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 CONTENTS ISSUE 157

26
Rise of the
Tudors
How Henry VII claimed the
throne of England following
the Wars of the Roses

36
Lost Jobs of
History
Could one of these be your
next big career move?

42
The First
Ghosts
How Mesopotamia thought
about spirits and ghouls

46
The Conquest
of Siberia
Russia’s brutal expansion
into the tundra explained

52
Scourge of the
Spanish Main
Discover the life of the
real Captain Morgan

58
April Ashley
How the model and performer
became an LGBTQ+ icon DEVICE
WALLPAPERS
Main image: © Alamy

Download now at
bit.ly/AAH157Gifts

4
ALL ABOUT… 12 42
12 Key Events
Timeline of the Cuban Revolution

14 Inside History
National School of Plastic Arts

Anatomy
16 Cuban guerrilla

17 Historical Treasures
Batista’s golden phone

18 Hall Of Fame
Cuban revolutionaries

20 Q&A
Antoni Kapcia describes life in
Cuba’s age of revolution

22 Places To Explore
Sites of the revolution
52
Subscribe
and save!
Discover our exclusive
offer for new readers
on page 24

REGULARS
06 Defining Moments
Photos with amazing stories

64 Greatest Battles
England and Scotland face off
at the Battle of Flodden

70 What If
The Confederacy had won at
58
the Battle of Antietam?
64
74 Through History
Ancient India artefacts

78 Reviews
Our verdict on the latest
historical books and media

81 History Vs
Hollywood
Does The Flesh and the Fiends
stick to the grisly facts?

82 Recipe
How to make ropa vieja

5
 žĒʱʩ
?ÑɞÊìä

6
 28 June 1919
TREATY OF
VERSAILLES SIGNED
The Armistice of November
1918 silenced the guns of
WWI, and after months of
discussions at the Paris Peace
Conference the Treaty of
Versailles was signed in June
1919 to formally end the
conflict between Germany
and the Allies. The treaty,
named after the Palace
of Versailles where it was
signed, laid out a number
of conditions that Germany
had to agree to, including
© Getty Images

paying reparations and

giving up territory.

7
 žĒʱʩ
?ÑɞÊìä

7 July 2005
TERRORISTS
BOMB LONDON’S
TRANSPORT SYSTEM
During the morning rush hour
on 7 July 2005, four Islamist
terrorists attacked London’s
transport system when they
set off four bombs: three on
Underground trains and the
fourth on a bus. Fifty-two
people (not including the
suicide bombers) died and
over 780 were injured. The 7/7
attacks, as they came to be
© Getty Images

known, were the first Islamist

suicide bombings in the UK.

8
9
THE D IGITAL A
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 Explore the tumultuous era of dictatorship, rebellion and
conēict that put uba in the old qar crosshairs

14 16 18 20
Main image: © Getty Images

INSIDE THE NATIONAL SCHOOL ANATOMY OF A CUBAN LIFE IN CUBA’S AGE

OF PLASTIC ARTS CUBAN GUERRILLA REVOLUTIONARIES OF REVOLUTION
Written by Callum McKelvie, Jonathan Gordon
11
 Key Events

During
their guerrilla
campaigns, the
rebels improvised
many weapons, such as
the M-26 – a Molotov
cocktail launcher
made out of a
shotgun.

1952 BATISTA’S COUP D’ÉTAT 1956 GUERRILLA WARFARE

Shortly before elections are due to Castro’s rebels establish themselves in
be held, General Fulgencio Batista launches the Sierra Maestra mountains. The dense forests
a coup d’état against the regime of Prío allow the rebels to hide and they begin to train
Socarras. The country becomes a military more recruits to their cause. From their base in the
dictatorship, fraught with corruption mountains the rebels carry out guerrilla warfare
and increasingly authoritarian. Crucially, attacks against the Batista government.
the United States recognises Batista’s
government and supports it.

SERGEANTS’ REVOLT 1933 FIDEL CASTRO IN MEXICO 26TH JULY MOVEMENT

Fulgencio Batista launches a JULY 1955 FORMED 1956
revolt and subsequently rules Following the attack on Moncada While in Mexico, Castro forms the 26th
Cuba through intermediaries Barracks, Castro is sentenced to of July Movement with the intention
until 1940 when he becomes 15 years but serves two. Upon of toppling Batista’s government. Here
president. He voluntarily steps his release he leaves for Mexico, he recruits guerrilla fighters and trains
down in 1944. where he plans an uprising. them for the coming fight.

1952 1956
ATTACK ON MONCADA CASTRO ARRIVES IN
BARRACKS 26 JULY 1953 CHE GUEVARA JOINS CUBA 2 DECEMBER 1956
Fidel Castro along with Castro and his brother, along
over 100 rebels launches THE REVOLUTION 1955 with 82 others (among them Che
an attack on the Moncada Che Guevara meets Fidel and Raúl Guvara) arrives in Cuba aboard the
Barracks in Santiago. It fails Castro in Mexico City. He agrees yacht the Granma. The group is
and Castro is arrested. to join their revolution. ambushed but Castro escapes.

1 JAN
1959 BATISTA FLEES 20 OCT
1959 HUBER MATOS
With no sign of the
revolution ceasing, Batista
AFFAIR
A key ally in the revolution,
flees Cuba in the early
Huber Matos becomes
hours of the morning, with
increasingly disillusioned
ministers and other officials
with growing communist
following him a few hours
influence. Matos sends Castro
later. Batista spends the
a letter announcing his
rest of his days in exile
resignation and is promptly
in Portugal until his
arrested. Matos and his
death in 1973.
followers are sentenced to
20 years imprisonment.

12
 THE CUBAN
REVOLUTION

17 APR
1961 BAY OF PIGS
INVASION
Exiles from the Cuban
revolution launch an
attempted invasion with
the backing of the CIA.
However the assault is
poorly planned and the
Castro
returned the resultant attack is a
prisoners after disaster, with Castro’s
Kennedy promised forces able to capture
$53m in baby food
and medical
over half the invasion
supplies. force, humiliating the
Kennedy administration.

BATTLE OF LA PLATA BATTLE OF LAS MERCEDES CUBA IS SOCIALIST

17 JANUARY 1957 29 JULY 1958 1 MAY 1961
Castro’s revolutionaries score their The final battle of Operation Verano, During May Day celebrations
first major victory against Batista’s it ends with a ceasefire in which Castro announces that Cuba
forces. News of this spreads across Castro’s forces escape. Following is now a socialist nation. As
Cuba and support for Castro’s rebels Verano’s failure, Castro launches an part of this move, he bans
begins to steadily grow. offensive of his own . any future elections.

1 JAN 20 OCT 17 APR 16 OCT

1959 1959 1961 1962 1962

OPERATION VERANO 1958 BATTLE OF SANTA COMMUNIST PARTY OF

Batista’s forces launch Operation CLARA 28 DECEMBER 1958 CUBA FOUNDED 3 OCTOBER 1965
Verano, their summer offensive The rebel forces, led by Guevera, Castro founds the Communist Party
attempting to defeat Castro’s defeat Batista’s army at Santa of Cuba, replacing previous socialist
rebels. Despite a force of 30,000- Clara. The Battle of Santa Clara is organisations with one that more closely
40,000 men, the offensive fails in considered one of the final decisive aligns to Soviet ideology. He serves as its
its objectives. moments in the revolution. first president.

1962 SOVIETISATION
16 OCT
1962 CUBAN MISSILE OF CUBA
CRISIS Cuba becomes increasingly
The Soviet Union places nuclear influenced by Soviet ideology
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images, © Shutterstock

missiles in Cuba. What follows and throughout the 1970s

is a tense 13-day stand-off becomes more and more
between the USSR and United reliant on Soviet aid. The
States. Eventually, the two authoritarian government’s
A key
sides are able to broker an condition of the
dependence on the USSR is
agreement, the missiles are agreement was the compared to the previous
removed from Cuba and USA’s secret promise Batista regime’s relationship
to remove its Jupiter with the United States.
the crisis ends.
missiles from
Turkey.

