
Leopold’s stance was controversial. Some within Belgium, especially in political and military
circles, worried that neutrality was unrealistic in the face of German ambitions. Others
supported his decision, remembering how Belgium had suffered in the First World War after
being invaded as part of the Allied alliance. Leopold hoped that by avoiding entanglement,
Belgium would be spared the devastation of war.

By May 10, 1940, this careful balance collapsed. On that day, Nazi Germany launched a
surprise invasion of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg as part of its massive
offensive in Western Europe. Leopold’s efforts to remain neutral ended in a matter of hours
as Belgian forces were mobilized to resist the German assault. From that moment, he would
face one of the greatest crises of his reign, one that would eventually lead to deep divisions
within Belgium and define his legacy.

9. CHIANG-KAI-SHAIK
Chiang Kai-shek was leading China through one of the most brutal and desperate chapters
in its modern history. As the head of the Nationalist government (Kuomintang) and
Commander-in-Chief of Chinese forces, he had been fighting an all-out war against Japan
since 1937, three years before World War II fully erupted in Europe.

Chiang had already faced years of internal strife before Japan’s full-scale invasion. Since the
1920s, he had been battling communist forces led by Mao Zedong in a fractured and divided
China. But when Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931 and launched a full-scale invasion of
mainland China in 1937, beginning with the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, Chiang was forced
to set aside the civil conflict—at least temporarily—and redirect his focus toward resisting the
foreign threat.

By 1937, the Second Sino-Japanese War was in full swing. Under Chiang’s leadership,
Chinese forces fiercely resisted Japan’s advances, but they were poorly equipped and
outmatched. Major cities such as Shanghai, Nanjing, and Wuhan fell to the Japanese in
succession. During the capture of Nanjing, Japanese troops committed mass atrocities
known as the Nanjing Massacre, which deeply shocked the world.

Chiang moved his capital to Chongqing, deep in China’s interior, and maintained a defiant
stance even as Japanese bombers relentlessly targeted civilian populations. His strategy
relied not only on prolonged resistance but also on the hope that the Western
powers—especially Britain and the United States—would eventually intervene against
Japan.

By early 1940, China was still under siege, with much of its eastern and coastal territory
under Japanese control. Chiang’s forces were stretched thin, and supplies were scarce, yet
he refused to surrender. Politically, his government was also under pressure, as the uneasy
alliance with the Chinese Communists was fragile and riven with mistrust.

As of May 10, 1940, Chiang Kai-shek was already deeply involved in the fight against
Axis-aligned Japan, years before the broader World War II engulfed the rest of Asia. He
stood as the central figure in China’s resistance—tenacious, embattled, and determined to
preserve his nation’s independence against overwhelming odds.
10. FRANCISCO FRANCO
Francisco Franco, by May 10, 1940, was the authoritarian ruler of Spain, having emerged
victorious from the Spanish Civil War just a year earlier. After three years of brutal fighting
between his Nationalist forces and the Republicans, Franco established a military
dictatorship in April 1939. His regime was built on fierce anti-communism, strong Catholic
traditionalism, and centralized authoritarian control. Backed during the civil war by Nazi
Germany and Fascist Italy, Franco’s Spain was ideologically aligned with the Axis
powers—but he approached World War II with extreme caution.

Though Hitler and Mussolini expected Franco to join the war on their side, Franco did not
immediately enter the conflict. Spain was economically devastated, militarily exhausted, and
diplomatically isolated after the civil war. The country faced widespread hunger,
infrastructure damage, and international suspicion. Franco declared Spain “non-belligerent,”
a status more sympathetic to the Axis than full neutrality but still a clear signal that Spain
would not participate in military action—for now.

He remained diplomatically active, seeking to leverage his position to gain

concessions—especially territorial ambitions in North Africa—should he later choose to
intervene. But he was also wary of antagonizing the Western Allies, especially Britain, which
still controlled strategic territories like Gibraltar and had naval dominance in the
Mediterranean.

By May 10, 1940, Franco’s Spain was balancing between ideological affinity with fascism
and the practical need to recover and survive. Though his regime was dictatorial and aligned
in spirit with the Axis, Franco had no intention of dragging Spain into another war so soon
after barely surviving one of its own. His policy was one of careful calculation—waiting,
watching, and making sure Spain would not be destroyed, no matter which side won.
11. EDVARD BENES
Edvard Beneš, by May 10, 1940, was living in exile and watching the unfolding of World War
II from the outside, after having been forced out of power and out of Czechoslovakia by the
aggressive expansion of Nazi Germany.

Beneš had served as the President of Czechoslovakia from 1935 until October 1938. He had
been one of the founding fathers of the country after World War I, working closely with
Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk to establish a democratic and multinational republic. But in the
1930s, as Nazi Germany rose in power and openly laid claim to the Sudetenland—a region
of Czechoslovakia with a large ethnic German population—Beneš

found himself at the center of an international crisis.

In September 1938, under extreme pressure from Britain and France, and without
Czechoslovakia’s participation in the negotiations, the Munich Agreement was signed. This
agreement allowed Hitler to annex the Sudetenland in a failed attempt to appease Nazi
Germany. Beneš, realizing he had no international support and could not militarily resist
Germany alone, chose to resign as president and went into exile in London.

By 1939, Hitler had fully dismantled Czechoslovakia. The country ceased to exist: Bohemia
and Moravia became a German Protectorate, and Slovakia was turned into a puppet state.
From exile, Beneš began building a Czechoslovak government-in-exile, striving to restore his
country’s independence. He worked diplomatically to gain support from the Allies and to
delegitimize the Munich Agreement, arguing that Czechoslovakia had been sacrificed
unjustly.

As of May 10, 1940—the day Germany invaded France and the Low Countries—Beneš was
continuing to organize resistance, rallying exiled Czechoslovak politicians, military officers,
and international support, particularly from Britain. He had no control over events on the
ground in his homeland, but he was preparing for the time when Czechoslovakia could be
liberated and reestablished.

12. NETAJI SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE

Subhas Chandra Bose, widely known as Netaji, was already emerging as a significant figure
in the Indian independence movement, but his path had taken a radical turn compared to
other leaders in the Indian National Congress (INC) like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal
Nehru.

Bose was initially a prominent member of the Congress, known for his patriotism,
organizational skills, and leadership. He was elected as the President of the Indian National
Congress in 1938 and re-elected in 1939. However, his approach to achieving independence
for India differed sharply from that of Gandhi and his followers. While Gandhi advocated for
nonviolent resistance (Satyagraha), Bose believed that only a strong, militant approach
could force the British to leave India. This ideological divide led to a split in the Congress,
with Bose resigning from the presidency of the INC in 1939.

After his resignation, Bose’s pursuit of India’s independence took a dramatic turn. He came
to believe that India could gain its freedom only through an alliance with an external power
capable of challenging British colonial rule. Initially, he sought assistance from the Soviet
Union, but with the outbreak of World War II, Bose saw an opportunity in the Axis powers’
struggle against Britain.

By 1940, Bose had already begun to form plans to seek military aid from Nazi Germany and
Imperial Japan, hoping to use their resources to help India achieve independence. In
January 1941, while under house arrest in India, he made a daring escape from Calcutta,
evading British authorities. He traveled via Afghanistan to Germany, where he met with Nazi
officials to discuss the possibility of collaboration.

Though the collaboration with Nazi Germany proved limited in practical terms, Bose’s
strategy evolved. In 1943, he would eventually find his greatest support in Japan, which
would help him raise an Indian National Army (INA) with the goal of fighting the British in
Southeast Asia.

But before May 10, 1940, Bose was already laying the groundwork for a more radical and
international approach to India’s liberation, distinguishing himself from the more traditional,
nonviolent methods promoted by Gandhi and other Congress leaders. His belief in armed
struggle and his willingness to work with foreign powers marked him as one of the most
controversial figures in India’s fight for independence

13. MARSHAL JOSIP TITO

Josip Broz Tito was not yet the globally recognized wartime leader of Yugoslavia, but he was
already a key underground figure within the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (CPY), steadily
building the foundations of what would soon become one of the most formidable resistance
movements in Europe.

During the 1930s, Tito had risen rapidly through the ranks of the CPY, a party that had been
outlawed by the Yugoslav monarchy and was operating in secrecy. In 1937, he became
General Secretary of the Communist Party, following the purge and execution of his
predecessor during Stalin’s Great Purge. Tito, however, was shrewd, cautious, and more
independent-minded than most of Stalin’s loyal cadres. From Moscow, he maintained
communication with the Comintern, but he focused intensely on rebuilding the fractured
Yugoslav party apparatus from within.

As war erupted across Europe in 1939, Yugoslavia, under King Peter II and the regency of
Prince Paul, was trying to remain neutral while under increasing pressure from Nazi
Germany. Tito remained in the political shadows, strengthening the Communist Party’s
clandestine networks, printing underground literature, and expanding influence in workers’
organizations, student groups, and the military.