13
 Inside History CATALAN VAULTS
A common feature across the various buildings of the
National Schools of Art is the use of domes on the
primary buildings, and the National School of Plastic
Arts may well have the most. They were constructed

NATIONAL
using Catalan vaults, a technique that involves the
layering of thin tiles or bricks to create a vaulted
building without concrete or support structures. This
was more cost-effective than other methods and
made use of locally sourced materials.

SCHOOL OF
PLASTIC ARTS
Havana, Cuba ARCHITECTURAL VISION
GOLF GROUNDS
The idea for the National Schools of Art
project is said to have started over a drink.

1961 – Present
Of the five buildings planned for the Fidel Castro and Che Guevara had played
National Schools of Art, the School of a round of golf at the Havana Country
Plastic Arts has the most organic feel. It Club as part of a propaganda photo call,
was designed by Ricardo Porro, a Cuban and afterwards began discussing what the
native and staunch revolutionary future should hold for the picturesque
supporter, for which he had been location. The idea of turning the elitist club
exiled in the 1950s. The structure of into an educational institution appealed
the connected buildings was inspired to them, and a free school for the arts was

H
by Cuban and African heritage and considered a fitting reflection of their
resembled the shape of village huts. ideals for the revolution.
aving come to power in 1959, Fidel After the project was abandoned,
Castro and Che Guevara were looking Porro fled into exile again as Castro’s
for ways to attract people to Cuba and government turned against his ideas.
make a statement about what the leaders saw
as the forward-looking nature of their nation.
To this end, they commissioned three architects
to build the National Schools of Art (Escuelas
Nacionales de Arte). Formerly exiled Cuban
architect Ricardo Porro led the project with the
support of two Italian architects, Roberto Gottardi
and Vittorio Garatti.
The project aimed to create an art school that
would be free to access for students from across
the world, and this ambitious scheme demanded
something bold. Porro’s plan drew on traditional
styles of Cuban and African architecture, making
good use of local materials. The complex would
be made up of five buildings, each dedicated
to an artistic discipline: dance, dramatic arts,
music, ballet and plastic arts. The last of these
was concerned with plastic in the sense of being
malleable rather than literally being made from
plastic and was dedicated to three-dimensional
works of art such as sculptures. Porro was
personally in charge of this building.
Construction began in 1961 on the former
grounds of the Havana Country Club, but work
was halted in 1965 as the Cuban government
found itself increasingly under the influence of
the USSR. The Ministry of Construction was now
working under functionalist principles imposed CLASH OF FORMS
The design of the National School of Plastic
by the Soviet Union and considered the complex
to be bourgeois, expensive and impractical, and IMPORT BAN Arts, as well as the other four buildings of
the National Schools of Art, was intended
its designers to be cultural elitists. Only two of In 1960 the United States placed an embargo on Cuba and
as a direct refutation of Western ‘capitalist
the project had to rely solely on locally sourced bricks,
the buildings had been completed (the School of terracotta and other materials. But this had its advantages
architecture’. Steel and glass structures, the
Plastic Arts and the School of Modern Dance), with mainstay of modern Western design, were
because these Cuban materials were cheaper and inspired
functional and formal, but the National
the other three in varying states of development. the complex’s innovative design (although it was never
Schools of Art complex was designed to meld
Since 2000 a number of attempts have been made completed). The US embargo remains in place to this day.
with the landscape and be more expressive.
to keep the site protected and potentially finish the
original school complex design.

14
 Images source: wiki/Tom/CC BY-SA
2.0 THE CUBAN
CONTROVERSIAL WATER FEATURE
REVOLUTION
The courtyard of the School of Plastic Arts has
a small pond and water feature, shaped like a
papaya. The fruit is native to Central America
and very popular in the Caribbean islands – and
is also a slang term in Cuba for female genitalia.
Given the other female symbolism in the school’s
design, this appears to be an intentional reference.
The Communist Party definitely thought so: they
deemed it obscene and ordered the fountain closed.

PLACE OF LEARNING
The Cuban government pulled funding
for the National Schools of Art before
they were all completed, but the
complex was still used for education,
even in some of the incomplete
buildings. Weather damage and a lack
of maintenance soon rendered the
complex unusable, however.

SENSE AND SENSUALITY?

The domes of the School of Plastic Arts
resemble breasts, and this was intentional.
As well as drawing from African village
structures for the building layout, Porro was
inspired by the Yoruba goddess of fertility,
Òşun, who originated in West Africa, and by
Gaia, the Greek goddess of the Earth. The
breast-like domes are a direct nod to this, as
is the papaya sculpture in the courtyard.
LOCATION, LOCATION
The site of the National Schools of
Art was primarily chosen due to the
natural beauty of the grounds, which
before the revolution had been part
of the Havana Country Club. Giving
these lands over to free education

RECONSTRUCTION was considered a symbolic gesture of

communist ideals. To support this,
After the complex was abandoned in 1965 the each of the five school structures was
incomplete buildings became overgrown and the site built around the outer edges of the
became a focal point for protesters, squatters and wild former golf course to allow the central
animals. In 1997 the Cuban government declared the grass area to remain untouched.
grounds a ‘protected zone’ and efforts to restore the
site began in 2000, with the original architects Porro,
Gottardi and Garatti invited back to complete the
project. In 2011 it was declared a National Monument
by the Cuban government but the site is still considered
at risk and has yet to be completed.
2x Insets: © Shutterstock
Illustration: Adrian Mann

15
 Anatomy
BERET

CUBAN
Headwear seems to have been pretty varied
among the guerrilla fighters, ranging from
army caps (something Castro was often seen
wearing) to large sun hats. The most iconic
item of clothing was the black beret, made
famous by Che Guevara’s iconic portrait.

GUERRILLA
Cuba
The beret became a common symbol of
revolutionary movements as a result.

1956-59
ARMBAND
The rebel cause led by Fidel
FIREARMS Castro was known as the 26th
of July Movement, named after
Many of the weapons used
an attempted attack on an army
by the guerrillas would’ve
barracks on this date in 1953 by
been captured from Cuban
Castro. From 1955 he formed
government forces or
his guerrilla force in Mexico
smuggled over by friendly
and it became common for the
parties. At first the Cuban
revolutionary fighters to wear a
government was getting its
black and red armband featuring
weapons from the US, but
26 July in some form.
an embargo from 1958 saw
a switch to European arms.
Rifles such as the Fusil
Automatique Leger (FAL)
became synonymous with
the conflict.

GREEN FATIGUES
The simple olive-green fatigues of Castro’s
guerrilla movement were merely a matter
of convenience and expense, but became
something more symbolic following the
TRAVELLING LIGHT toppling of Batista. Castro and Guevara
continued to wear the fatigues to
The Cuban guerrilla fighters differentiate themselves from the tailored
were usually lightly armed, politicians of Cuba’s past and signal their
without helmets or body continued commitment to the revolution.
armour. Their base of operations
in their war on dictator
Fulgencio Batista was in the
Sierra Maestra mountains, so
travelling light was essential
in this difficult terrain. In the
mountains they held back the
Cuban Army and gradually
gained more public support
for their uprising.
ICONIC LOOK
The uniforms of the Cuban guerillas took
on an iconic status as their images began
appearing in the US press. With their green
MEN AND WOMEN fatigues, long hair and unkempt beards,
While most of the famous images of the leadership of the revolution came to
Cuban fighters show men, there were be known as Los Barbados, ‘The Bearded
lots of women involved in the revolution Ones’. In The New York Times author and
too. Due to the oppressive conditions journalist Jon Lee Anderson described
women suffered in Cuba, many turned them as “the first hippies”.
to Fidel Castro, who promised to open
up work opportunities to women. Many
Illustration: Kevin McGivern

women took up arms and joined their

male counterparts in the mountains to
fight the Batista regime.

16
 THE CUBAN
REVOLUTION
Historical Treasures

BATISTA’S GOLDEN PHONE

A gift from an American-owned cooperation, this gilded
telephone came to symbolise the corruption of Batista’s regime
Cuba, 1957

V isitors to Fulgencio Batista’s

former presidential palace
in Havana will find a curious
object among the plush surroundings: a
golden telephone. Despite its now aged
needs of its people in order to aid the USA
and increase the dictator’s personal fortune,
gave its permission to ITT and the huge
increase went ahead.
Shortly afterwards, ITT presented
presentation. He was seen to have too close
a relationship with the Batista regime and
was also found to be concealing information
from Washington, DC. Gardner was also
accused of ignoring the many human rights
and battered appearance, this phone has the phone to Batista in the presence of abuses committed by the Batista regime as
a fascinating history and is an icon of American Ambassador Arthur Gardner. it suppressed dissent.
the corruption at the heart of Batista’s The presentation occurred the day after The golden telephone came to symbolise
authoritarian regime. a failed assassination attempt on Batista not only the corruption at the heart of the
Gifted to the dictator in 1957, the phone by a group of students who had managed Batista regime but also its close relationship
was a thank-you present after Batista to storm the presidential palace. According with the United States. Although some
granted a controversial rate increase of 20 to the memoirs of Philip W Bonsal, the sources state that it was auctioned off
percent to the Cuban Telephone Company. United States Ambassador to Cuba between shortly after the Fidel Castro’s revolution,
Despite its name, the company was actually February 1959 and October 1960, during the it is now among the collections of the
a subsidiary of International Telephone & presentation “blood still stained the walls Havana Museum of the Revolution. This
Telegraph (ITT), a US-owned corporation. and floors of the palace.” must-visit museum is housed in what
The rate increase outraged the Cuban public Gardner was forced to resign from his was once Batista’s presidential palace and
but Batista, whose regime disregarded the position as ambassador shortly after the preserves some of its opulence.

FILM PROP
GOLD OR GOLD PLATED? The phone features in The
Although some sources claimed Godfather Part II. As in
that the telephone is made out of reality, Batista receives it
solid gold, it is in fact gold-plated. as a gift from a telephone
Some of the gold leaf has flaked company – the fictional
off over the years. United Telephone &
Telegraph. The Mafia’s
presence at the meeting
Cuban dictator Fulgencio demonstrates the
Batista was overthrown corruption of the regime.
by Fidel Castro in 1959

ROTARY PHONE
The phone is rotary-
style – button phones
would not become
widespread until the
early 1960s. It was
just one example
of Batista’s wealth,
estimated at around

EXCLUSIVE CLUB
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

$300 million.

Batista was not alone in owning

such a luxurious telephone. In
1930 Pope Pius XI received a
golden phone, which like Batista’s
was gifted to him by International
Telephone & Telegraph.

17
 Hall of Fame

CUBAN REVOLUTIONARIES
Ten of the men and women who helped topple Batista’s
regime and pave the way for the communist regime

JUAN ALMEIDA BOSQUE

CUBAN, 17 FEBRUARY 1927 – 11 SEPTEMBER 2009 Raúl Castro
Cuban
Juan Almeida Bosque was raised in poverty
in Cuba. After Batista’s coup in 1952 he was
enraged and concerned about the effect on
the working people. He was part of Castro’s
3 June 1931 – Present
forces from the very beginning, joining
Raúl Castro was the youngest of
the attack on the Moncada
the three Castro brothers. During

Camilo
barracks. Bosque remained
the revolution he supported Fidel,
a loyal soldier of the revolution,

Cienfuegos
participating in the raid on the
continuing to serve in the central
Moncada barracks and serving as
government until his death in
a commander in the 26th of July
Cuban 2009. He was also known as an
author and composer.
Movement. Raúl accepted the position

6 February 1932
of president in 2008 when Fidel
stepped down due to continuing
– 28 October 1959 health problems. During his rule,
HUBER MATOS
CUBAN, 26 NOVEMBER 1918
Raúl became known for introducing
a number of liberal reforms, including
Camilo Cienfuegos became committed to
the revolution after he joined a student – 27 FEBRUARY 2014 encouraging private enterprise and
protest that was attacked by Fulgencio At one point Matos was a top foreign investment. He also oversaw
Batista’s men. A skilled and fierce fighter, military commander in the the unprecedented
he was one of the key members of Fidel rebellion, but by October 1959 normalising of
Castro’s forces and was incredibly popular he had become concerned by the growing relations with the
among Cubans who wanted freedom. On communist sentiment in the revolutionary US. He retired
28 October 1959 Cienfuegos vanished while government. When he attempted to in 2018, having
on board a plane travelling to Havana. resign, Castro had him arrested. Matos established
It was suspected that he might have was sentenced to 20 years imprisonment, a limit of two
fallen foul of Fidel Castro but, prior to his finally being released on 21 October 1979. five-year terms
execution, Che Guevara was interrogated In jail he was tortured, starved and kept in for presidents.
and according to CIA documents it’s likely solitary confinement.
Cienfuegos’ death was an accident.
Among his
reforms, Raúl

HAYDÉE SANTAMARÍA VILMA ESPÍN

CUBAN, 7 APRIL 1930 – 18 JUNE 2007
allowed Cubans
to purchase mobile
phones, laptops and
CUBAN, 30 DECEMBER 1932 – 28 JULY 1980 Espín met the Castro brothers Fidel and Raúl in travel more freely
Haydée Santamaría and her brother Abel were Mexico in 1956 and soon became a dedicated abroad.
key figures in the early days of the Cuban member of the revolution. With the victory of the
revolution and were involved in the rebels’ pro-revolutionary forces
failed attack on the Moncada barracks. Abel in 1959, Espín founded
was tortured and killed by Batista’s regime and the Federation of
Haydée was imprisoned. Cuban Women in 1960.
During this time her fiance After the new regime
Boris, who had also been was founded she also
arrested, was killed. Upon became the wife of
her release she continued to Raúl Castro, earning
work with the 26th of July her the nickname the
Movement and she remained First Lady of Cuba,
an important figure in post- and she took on many
revolutionary Cuba until her of the duties that such
death in 1980. a position required.

18
 THE CUBAN
REVOLUTION

Fidel Castro
Fidel Castro was
known to have an
obsessive interest
Cuban in dairy products.

13 August 1926
– 25 November 2016
Fidel Castro became interested in politics
when he began to study law at the
University of Havana in 1945. Following
graduation, he intended to stand for the
Cuban People’s Party but Batista’s coup put
a stop to such plans. Castro now made it
his mission to overthrow the dictator and
began establishing a fighting force. Even
after his first attempt failed and he left for
Mexico, Castro refused to give in. Following
victory in 1959, Castro became leader of

All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

the new socialist Cuba and soon began to
oppress any dissent against his regime.
Castro remained in power until 2008, when
health problems caused him to hand over the
reins to his brother Raúl.