Although the CPY had little public visibility or support in Yugoslavia at that moment, Tito was
preparing for what he believed was inevitable: a global conflict that would offer revolutionary
opportunities. His ideological orientation was Marxist-Leninist, but his tactical approach was
Yugoslav in flavor—pragmatic, national, and rooted in understanding the unique ethnic and
political composition of the country.

By May 10, 1940—the date of Germany’s invasion of Western Europe—Tito was still
operating underground, unknown to most outside Communist circles. Yet within a year, as
Axis forces occupied Yugoslavia and dismembered the kingdom in April 1941, he would
emerge at the head of the Partisan resistance movement, leading a broad, armed uprising
against the occupiers and their collaborators. But until that moment, Tito remained a
committed revolutionary in the shadows—planning, recruiting, and waiting for the war to
come to his doorstep.

14. CHAIRMAN MAO ZEDONG

Chairman Mao Zedong was a rising revolutionary leader in China, but he had not yet
become the supreme leader of the country or the Communist Party. At this stage of World
War II, Mao was operating in a fragile United Front with the Nationalist government under
Chiang Kai-shek, united temporarily by the need to resist the full-scale Japanese invasion
that had begun in 1937.
By the late 1930s, Mao had already led the Long March (1934–1935), which saved the
Communist movement from destruction and cemented his leadership within the Chinese
Communist Party (CCP). After arriving in Yan’an in northwest China, Mao began building the
base of a new revolutionary movement. From there, he emphasized ideological training, land
reform, and guerrilla warfare, consolidating power while preparing for long-term struggle.

Following the Xi’an Incident of 1936—when Chiang Kai-shek was briefly kidnapped by his
own generals and pressured into cooperating with the Communists—a Second United Front
was formed between the Nationalists and Communists to fight the Japanese. Though the
alliance was uneasy and full of mistrust, it allowed Mao and the CCP to gain political
legitimacy and expand their influence in rural areas under the guise of national resistance.

By May 1940, Mao and his forces had carved out control over several “liberated zones” in
northern China, where Communist influence was growing. He advocated for protracted
people’s war, a concept he developed and refined—using guerrilla tactics, popular support,
and political mobilization to wear down a stronger opponent. While Chiang’s forces engaged
Japan in conventional warfare, Mao focused on building the CCP’s strength through rural
base areas, political education, and mobilizing peasants.

Although the Chinese Communists were not leading the front lines of the war against Japan
in this period, Mao saw the conflict as a unique opportunity. He was preparing for the
post-war political struggle, aiming to emerge stronger than the Nationalists when the fight
against Japan ended.

By this point, Mao Zedong was already the principal strategist and ideologue of the Chinese
Communist movement, but he had not yet fully consolidated control over the party or China.
His leadership was growing, his strategy was long-term, and his goal was clear: to transform
wartime survival into eventual revolution.
16. MIKLOS HORTHY
Miklós Horthy played a significant and complex role in World War II up to 10 May
1940 as the Regent of Hungary, a position he held from 1920 to 1944. During this
period, Horthy led Hungary with a national conservative and revanchist agenda,
seeking to revise the Treaty of Trianon, which had significantly reduced Hungary's
territory after World War I.

In the late 1930s, Horthy aligned Hungary with Nazi Germany, joining the Axis
powers, motivated by the opportunity to regain lost territories peacefully, as seen in
Hungary's annexation of parts of Czechoslovakia following the Munich Agreement
and the First Vienna Award in 1938-1939.

When Germany attacked Poland in 1939, Hungary under Horthy provided support to
Polish refugees, indicating some humanitarian considerations despite the alliance
with Germany. However, Hungary's foreign policy was clearly tied to the Axis cause,
and by February 1939, Hungary joined the Anti-Comintern Pact and withdrew from
the League of Nations, further cementing its alignment with Germany.

Up to May 1940, Hungary had not yet entered active military operations alongside
Germany, which would begin later with the invasion of
the Soviet Union in 1941. Horthy was cautious about
Hungary's full involvement in the war and sought to
balance between cooperation with Germany and
maintaining some autonomy. He declined Hitler's
request for Hungarian troops to participate in the
invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1938, insisting on
peaceful means for territorial claims.

In summary, until 10 May 1940, Miklós Horthy's role

in World War II was that of a regent who steered
Hungary into alliance with Nazi Germany primarily for
territorial revisionism, provided humanitarian aid to
Polish refugees after the German invasion of Poland,
but was cautious about full military engagement,
which would come later
17. WILLIAM LYON McKENZIE KING
William Lyon Mackenzie King, as Prime Minister of Canada, played a crucial
leadership role in the early phase of World War II up to 10 May 1940. Recognizing
the growing threat of war in Europe, King began mobilizing Canada’s military on 25
August 1939, just days before Germany’s invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939.
Unlike in World War I, when Canada was automatically at war following Britain’s
declaration, King asserted Canadian autonomy by calling the Canadian Parliament
to decide on war participation.