FRANK PAIS Che Guevara

CUBAN Argentinian
7 DECEMBER 1934 – 30 JULY 1957
While his fellow rebels 14 June 1928 – 9 October 1967
continued their war in the
mountains, Frank Pais While studying at medical school, Ernesto ‘Che’ Guevara took an
was an essential figure extended sabbatical to travel with a friend. As they journeyed
in organising street-level throughout South America, Guevara witnessed much poverty and
resistance to the Batista distress. Later, he watched as Jacobo Arbenz’s regime in Guatemala
regime. He was particularly was toppled at the behest of the United States. Soon Guevara began
influential in his hometown to formulate a concept for global socialist revolution. Meeting the
of Santiago de Cuba, where Castro brothers in Mexico in 1956, he immediately made himself

Celia Sanchez
he helped coordinate indispensable to the 26th July Movement. Following the success of
workers. Arrested by police, the Cuban revolution he became disillusioned
with Castro’s regime and in 1966
Pais was shot dead without
trial. When the workers
Cuban, 9 May 1920 travelled to Bolivia in an attempt to
of Santiago heard of his – 11 Jan 1980 begin another uprising. He was
captured and executed.
execution they staged a
spontaneous general strike. Celia Sanchez was a key figure in the
A statue in his honour now Cuban revolution, helping to plan and
stands in Santiago. organise many of its vital activities
in its fight against the regime. Among
her achievements were organising the
Granma yacht’s landing, arranging
supplies to be smuggled into the
rebel base in the Sierra Maestra In 1967
Jim Fitzpatrick
mountains, and frequently recruiting
created a print from
new fighters to the cause. Following a photo of Che Guevara
their victory in 1959, Sanchez taken by Alberto Korda. In
continued to work closely with Castro. the decades since it has
Often speculation was drawn as to the featured on posters,
nature of their relationship but it is T-shirts and many
other items.
more than likely that their friendship
was a platonic one, although some
sources claim otherwise.

19
 Q&A

LIFE IN CUBA’S AGE

OF REVOLUTION
Antoni Kapcia discusses the experience of
Cubans during this period of upheaval

What were conditions like in Cuba many rebels killed or executed and few
Antoni Kapcia is emeritus
before Fulgencio Batista’s coup? escaping. 50 survivors were arrested, tried
professor of Spanish,
Socially, Cuba was a visibly unequal and sentenced to long prison terms. Two Portuguese and Latin
society, with Havana (especially) home years later, Batista felt sure enough of the American Studies at the
to a moneyed white elite and an urban lack of opposition and his own supposed University of Nottingham,
(mostly white) middle class, whose popularity to declare an amnesty, which specialising in modern
Cuba. He was director of
wealth and lifestyle were comparable then saw the Moncada rebels freed, the Centre for Research
to any US city, but also with extreme founding the 26 July Movement [M-26-7] on Cuba from 2004
poverty across the country, especially and leaving for exile in Mexico to prepare to 2020 and his books
stark in rural areas and the margins of for a rebel expedition by the end of 1956. include Havana: The
Making of Cuban Culture
the cities. So, statistically Cuba was
(2005) and Leadership in
‘developed’ (number of TV sets, cars, How did Fidel Castro emerge from this the Cuban Revolution: The
doctors etc) but those stats hid a reality movement as a leading figure standing Unseen Story (2014).
of deep divisions. against Batista?
Before 1952, Fidel had already been
How did things change in Cuba under a prominent student activist, before
Batista’s dictatorship? becoming a radical lawyer and Ortodoxo
A sense of resignation and demoralisation member. However, it was the Moncada
were seen when Batista’s 1952 coup attack that launched a much greater
produced hardly any active response public profile, with widespread repulsion
from most of the political parties, with at Batista’s brutal reaction and sympathy
Batista’s widespread repression forcing for the rebels, much as Castro had
the Cuban Communist Party underground hoped on 26 July. Therefore, after his
and leading politicians to flee into exile. promised expedition back to Cuba in
The only pockets of resistance came from early December 1956 (82 rebels landing
Havana students, younger Cubans and near the Sierra on the yacht Granma),
the new anti-corruption and nationalist which resulted in a bloody ambush by
Ortodoxo Party (to which Fidel Castro Batista’s forces, only survived by 21 who
belonged). In 1953, a small group of escaped into the Sierra Maestra, his
party members, led by Castro, plotted profile grew. This was bolstered when
and enacted two spectacular attacks on American journalists reported publicly
Headshot: Courtesy of Antoni Kapcia

military barracks in Santiago de Cuba on their interviews with Fidel in the

(the Moncada garrison) and Bayamo on Sierra and on the small but growing
26 July, designed to seize weapons for guerrilla group around him, and his RIGHT
a guerrilla campaign in the nearby Sierra brother Raúl and the newest recruit, Batista’s overthrow
was met with joyous
Maestra mountains as a catalyst for Ernesto ‘Che’ Guevara. Batista had helped celebration by many in
popular reaction. The attacks failed, with that profile by announcing Fidel’s death the country

20
 THE CUBAN
REVOLUTION
before the news of his survival emerged.
Thereafter, the emerging evidence of the
small successes and prolonged survival of
a growing rebel force (eventually around
400) enhanced his popularity, especially
as the Movement’s actions in Cuba’s cities
RIGHT Former
led to a more widespread and random prisoners celebrate
repression by Batista. their release and the
victory of Castro’s
rebel movement
Was there much popular support for
Castro and his 26th of July Movement BELOW Literacy
rates rocketed under
in Cuba? Castro’s regime
By mid-1958, public opinion had shifted
from inertia and resignation in 1952
to enthusiastic support for what the
rebels represented, contrasting Batista’s
repression and Cuba’s inequalities with
the rebels’ willingness to take a stand and
resist and with their moralistic stance on
corruption and a more equal Cuba. The
urban Movement grew to some 3,000 by
late 1958, as the sole respected opposition
to the regime that seemed to more and
more Cubans to represent the many ills
that had plagued their country since
independence [in 1902].

Ǖ ˆäìßÑǘäƥŶźƥ5ñÃąƥ?ÑüžÉžÊìƥÑϞߞšƥˆÊƥ
ˆìì߈”ì±üžƵƥšžìžßɱʞšƥˆÃìžßʈì±üžǖ
How did the M-26-7 forces manage to the promises made by Fidel in 1953 (in
overcome the government? a famous defence speech at the trial of
Basically, the Movement took advantage the Moncada rebels), which became the
of the political vacuum that existed by Movement’s first manifesto, and, more
offering a genuine alternative that seemed importantly, many of the reforms promised
attractive, determined and different, and by the 1940 Constitution, were enacted.
seemed to promise a better and more Those changes included: a moderate land
genuinely independent Cuba. By late 1958, reform (redistributing large landholdings to
‘the revolution’ had developed into a much the landless), cutting and then abolishing
broader alliance for the ‘new Cuba’. In other all rents, providing subsidies for and
words, they won the ideological argument eventually ending payments for public
with a counter to the hegemony of a divisive transport, a successful literacy campaign
version of capitalism and a somewhat in 1961 (reducing illiteracy from 23
shameful dependence on a United States percent to three percent), nationalisation
that never seemed to understand Cuba. In of public services, utilities, health and
addition, Batista’s forces became increasingly education, and so on. Cubans’ lives
demoralised by the rebels’ success and by changed fundamentally and there was
the greater military skills and tactics that substantial income redistribution either
the rebels had developed. The final factor directly or indirectly. That of course also
came towards the end of 1958 when the US meant lessening the income of landlords
A SHORT government stopped supplying arms and and ending private education, which
HISTORY OF aeroplanes to Batista’s forces because of the helped generate a substantial emigration

REVOLUTIONARY
embarrassment caused by his repression. of the middle class, seeing their economic
All images: © Getty Images

status and power reduced. Since most (over

CUBA Did material conditions for Cubans 80 percent) of the emigrants in the first
BY ANTONI KAPCIA IS OUT change much following Castro’s victory? decade were white, more redistribution
Very much so, and very rapidly. In the effectively came for the poor and especially
NOW FROM BLOOMSBURY
first three years (until 1961) almost all of the non-white majority.
ACADEMIC
21
 Places to Explore