Parliament declared war on Germany on 10 September 1939, with King emphasizing

that Canada would enter the war as an independent decision, reflecting a more
sovereign Canadian foreign policy.King’s leadership focused heavily on maintaining
national unity, particularly between English and French Canadians, who were divided
over conscription due to memories of World War I. To keep French Canadians
supportive, King promised no conscription for overseas service, making military
participation voluntary at this stage.
Domestically, King began preparing Canada for a sustained war effort by expanding
the Royal Canadian Air Force and supporting the British Commonwealth Air Training
Plan, which trained airmen from Canada and other Commonwealth countries2. His
government also initiated economic mobilization and industrial transformation to
support the war, although Canada was initially unprepared for the scale of conflict.

King’s foreign policy also sought closer ties with the United States, culminating in the
1940 Ogdensburg Agreement (signed shortly after the queried date), which laid
groundwork for North American defense cooperation, even as the U.S. remained
neutral2. Throughout this period, King balanced Canada’s commitment to the Allied
cause with cautious political management at home, avoiding divisive conscription
debates and emphasizing voluntary service.
In summary, until 10 May 1940, William Lyon Mackenzie King’s role was to lead
Canada into World War II as a sovereign decision-maker, mobilize the country’s
military and economy for war, maintain national unity by managing conscription
sensitivities, and strengthen Canada’s international position as a middle power
aligned with Britain but increasingly cooperative with the United States.

18. GEORGY ZHUKOV

Until 10 May 1940, Georgy Zhukov’s role in World War II was primarily marked by key
Soviet military leadership and successful campaigns preceding the full-scale
German invasion of the Soviet Union.
●​ In the summer of 1939, Zhukov commanded a Soviet army group that
decisively defeated Japanese forces at the Battles of Khalkhin Gol on the
border of Mongolia and Manchuria. This victory earned him his first Hero of
the Soviet Union award and established him as a prominent military leader.
●​ In 1940, Zhukov commanded the Soviet invasion of Bessarabia and Northern
Bukovina, regions of Romania, as part of Soviet territorial expansions under
the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact agreements1.
●​ During the Winter War (1939-1940) between the Soviet Union and Finland,
Zhukov served as chief of staff of the Soviet army, contributing to the Soviet
efforts against Finnish forces, although the campaign was difficult and costly
for the Soviets-.
●​ By June 1940, Zhukov was appointed to command the Kiev Military District, a
strategically important position as Europe was engulfed by German Blitzkrieg
campaigns in Western Europe4.
●​ In February 1941, shortly after the period in question, Zhukov was appointed
Chief of the General Staff of the Red Army, positioning him at the highest level
of Soviet military command just months before the German invasion in June
1941.
Thus, until 10 May 1940, Zhukov’s role was that of a rising Soviet military
commander who had proven his capability in border conflicts and territorial
operations, preparing the Red Army’s leadership for the impending larger conflict
with Nazi Germany. His leadership during this period laid the groundwork for his
critical role in the Soviet defense and counter offensives after the German invasion in
1941.
19. KING GEORGE III OF GREECE
Until 10 May 1940, George II was the King of Greece, having resumed the throne in
1935 after the restoration of the monarchy. During this period, Greece maintained a
policy of neutrality in World War II despite growing tensions in Europe. George II
supported the authoritarian regime of Ioannis Metaxas, established in 1936, which
was nationalist, anti-communist, and aligned with maintaining Greek sovereignty.

By early 1940, as World War II expanded, Greece was under pressure from Fascist
Italy, which accused George II of harboring British ships in Greek waters. Italy’s
aggressive posture culminated in an ultimatum in late October 1940, shortly after the
period in question, which Greece rejected, leading to the Greco-Italian War.

Up to 10 May 1940 specifically, George II’s role was largely constitutional and
symbolic, supporting Metaxas’s regime and maintaining Greek neutrality while
preparing the country for possible conflict. He declared neutrality but was aware of
the strategic importance of Greece and the threat posed by Axis powers. He was
also involved in diplomatic and military preparations, including supporting the Greek
armed forces.

In summary, until 10 May 1940, King George II’s role was that of a constitutional
monarch backing an authoritarian government that sought to keep Greece neutral
but ready for defense, while facing increasing
Italian threats that would soon escalate into
open conflict after this date

20. QUEEN WILHELMINA

Queen Wilhelmina played a crucial and symbolic role during the early phase of World War II
up until the German invasion of the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. Before the invasion, she
was a very involved and traditional monarch who closely supervised military and government
affairs, maintaining frequent contact with the army's commander-in-chief. She was dedicated
to a well-prepared defense and was deeply committed to her role as head of state, even
holding the belief that she would rather die with her forces than flee the country2.

When Germany invaded on 10 May 1940, the German plan included capturing Queen
Wilhelmina and the Dutch government to force a governmental capitulation, but these efforts
failed. Despite her earlier
statements of not fleeing,
Wilhelmina and her family
evacuated The Hague amid the
invasion, boarding the British
destroyer HMS Hereward and
fleeing to England. There is some
debate whether this evacuation was
pre-planned or a last-minute
decision due to the rapid German
advance. The royal family’s
departure was a shock to the Dutch
people, some of whom viewed it as
abandonment, but it ultimately
allowed her to continue leading the
Dutch resistance from abroad.

Upon arrival in London, just days

after the invasion, Wilhelmina took
charge of the Dutch
government-in-exile. She quickly
established a chain of command
and communicated directly with the
Dutch people, becoming a symbol
of resistance against Nazi
occupation. Her broadcasts over Radio Oranje were a vital morale booster, encouraging the
Dutch to resist and calling Adolf Hitler "the arch-enemy of mankind." Her image and
speeches became a rallying point for the Dutch resistance and were eagerly listened to
despite being illegal under German occupation.

During this period, Wilhelmina also dealt with internal political challenges within the
government-in-exile, notably opposing Prime Minister Dirk Jan de Geer, who favored
negotiating peace with Germany. With her influence, she succeeded in replacing him with
Pieter Gerbrandy, who aligned more closely with the Allied cause. Wilhelmina’s leadership
was respected internationally, with Winston Churchill famously calling her "the only real man
among the governments-in-exile”..

In summary, before and immediately after 10 May 1940, Queen Wilhelmina’s role
transitioned from a hands-on, traditional monarch deeply involved in military affairs to a
symbol and leader of Dutch resistance in exile. Her escape to England enabled her to
maintain Dutch sovereignty symbolically and politically, rally her people through broadcasts,
and coordinate the government-in-exile’s efforts against German occupation

21. EMPEROR HAILE SELASSIE

Emperor Haile Selassie’s role in the period leading up to 10 May 1940 during World
War II was primarily defined by his resistance to Italian aggression and his efforts to
restore Ethiopia’s sovereignty after the Italian invasion.
1.​ Conflict with Italy and Exile (1935–1936):​
Italy, under Benito Mussolini, invaded Ethiopia in October 1935 after border
clashes and growing tensions. Despite Haile Selassie’s efforts to mobilize and
lead Ethiopian forces against the better-equipped Italian army, which used
modern weaponry including poison gas, Ethiopia was defeated. On 2 May
1936, Haile Selassie was forced into exile, fleeing to Djibouti and then to the
United Kingdom. His exile marked the beginning of his role as a symbol of
resistance and a voice for Ethiopian independence
2.​ Appeal to the League of Nations:​
On 30 June 1936, Haile Selassie made a historic and memorable speech
before the League of Nations in Geneva, appealing for international help
against Italian aggression. His speech highlighted the failure of the League to
prevent aggression and became a symbol of anti-fascism and the struggle for
justice. Although the League imposed some sanctions on Italy, they were
limited and ineffective, failing to halt the Italian occupation.

3.​ Maintaining the Ethiopian

Government-in-Exile and Resistance
Efforts:​
During his exile, Haile Selassie worked
to maintain the legitimacy of the
Ethiopian government and coordinated
resistance efforts. He secured British
support to form an army of Ethiopian
exiles in Sudan. This force was
intended to reclaim Ethiopia from
Italian control when the opportunity
arose.
4.​ Position at the Outset of World War II
(before 10 May 1940):​
 By the time World War II began in 1939, Haile Selassie was still in exile,
primarily in the United Kingdom and Sudan. Italy joined the Axis powers in
June 1940, shortly after the period in question, which then intensified British
support for Haile Selassie’s efforts to liberate Ethiopia. Before this, Haile
Selassie’s role was largely diplomatic and preparatory, rallying international
support and organizing resistance forces in anticipation of renewed conflict.
In summary, before 10 May 1940, Emperor Haile Selassie’s role in World War II was
centered on leading the Ethiopian resistance from exile after Italy’s conquest of
Ethiopia, appealing to international bodies like the League of Nations for support,
and preparing with British assistance to eventually reclaim his country. His
leadership during this period made him a symbol of anti-fascist resistance and
African sovereignty.