CUBAN REVOLUTIONARY SITES

Here are Ēve cities and sites where you can experience
Ērsthand the impact of Fidel Castro’s rebellion
1 THE SIERRA MAESTRA
GRANMA, SANTIAGO DE CUBA PROVINCES
The largest mountain range in Cuba, the Sierra Maestra 4
is where Fidel Castro and his fellow revolutionaries did
battle with the forces of Fulgencio Batista using guerrilla 2
tactics. In 1958 Batista launched Operation Verano, in 3
which his men ventured into the mountains in an attempt
to eradicate the rebels. The operation failed and Castro
was able to launch his own offensive shortly afterwards.
The Comandancia de la Plata, the original base from
which Castro’s rebel forces operated, can still be seen in
1 5
the mountains. The 16 cabins and huts include a kitchen,
a radio shack and ‘Casa de Fidel’ – where Castro himself
stayed while hiding in the mountains.
Due to its remote, mountainous location, the
Comandancia de la Plata can only be reached with a guide
and it is recommended that visitors go with an established
tourist group. For our more adventurous readers, many
hiking tours to the Sierra Maestra are offered to tourists.
The Che Guevara memorial
Cubans fought much of their
guerrilla war in the Sierra Maestra
2 SANTA CLARA complex contains his remains

VILLA CLARA
Santa Clara dates back to the 17th
century, when it was a safe refuge
for the inhabitants of Remedios,
a coastal community that was
frequently raided by bands of
pirates. But Santa Clara also
played a vital role in the history of
the revolution.
In December of 1958, revolutionaries under the command of Che Guevara
captured an armoured train full of weapons and supplies before going on to capture
Santa Clara itself. Guevara is said to have fought the battle with his right arm in
a sling after falling from a parapet.
Visitors to Santa Clara
The kitchen at Castro’s
command post will want to ensure they
visit the mausoleum
complex of Che Guevara.
As well as containing the
remains of the famous
revolutionary, the
mausoleum also houses
the remains of those
combatants who were
killed alongside him in
Bolivia in 1967. Their
remains were discovered
in an unmarked grave 30
years later and were re- Santa Clara was founded in
1689 as a refuge from pirates
interred in Santa Clara.

22
 THE CUBAN
REVOLUTION

5 SANTIAGO DE CUBA
In 1961 the bay
SANTIAGO DE CUBA
witnessed a disastrous Santiago de Cuba is located on the
CIA-backed invasion southeast of the island, surrounded by
the mountains of the Sierra Maestra and
the sea. Cuba’s second-largest city, it
was a key battleground in the Spanish-
American war of 1898. The city is also
culturally important, with a vibrant music
industry that has played a prominent role
in many Cuban musical genres.
As well as its rich history both
culturally and historically, the city also
played a crucial role in the revolution.
Revolutionary hero Frank Pais was
born in Santiago de Cuba and remained
3 BAY OF PIGS in the city, organising a movement of
underground resistance. A statue in his

MATANZAS honour can be found overlooking the bay.

Pais’ grave can be found in the
On 17 April 1961, 1,400 Cuban exiles charged the crystal clear waters can be found coral reefs, cemeterio de Santa Ifigenia, alongside
across the beaches of the Bay of Pigs on Cuba’s caves (known as ‘cassimbas’, a form of flooded that of Fidel Castro himself. Santiago
southwestern coast. The attack, funded and cave) and a shipwreck. The latter is of particular de Cuba is also the place where Castro
arranged by the United States government, was interest to historians as it is the Rio Escondio, a declared victory in 1959, standing upon
an attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro’s regime. cargo ship sunk during the invasion. the balcony of the City Hall.
But the assault was a disaster and those who The small Museo de Playa Girón, located But the must-visit revolutionary site
were not slaughtered were quickly captured – down the coast, tells the story of the aborted in Santiago de Cuba is the Moncada
the last prisoners were not freed until July 1965. Bay of Pigs assault. Inside is a memorial to those barracks. It houses a museum that tells
The Bay of Pigs was one of the most notorious killed, while outside some of the vehicles and the story of the attack and displays
episodes in both Cuba’s history and the Cold aircraft used in the attack are on display. a number of artefacts, including a
War, and the site is a must-visit. While it’s often cited that it was the photographic display of the 61 casualties
While the bay is of obvious historical interest, American-backed invasion that earned the the rebels suffered during the failed
there is much more to enjoy besides. It is bay its unusual name, there is another much assault. The exterior of the barracks is
renowned for its natural beauty and many of the more likely origin to its title. The bay’s name just as striking – the bullet holes, which
surrounding forests and swamps are designated in Spanish, Cochino, translates as ‘pig’ also were filled in many years ago, have been
national parks. Most noteworthy, however, is refers to a species of triggerfish that lives in the painstakingly recreated.
the diving that can be done in the area. Within surrounding waters.

Santiago de Cuba is
Cuba’s second-largest city
Havana is packed with sites
linked to the revolution 4 HAVANA
LA HABANA PROVINCE
The Cuban capital has a number of must-visit
sites for tourists looking to learn more about the
revolution. The Museum of the Revolution is
housed in what was once Batista’s palace, which
was also used by many of his forebears. Visitors
to the museum will also be able to see the
Granma yacht, which the Castro brothers used in
their return to Cuba in 1956. The Moncada barracks was the
The Hilton hotel was where Castro set up site of Castro’s initial attack
his base when he first marched into the city in 1958, while Revolution Square, originally
named Plaza Civica, witnessed addresses and public rallies by the Cuban leader for years
after he took control. The plaza was originally constructed as a monument to Cuban
national hero José Martí.
The square has become symbolic of the revolution and in the decades since has
All images: © Alamy

continued to hold celebrations and ceremonies related to it. Upon the death of Fidel Castro
in 2016, the Cuban government announced a period of nine days of mourning. Thousands
of Cubans went to the square to commemorate their leader.

23
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 How an upstart noble family emerged from
the Wars of the Roses to rule England
Written by Susan Abernethy

he life of Margaret Beaufort epitomises

the medieval concept of the Wheel of
Fortune, the capricious nature of Fate,
with its violent tenor of life. The Wars of
the Roses (1455–85) had a disastrous effect
on many an English noble, perhaps none more
so than Margaret. But with her formidable and
adaptable personality, along with her consummate
diplomatic skills, she survived the turns of the
Wheel long enough to see her son Henry Tudor
ascend to the English throne and establish one of
the world’s most famous royal dynasties.
Illustration by: Kevin McGivern

LANCASTER VS YORK
At the foundation of the Wars of the Roses was
a family conflict originating with the many
children of King Edward III. It would come down

26
27
 to the descendants of his sons Edmund of
Langley, the 1st Duke of York; and John of
Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. When Gaunt’s
son Henry Bolingbroke deposed his
cousin King Richard II from the throne, he
became the first Lancastrian king, Henry
IV. The House of Lancaster ruled until the
ill-fated reign of Henry VI, who suffered
from an inherited mental illness.
Gaunt also had several children, who
took the surname of Beaufort, with
his mistress, Katherine Swynford. The
Lancastrian duke later married Swynford
and had their children legitimised. All
the legitimate Lancastrian families
either passed away or had no surviving
children, leaving only the Beaufort
descendants. Margaret Beaufort was a
great-granddaughter of Gaunt, the last
living male-line survivor, and heiress of an
exceedingly valuable patrimony. Elizabeth
Norton, Margaret’s biographer, states
that Margaret’s claim to the throne was
widely known and acknowledged by her
contemporaries and she was very proud of
her royal status.
Richard, 3rd Duke of York, and later his
son, Edward, Earl of March, pressed their
claim to the throne after Henry VI’s reign
devolved into chaos, resulting in a years-
long cycle of battles. Add into the mix, the
Tudors. Once Henry VI’s mother Queen
Catherine of Valois became a widow, she
married Owen Tudor, a Welsh squire.
Henry VI ennobled their two eldest sons,
Jasper and Edmund, staunch Lancastrian
supporters, giving them the earldoms
of Bedford and Richmond respectively.
Edmund Tudor married Margaret Beaufort
in November 1455.
In a decidedly controversial move, in
order to gain possession of Margaret’s
considerable domains and income, ABOVE Illuminated
Edmund consummated the marriage image of the
Wheel of Fortune,
when she was 12 years old. Following the depicting Fortune
death of her husband a year later, Margaret herself seated
was seven months pregnant and in dire behind the Wheel
straits. Under the guardianship of her RIGHT 15th century
brother-in-law Jasper at Pembroke Castle, image of the Yorkist
King Edward IV of
she survived a difficult childbirth. Henry England and his
Tudor was born. brother Richard,
Duke of Gloucester