22. BORIS III OF BULGARIA

Before 10 May 1940, Tsar Boris III of Bulgaria played a cautious and strategic role in
the context of World War II, marked by Bulgaria’s initial neutrality and efforts to
regain lost territories while balancing pressures from Nazi Germany and other
powers.
●​ Neutrality and Territorial Ambitions:​
At the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, Bulgaria declared
neutrality under Prime Minister Georgi Kyoseivanov, a position Tsar Boris III
supported. Bulgaria sought to recover territories lost after World War I,
including Southern Dobruja, Western Thrace, and parts of Macedonia, which
were seen as national grievances. The country was economically dependent
on Germany, with significant trade ties, and the Bulgarian officer class was
largely pro-German, though the population was generally Russophile.
●​ Shift Toward Germany and the Treaty of Craiova:​
In 1940, under German influence, Bulgaria’s government changed with the
appointment of Bogdan Filov, a Nazi sympathizer, as prime minister. This shift
aligned Bulgaria closer to Germany. With Nazi Germany’s support, Bulgaria
regained Southern Dobruja from Romania through the Treaty of Craiova, a
significant national achievement that bolstered Boris’s standing domestically.
●​ Anti-Jewish Legislation:​
Following the territorial gains, Bulgaria enacted the "Law for Protection of the
Nation" on 24 December 1940, modeled after Nazi Germany’s Nuremberg
Laws. This legislation imposed severe restrictions on Bulgarian Jews,
including loss of citizenship and professional quotas. Although Boris III did
not personally draft these laws, they were passed under his reign and the
 government of Bogdan Filov, reflecting Bulgaria’s growing alignment with Nazi
policies.

●​ Balancing Act and Avoidance of Full Commitment:​

Despite increasing ties with Germany, Boris III was cautious about full military
involvement. He resisted German demands to send Bulgarian troops to fight
against the Soviet Union and refused to allow volunteers to join the Eastern
Front. This stance reflected his awareness of domestic pro-Russian sentiment
and the precarious geopolitical situation, especially regarding Turkey’s unclear
position.
●​ Preparations for Alliance but Not Yet Fully Committed:​
Before May 1940, Bulgaria had not yet formally joined the Axis, which
occurred later in March 1941. Boris’s role was thus that of a monarch
navigating between national interests, German pressure, and internal political
dynamics. His government’s pro-German shift and territorial recoveries were
steps toward alliance, but he maintained a degree of independence, especially
regarding military commitments.
In summary, until 10 May 1940, Tsar Boris III’s role was that of a cautious ruler who
maintained Bulgarian neutrality while maneuvering to regain lost territories, aligning
increasingly with Nazi Germany politically and economically but avoiding full military
engagement. He presided over the introduction of anti-Jewish laws under German
influence but sought to protect Bulgaria from the worst consequences of the war
through careful diplomacy and internal control

23. HIDEKI TOJO

Before 10 May 1940, Hideki Tojo was a rising and influential military officer in the
Imperial Japanese Army, known for his nationalist and militarist views, but he had
not yet become prime minister or the top political leader of Japan.

●​ Military Career and Rise:

Tojo graduated from the Imperial Japanese Army Academy in 1905 and
steadily rose through the ranks. By 1934, he was promoted to major general
and commanded the 24th Infantry Brigade. In 1935, he assumed top
command of the Kempeitai (military police) of the Kwantung Army in
Manchuria, a key position in Japan’s military expansion in China. By 1937, he
became chief of staff of the Kwantung Army, and in 1938 he was appointed
Vice Minister of War in Tokyo, a role that gave him significant influence over
military policy.
●​ Political and Military Views:​
Tojo was part of the Tōseiha ("Control Faction") within the army, which favored
a totalitarian "national defense state" and military modernization over radical
coups. He was a strong advocate of Japanese militarism and expansionism,
admiring fascist regimes like Nazi Germany and Mussolini’s Italy. He viewed
the United States as a future enemy and supported the idea of Japan
preparing for a large-scale war.
 ●​ Role in Pre-War Japan:​
Although Tojo had not yet become War Minister (he was appointed to that
position in July 1940) or Prime Minister (appointed in October 1941), by early
1940 he was already a key military leader and policymaker. He was involved in
shaping Japan’s military strategy and was a leading advocate for closer ties
with Germany and Italy, which culminated in the Tripartite Pact signed in
September 1940, shortly after the period in question.
●​ Summary of Role until May 1940:​
Tojo’s role was primarily that of a senior military officer and Vice Minister of
War who strongly influenced Japan’s militaristic policies and preparations for
war. He helped consolidate Japan’s military control over Manchuria and
supported the nation’s expansionist ambitions. His political influence was
growing, setting the stage for his later leadership as War Minister and Prime
Minister during World War II.
In essence, before 10 May 1940, Hideki Tojo was a powerful military figure and
policymaker within Japan’s army, advocating militarism and expansionism, but had
not yet assumed the highest political offices that would define his wartime
leadership.
​
24. KING HAKON VII
Before 10 May 1940, King Haakon VII of Norway played a crucial constitutional and
symbolic role as Norway sought to maintain its neutrality amid the growing tensions
of World War II. Although the Norwegian constitution granted the King considerable
executive powers, Haakon largely confined himself to a representative and
ceremonial role during peacetime, respecting parliamentary governance.

As the war intensified in Europe, Norway declared neutrality in September 1939.

Haakon supported this stance, and the Norwegian government prepared to defend
the country if necessary. When Germany invaded Norway on 9 April 1940, Haakon VII
became a central figure of national
resistance. The day after the invasion, the
German ambassador demanded that
Haakon legitimize the puppet government
led by Vidkun Quisling, which would have
effectively sanctioned the German
occupation. Haakon refused, stating he
could only act on the advice of the
legitimate Norwegian government, thus
rejecting German demands and refusing to
abdicate despite threats and pressure.

During the Norwegian campaign in April

1940, Haakon and the government fled from
the advancing German forces, moving
northward and eventually establishing a
provisional capital in Tromsø. Despite
Luftwaffe attacks that destroyed towns like
Nybergsund and forced the King and his ministers to take refuge in the wilderness,
Haakon remained a symbol of Norwegian sovereignty and resistance.By early May
1940, Haakon was still in Norway with the government, continuing to lead the
country’s resistance efforts. His refusal to cooperate with the Germans and his
steadfast support for the legitimate government unified the Norwegian people
against the occupation. This period set the stage for his eventual evacuation to the
United Kingdom in June 1940, where he would lead the government-in-exile.

In summary, before 10 May 1940, King Haakon VII’s role was that of a constitutional
monarch who became a symbol of Norwegian independence and resistance. He
rejected German demands to legitimize the occupation, supported the government’s
efforts to resist invasion, and maintained national unity during the critical early days
of World War II in Norway.

25. FIELD MARSHAL CLAUDE AUCHINLEK

Before 10 May 1940, Claude Auchinleck played key military roles primarily within the
British Indian Army and briefly in the early Allied operations in Europe:
●​ Command of Indian 3rd Infantry Division and Return to England:​
At the outbreak of World War II in 1939, Auchinleck was a major-general
commanding the Indian 3rd Infantry Division. In January 1940, he was
summoned to the United Kingdom to take command of IV Corps, a British
Army formation preparing for deployment to northern France as part of the
British Expeditionary Force (BEF). This was notable as he was an Indian Army
officer commanding a wholly British corps, reflecting his high standing and
experience..
●​ Norwegian Campaign (April–June 1940):​
In May 1940, Auchinleck took over command of the Anglo-French ground
forces during the Norwegian campaign, an operation aimed at recapturing the
strategic port of Narvik from German forces. Despite his efforts to inject drive
and leadership into the expedition, the campaign was ultimately unsuccessful
due to deteriorating conditions in France and the overall strategic situation.
Auchinleck oversaw the evacuation of Allied forces from Norway by mid-June
1940.
 ●​ Southern Command in England:​
After the Norwegian campaign, Auchinleck was appointed General Officer
Commanding-in-Chief of Southern Command in England. His responsibility
was the defense of southern England against the expected German invasion
(Operation Sea Lion). During this period, he organized defensive preparations
and helped coordinate the Home Guard, contributing to Britain's readiness
during a critical phase of the war.
●​ Promotion and Later Roles:​
Auchinleck was promoted to lieutenant general in early 1940 and later to full
general in November 1940. Shortly after, he was appointed
Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army, a post he held during much of the
war. His leadership in India was crucial for organizing, training, and supplying
forces that would later fight in the Southeast Asian theatre.
In summary, until 10 May 1940, Claude Auchinleck was a senior British Indian Army
officer who commanded the Indian 3rd Infantry Division, led the Anglo-French ground
forces in the Norwegian campaign, and then took charge of Southern Command in
England to prepare for a possible German invasion. His role was pivotal in early
British military operations and in strengthening home defenses during a critical
period of World War II.

26. JAN SMUTS

Before 10 May 1940, Jan Smuts played a pivotal role as the Prime Minister of South
Africa, having returned to power in 1939 after a political split over South Africa’s
stance on World War II. He led the pro-interventionist
faction that favored supporting the Allies against Nazi
Germany, in contrast to his predecessor J.B.M. Hertzog,
who advocated neutrality.