HENRY’S EARLY YEARS

Historical sources for the first 14 years
of Henry’s life are obscure. As an infant,
he probably lived with his mother at
Pembroke. The Battle of Towton took
place in September 1461 and resulted in
the fall of the Lancastrian monarchy and
the rise of the Yorkist king, Edward IV.
The Lancastrian castle of Pembroke came
under siege by the Yorkist noble William
Herbert and surrendered on 30 September,

28
 Rise of the Tudors

“MARGARET BEAUFORT’S CLAIM TO THE THRONE LEFT Edward

MATRIARCH OF
THE TUDORS
IV battled for

WAS WIDELY KNOWN AND ACKNOWLEDGED the Yorkist cause

BY HER CONTEMPORARIES” BELOW-LEFT

Elizabeth Woodville’s
marriage to Edward The many marriages of
proved controversial Lady Margaret Beaufort were
forever altering the prospects and to enter negotiations. But in the spring of made for political purposes
circumstances of the young Henry Tudor. 1469, the king’s former collaborator and
In February 1462, Lord Herbert bought mentor Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick Margaret Beaufort, great-granddaughter
Henry’s guardianship and (known as the ‘Kingmaker’), of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, was
marriage rights for £1,000, along with the king’s brother born in 1443, the daughter of Margaret
and by August, the new George, started a rebellion Beauchamp of Bletsoe and John Beaufort,
regime stripped Henry against Edward’s 1st Duke of Somerset. When Margaret was
of the Richmond government. In July six years old, the Earl of Suffolk arranged
honour he inherited 1469, the Battle of for her to marry his eight-year-old son John
from his father. Edgcote claimed de la Pole. They were only children and
Jasper also Lord Herbert’s when Suffolk was disgraced a year later,
forfeited his life, yet Henry the marriage was annulled. Margaret never
earldom of remained at referred to de la Pole as her husband.
Pembroke. Raglan until Edmund Tudor and Margaret were married
Edward IV’s Henry VI’s in 1455. He died in November 1456, before
brother, October 1470 his son Henry Tudor was born in January
Richard, Duke restoration to 1457. Margaret, in need of protection,
of Gloucester, the throne again married Henry Stafford, son of the Duke of
received the changed his Buckingham, in 1458.
Richmond and circumstances. Stafford died of wounds suffered in the
Pembroke lands. Jasper took Battle of Barnet in April 1471 while fighting
A later mandate possession of Henry, on the Yorkist side. Margaret married her
gave the Richmond and he was able to third and final husband, Thomas Stanley,
patrimony to the king’s enjoy the company of his 1st Earl of Derby, in 1472. Thomas Stanley
brother George, Duke of mother. But the good times and his brother William were staunch
Clarence. There is no evidence did not last long as Edward, supporters of the Yorkist kings and
the Duke of Gloucester ever took who had fled to the Continent, benefited greatly, gaining lands, income
possession of the Pembroke lands. returned with an army to gain back his and offices. Both men were present at
Living mostly in the Herbert stronghold throne. Following the fateful Battle of the Battle of Bosworth. Thomas held back
of Raglan Castle under the aegis of Tewkesbury in 1471, Edward IV regained with his men, but the battle would turn to
William Herbert and his wife his kingship. Henry VI died in the Henry Tudor’s favour when William Stanley
Anne, Henry received an Tower of London soon after. joined his side in the fight. Thomas Stanley
education and military Jasper and Henry fled purportedly found Richard III’s crown
training appropriate to from Tenby in Wales, in a bush on the field and put it on the
his rank. Discussions intending to go to victorious Henry Tudor’s head.
ensued regarding France. Bad weather
the marriage of in the Channel
Henry to Herbert’s forced them off
daughter Maud. course, causing
The young man them to land in
impressed his Brittany, where
mentors with they remained in
his intelligence exile for 14 years.
and quick
capacity for THE TUDORS
learning. He IN EXILE
seemed likely The Breton
to marry into a duke, Francis II,
prominent Yorkist realised the value
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

family and possibly of the refugees

pursue a court career and welcomed the
under Edward IV. In 1468, two men, giving them
the king granted Herbert the shelter. Evidence suggests
earldom of Pembroke. Henry and Jasper lived in relative
Margaret, expecting the recovery of her comfort and freedom in Brittany, despite
son’s guardianship, the restoration of his being a financial burden on the duke.
lands and the title of Richmond, chose Intermittently, over the next 14 years,

29
 HENRY’S SHOT
OF BOURBON
Henry Tudor would not have
been successful in his enterprise
without Anne de Beaujeu
Her father, King Louis XI of France,
described Anne de Beaujeu as the least
foolish of her sex in the kingdom, which
contained no wise ones. She inherited a
great deal of intelligence from her father
and had a ten-year apprenticeship under
him, studying his political methods. Known
as Madame la Grande, she married a
younger son of the Duke of Bourbon, Pierre
de Beaujeu. When King Louis died in 1483,
leaving his minor son and heir Charles VIII
to succeed him, he never named Anne as
official regent, but the French court and
foreign emissaries fully recognised her as
the true ruler of France.
During the eight years she controlled
the government, she adroitly guided the
country through a series of political crises “HENRY TUDOR SEEMED LIKELY TO MARRY
that threatened France both internally
and externally. Anne’s handling of these INTO A PROMINENT YORKIST FAMILY AND POSSIBLY
events as a young woman in her twenties
is nothing short of astonishing. She could
PURSUE A COURT CAREER UNDER EDWARD IV”
assess a situation and either pre-empt it or
react appropriately, rarely making a wrong the French King Louis XI and King christening. By the summer, Edward
decision. Her rule lasted until her brother Edward IV, as well as his successor Richard agreed Henry could get a share of
declared his independence and she retired III, tried to strike a bargain with the duke Margaret’s lands worth £400 per annum
to her estates in the Duchy of Bourbon. to get custody of Henry and Jasper. But on the condition he returned to England.
When she was eased out of power after the Francis made sure they were safe and took After several negotiating sessions, the
death of her brother, she left the country none of the offers. king appeared to be amenable to the idea
more stable than when she started her rule, In the meantime, according to Norton, of Henry marrying his eldest daughter,
an unusual feat for a regency. Anne had Margaret worked tirelessly to secure Elizabeth of York. The king and many
integrity and moral stature to complement Henry’s rehabilitation and tried to others were weary of the civil strife and
her political skills. As her father stated, she persuade King Edward there were ultimately recognised the benefit of
was a woman who commanded admiration. advantages to her son returning to bringing Henry Tudor into the Yorkist
England. Her objectives included camp. By the spring of 1483, a draft pardon
obtaining a pardon for Henry, to of Henry, along with the terms of his
have his father’s patrimony and return, existed. However, King
title of Earl of Richmond restored Edward’s unexpected death
to him, to arrange for Henry to have on 9 April 1483 prevented the
some of the land and income of ratification of the deal.
her own mother bestowed on him King Edward’s brother Richard, Duke
and for him to inherit Margaret’s of Gloucester, came to London ostensibly
domains on her demise. with the mandate to become Lord
Margaret worked her way into Protector for his nephew, King Edward
the favour of the Yorkist king, V. In an astonishing turn of events, after
maintaining friendly relations some manoeuvring, Richard had himself
with Edward’s queen, Elizabeth proclaimed king by Parliament, using
Woodville. She attended Elizabeth methods that were not approved of by
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

and her daughters during the many of the nobility. Richard was crowned
reburial of Edward’s father and brother King Richard III on 6 July. King Richard
in the church of Fotheringhay. Margaret imprisoned Edward V and his brother,
also entertained the king at her home Richard, Duke of York, in the Tower of
during his reign. In 1482 she held the London and they were never
king’s youngest daughter, seen again.
Bridget, during her

30
 Rise of the Tudors

LEFT Richard III Vannes. Yet Duke Francis agreed to pay the papal court. This shows he believed
ascended the throne
after his nephews
A DARING ESCAPE TO FRANCE out over 5,600 livres to his impoverished Tudor was a threat. Duke Francis had
were pronounced Some agreed with the situation, but many English guests. Henry, encouraged by become very ill and was increasingly
illegitimate found this state of affairs unsatisfactory. It the newly arrived exiles, swore an of unsound mind. The duke’s
BELOW-LEFT is difficult to say when people considered oath to marry Elizabeth of chancellor, Pierre Landais,
Pierre Landais, Henry Tudor as an alternative to Richard York in Vannes cathedral received the messengers
Breton politician and
advisor to Francis II,
III as king, but certainly by the autumn at Christmas. from King Richard;
Duke of Brittany. He rebellion began in certain quarters and Following this Landais needed allies,
nearly surrendered many left England to join Henry in France. scene, according as he remained
Henry and Jasper
Tudor to King The Duke of Buckingham rose in revolt to the Tudor unpopular with the
Richard III against Richard III in October 1483. The historian Polydore Breton nobility,
Dowager Queen Elizabeth Woodville, as Virgil, those who resented his
well as Margaret Beaufort, at the very least, present swore a influence over
assented to the rebellion, and at most, had further oath to the duke.
a hand in planning it. recognise Henry The wily old
Where Margaret had trusted Edward IV as king. Ralph French King
in negotiating Henry’s return, she probably A Griffiths and Louis XI died in
feared Richard III’s treachery. Because Roger S Thomas, August 1483. His
of the king’s suspicions of Margaret, he in The Making admiration of the
placed her under a kind of house arrest. of the Tudor political skills of
Despite her isolation in the north, her loyal Dynasty, state it his eldest daughter,
servants enabled her to maintain contact is unclear exactly Anne de Beaujeu,
with her son. Her current husband turned when Margaret had led him to give her
a blind eye to Margaret’s activities and did transformed her plans and her husband Pierre
RIGHT Elizabeth of
York, eldest daughter not restrain her. from rehabilitating her physical custody of his
of the King Edward Henry had every intention of joining son’s patrimony to plotting for minor son, King Charles VIII,
IV and the first
queen consort of the
the Duke of Buckingham and the rebels his accession, but they believe “the along with other important offices
Tudor dynasty as the with an invasion, and King Richard now disappearance of the princes was probably and duties. Never officially given the title
wife of Henry VII had excellent reasons to want to capture a crucial factor in making up her mind.” of regent, Anne ruled unquestionably as
BELOW Henry is him and bring him back to England. After Richard stepped up his efforts, doing if she had all the rights and privileges
believed to have Buckingham’s rebellion, the number of everything in his power to negotiate of that designation, pulling the strings
been outnumbered
at the Battle of exiles in Brittany increased exponentially the surrender of Henry Tudor, including of government through her congenial
Boswroth Field and about 400 of them were living in sending diplomats to Brittany, France and husband, who served as president of the

31
 regency council. Louis, Duke of Orleans, off annexation by France. In return, of alms at Vannes Cathedral. Accounts
the current heir to the French throne, Landais promised to arrange for the also mention the appearance of Sir James
believed he deserved the regency and capture and extradition of Henry Tyrell, master of the horse for King
resented Anne and Pierre. and Jasper from Brittany. Richard Richard, who also gave alms. Just as the
One of Anne’s primary additionally pledged to give plot to capture Henry neared completion,
objectives was the Landais the income from someone warned him of the trap: John
annexation of the ancient Tudor’s confiscated earldom Morton, Bishop of Ely, who was living
and independent Duchy of Richmond. in exile in Flanders. Margaret Beaufort’s
of Brittany to France. She The deal with Brittany chaplain and confessor Christopher
would use any means at her took effect on 1 July Urswick acted as her agent and had
disposal, including using and was to last until travelled to Flanders. It remains unknown
Henry Tudor, to fulfil her April 1485 – the entire how Morton discovered the plot to
ambitions. In addition, her plot for England to gain capture Henry; however, he sent Urswick
regency was under serious possession of Henry and to Vannes to warn Henry and the other
threat from the Duke of Jasper Tudor had reached noblemen to leave Brittany for France
Orleans. Landais had made fruition. Richard sent letters with all speed.
an alliance with Orleans, and announcing his intention Henry sent Urswick to the court of
they wanted to add England to invade France and offered King Charles VIII to ask permission for
to this coalition. The terms of to send at least 1,000 archers asylum in France. Charles agreed. Urswick
the deal involved the invasion of from Southampton to Brittany. returned to Vannes, and Henry and
France by England to help Orleans’ Although King Richard’s promised
effort to become regent. troops never arrived in Brittany, his
Richard promised to send a interference in Anglo-Breton affairs had
contingent of archers to aid in securing ABOVE A portrait offended the French government.
of Richard III, who
Duke Francis’ power against the fought Henry Tudor
In the late summer and early autumn,
rebellious Breton nobility and to fight at Bosworth there is evidence Henry made an offer
BELOW Henry’s
victory at Bosworth
Field marked the end of
the Plantagenet dynasty

32
 Rise of the Tudors

Jasper began planning their escape. First, gotten away, hurriedly dispatched some
Jasper and a few men departed, giving of his trusted servants in all directions
the impression they were going to Duke to find, arrest and bring him back to
Francis at Rennes, a city near the French Brittany. Once Landais’ men got to the
frontier. They made a run for the border French border, they discovered Henry had
and headed for Anjou. crossed into Anjou only about an hour
Two days later, Henry left the city with before they arrived. The 400 Englishmen
five servants, telling everyone he planned remaining in Vannes knew nothing of

“KING EDWARD, WEARY OF THE CIVIL STRIFE,

ULTIMATELY RECOGNISED THE BENEFIT OF BRINGING
HENRY TUDOR INTO THE YORKIST CAMP”
to visit a friend at a neighbouring manor Henry’s escape, but when they heard
house. About 8km outside the city, he of it, they became frightened. About the
made a detour towards a nearby forest. same time, Duke Francis recovered his
With the help of his servant Matthew senses. To his astonishment, he heard for
Baker, he changed his clothes, dressing like the first time the news of his chancellor’s
a common servant, and then rode straight treacherous scheme.
across the border to Angers in Anjou, only
stopping to let their horses drink.
Duke Francis considered himself an
honourable man. From the beginning, THE BATTLE
Landais, informed that Henry had he had openly shown his support for the
exiles and had no intention of stopping
now. Furious with Landais, Francis
BELOW-INSET
Henry VII is handed
the crown of
England following
OVER BRITTANY
The duchy existed as an
turned him over to the Breton nobles Richard III’s death
independent domain from ancient
times until the 16th century

The history of Brittany on the Armorican

peninsula of what is now France has its
origins in prehistoric times. Before Roman
rule, ancient megalith cultures and Celtic
tribes inhabited the area. The Romans
under Julius Caesar conquered Brittany
in 56 BCE, and after years of quelling
resistance a kind of renaissance occurred
during the reign of Emperor Constantine
(306-337 CE). Historians believe the fourth
century saw the Christianisation of the
area, and following the collapse of the
Roman Empire migrants from Cornwall,
Devon and Wales arrived. Various
independent smaller Breton states later
developed into the Kingdom and then
the Duchy of Brittany.
The Bretons would resist being
absorbed into the Carolingian Empire and
the families of Montfort and Penthièvre
fought the now legendary War of Breton
Succession between 1341-64. In 1378, King
Charles V of France attempted to annex
Brittany, but the people resisted. The last
independent duke of Brittany, Francis II,
reigned from 1458 until his death in 1488.
Francis harboured the Tudor exiles for
many years, and upon the duke’s death
his 11-year-old daughter Anne became
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

Duchess of Brittany. She married two

successive French kings, Charles VIII and
Louis XII, and had two coronations as
Queen of France. During King Francis I’s
reign, Brittany lost its complete autonomy
and become a French province in 1532.