Smuts’s government decided to enter the war on the

side of the Allies shortly after the outbreak of hostilities
in September 1939. His leadership was instrumental in
mobilizing South African resources and troops to
support the British war effort, particularly focusing on
preventing Axis powers, especially Germany and Italy,
from gaining control over strategic territories in North
Africa. This included safeguarding the Suez Canal and
the southern flank of the Mediterranean.

Although Smuts was not as militarily prominent in World War II as he had been in
World War I, when he commanded forces in campaigns in German South-West and
East Africa, he remained a key statesman. He was consulted by Winston Churchill
and other Allied leaders on strategic matters. His experience and influence helped
shape Allied policy in Africa and contributed to the broader war effort against the
Axis powers.

In summary, before 10 May 1940, Jan Smuts’s role was that of a decisive political
leader who brought South Africa into the war on the Allied side, coordinated its
military and strategic contributions, and acted as a trusted advisor to the British and
Allied leadership on the African theatre of the war

27. JOHN CURTIN

Before 10 May 1940, John Curtin was the leader of the Australian Labor Party (ALP)
and served as Leader of the Opposition, having been elected party leader in 1935.
During this period, Curtin focused on restoring unity within the Labor Party and
navigating its internal divisions, particularly with the Lang Labor faction in New
South Wales. On foreign policy, Curtin steered a cautious course, avoiding firm
stances on contentious issues such as the Spanish Civil War and sanctions against
Italy over its invasion of Abyssinia.

With the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, Curtin supported Australia's
declaration of war on Nazi Germany but opposed conscription for overseas service.
His Labor Party declined to join the war cabinet led by Prime Minister Robert
Menzies, though Curtin offered cooperation short of full support for conscription.
Curtin advocated for a defense policy emphasizing self-reliance, particularly through
strengthening the Royal Australian Air Force, but was sometimes criticized for
isolationism.

In the 1940 federal election, Labor made significant gains but did not form
government, resulting in a hung parliament. Curtin took a seat on the newly created
Advisory War Council in October 1940, cooperating with the government on war
preparations. During Menzies’s absence in early 1941, Curtin worked with Deputy
Prime Minister Arthur Fadden to prepare Australia for the expected Pacific conflict.
Overall, before 10 May 1940, John Curtin’s role was that of a key opposition leader
who sought to unify his party, cautiously supported the war effort, opposed
conscription, and contributed to Australia’s defense preparations while maintaining a
focus on domestic political consolidation and measured foreign policy positions

28. ION ANTONESCU

Before 10 May 1940, Ion Antonescu had not yet risen to full power but was rapidly
gaining prominence amid Romania’s political crisis triggered by territorial losses in
1940. After Romania lost significant territory to Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Soviet
Union between June and September 1940, Antonescu was appointed prime minister
with near-absolute powers on 4 September 1940. He formed an uneasy alliance with
the fascist Iron Guard, creating the "National Legionary
State," which combined his military dictatorship with the
Iron Guard’s political movement.

During this period, Antonescu aligned Romania

increasingly with Nazi Germany, denouncing previous
pacts and bringing Romania into Germany’s sphere of
influence. German troops began entering Romania in
October 1940 to protect vital oil fields and assist
Romanian forces. On 23 November 1940, Romania
formally joined the Axis powers by signing the Tripartite
Pact. Antonescu’s regime tolerated and at times
encouraged the Iron Guard’s violent anti-Semitic actions
and political purges, including assassinations and
massacres, although he later moved to curb their excesses.

Antonescu’s leadership before May 1940 was marked by consolidating power amid
political chaos, embracing fascist ideology, and steering Romania toward alliance
with Nazi Germany. His government’s policies laid the groundwork for Romania’s
active participation in the war on the Axis side after this period.
In summary, before 10 May 1940, Ion Antonescu emerged as Romania’s authoritarian
leader following territorial crises, formed a partnership with the Iron Guard, aligned
the country with Nazi Germany, and established the foundations of Romania’s
wartime dictatorship and alliance with the Axis powers.

CONCLUSION
Delegates, although we have tried to make the most exhaustive study guide out there, this
will just be the start or the base of your research, upon which you will build. We strongly
advise you, even the experienced MUNners, to go through this thoroughly. Delegates, please
do follow your foreign policies and engage in committee to the best of your abilities. To all
the beginners - Don’t be afraid or overwhelmed with the competition or the agenda. Just
start speaking and once you are able to break that barrier of shyness and the fear of being
embarrassed, nothing can stop you!

See you in committee.