33
 TUDOR TIMELINE
A brief history of Henry VII

1457
Henry Tudor is born
to Margaret Beaufort
and Edmund Tudor at
Pembroke Castle.

1462
Lord Herbert, an
ally of Edward
IV, takes Henry
as his ward.

1469
Lord Herbert is defeated at
the Battle of Edgcote and
executed by the Lancastrians.

1471
Henry is the last of the
Lancastrian line following
their defeat at Tewkesbury,
forcing him into exile.
ABOVE who backed the regent, Anne de Beaujeu. livres tournois to buy clothing for his men.
The official Arrested and accused of extortion, along Naturally, this unanticipated escape
coronation
with other crimes, they executed Landais had been a complete catastrophe for King
1485 of Henry VII
following his
victory over
on 19 July. Richard, and relations between France
Henry returns and defeats Richard III
Duke Francis gave the remaining and England deteriorated even further.
Richard III at the Battle Englishmen money and offered them free Richard issued proclamations against
of Bosworth Field, taking passage to France. Henry sent a sincere Henry and the exiles and ordered the
the throne of England. message of thanks to the duke for his muster of men. England, now on high
support. Henry then met up with Jasper alert, prepared to fight off an assault.
and his men at the Chateau d’Angers,
1486 while Urswick travelled to Montargis to THE ROAD TO BOSWORTH
Henry VII and Elizabeth of inform the French king the English had It would take a year before the French
York are married, uniting arrived. A delighted Charles sent Gilbert regime agreed to back Henry’s invasion
the houses of York and
Lancaster, followed by the “DESPITE BEING OUTNUMBERED BY RICHARD’S ARMY,
birth of Arthur Tudor.
THE BATTLE TURNED INTO A VICTORY FOR HENRY WHEN
1487 RICHARD WAS KILLED IN THE FRAY”
The Battle of Stoke sees
the rebellious Earl of de Chabannes, Lord of Curzon and of England. The Estates-General of
Lincoln and Lambert Simnel governor of the province of Limousin, France, at the request of King Charles,
defeated by Henry VII. to greet and welcome the English. granted Henry 40,000 livres to aid in
Henry met King Charles at Chartres a the recovery of his kingdom, and Charles
1489 few days later and threw himself upon his gave him permission to recruit men
Coat of arms image source: wiki/Rs-nourse/CC BY-SA 3.0

mercy. He began his campaign to convince to raise an army. In truth, Henry only
Margaret Tudor,
the French king he was the rightful received about 10,000 of the 40,000
Henry and Elizabeth’s
claimant to the English throne, telling livres promised to him and had to resort
second child, is born.
Charles his nobility called for his return to getting a loan from one of Charles’
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

to the kingdom. While not giving his councillors, allowing the preparations
1491 complete endorsement, Charles expressed to begin in earnest. This entailed the
his support of Henry’s mission to claim the amassing of a convoy on the River Seine
Henry Tudor, the
throne. He agreed to provide lodgings for along with all necessary naval and
third royal child
all the exiles in Sens and gave him 3,000 military arrangements.
and future Henry
VIII, is born.

34
 Rise of the Tudors

1492
Peace achieved between
France and England with
the Treaty of Étaples.

1496
A fourth child,
Mary Tudor, is
born to the king
and queen.

1499
Edmund Tudor, a fifth
royal child, is born, but
dies the following year.

1501
Arthur is married to
Katherine of Aragon,
but dies suddenly the
next year.

1503
Elizabeth gives birth to a sixth
child, Katherine Tudor, but both
child and mother die shortly after.

Henry began on 22 August. ABOVE Henry’s

his campaign in Despite being
marriage to
Elizabeth of York 1509
November 1484 outnumbered, united the country
Henry VII
by sending letters the battle turned into LEFT Portrait of of England
to England to a victory when Richard King Henry VII of
England, the first
dies,
gain support, was killed in the fray.
monarch of the succeeded
writing these Now king of England, Tudor dynasty, by an by his son
letters in a manner Henry reunited with his unknown Flemish
painter, c.1505 Henry VIII.
suggesting he was already mother and married Elizabeth of
king. In response, Richard issued York, unifying the houses of Lancaster
proclamations against Henry, ridiculing and York. The newly founded Tudor
his pretensions to the royal estate. Henry dynasty would rule England from 1485
received good tidings from a servant until the death of Elizabeth I in 1603.
of his mother of support in England by
various nobles and the pledge of funds for
his cause to be delivered to him once he
FURTHER READING
SUBSCRIBER
arrived in Wales. By now, he had gathered
a band of 500 Englishmen, 1,000 Scots as

EXCLUSIVE
well as some footmen and an unknown
number of French troops at Harfleur. It is
believed the French troops amounted to
about half of the entire invasion army.
Henry’s fleet of about 30 ships sailed Read more about the Tudors in
on 1 August 1485, bound for Wales to issue 151 via our digital archive
claim the English crown. They landed
at Milford Haven on 8 August and
began moving north-east to engage SCAN HERE
Richard, recruiting and welcoming men
to Henry’s cause as he marched. Many
Welshmen joined him and his progress
was largely unimpeded.
They arrived near Richard’s troops
bordering on Bosworth Field in
Leicestershire, where the fight began

35
 here’s plenty of
talk these days
A LEWIFE
about the jobs 5TH-18TH CENTURY
that could be DUTIES: BREWING ALE
at risk thanks Being an alewife was a pretty
to the development of Artificial straightforward profession as it involved
Intelligence technologies. There are the brewing of beer. This role for married
all sorts of professions that could be women emerged among working families
streamlined or eliminated entirely by in the Anglo-Saxon period, then spread
these new developments. History offers to specialist alewives being employed as
plenty of examples of professions that brewers for nobles. The term later came
saw technology or changing tastes to include women brewing in alehouses.
make them obsolete, but perhaps some However, alehouses had poor reputations
of these long-lost roles are ripe for a due to the drunkenness and rowdy
comeback. Could one of these forgotten behaviour they were seen to encourage
jobs from the past be revived as a and the social standing of alewives
lucrative form of employment today? declined. Industrial brewing finally put
paid to the role altogether.

BOBBIN BOY BROOMSQUIRE

14TH-20TH CENTURY
18TH-19TH CENTURY DUTIES: MAKING BESOM BROOMS
DUTIES: MAINTENANCE The archetypal medieval broom of
& BOBBIN COLLECTION popular imagination is the rough,
During the Industrial Revolution, when twiggy besom broom that’s sported by
child labour was widespread, the role Halloween witches today. In the Middle
of the bobbin boy was a particularly Ages, broomsquires made these crude
hazardous one. Young boys were domestic implements using the bundled
employed in textile mills primarily branches of birch trees. As cleanliness,
to collect and replace bobbins – the particularly in the streets, gained
spools that gathered the thread being greater importance following the
manufactured. The most dangerous part many deadly outbreaks of plague
Title: © Adobe Stock/AI generated

of the job came from doing repairs to the during this period, besom brooms
looms, and bobbin boys were frequently enjoyed a significant trade.
maimed or killed after getting caught up However, this craft was all but
in the machinery. wiped out by the advent of
mechanised production.

36
 24 Lost Jobs from History

BULLOCKY
18TH-20TH CENTURY
DUTIES: DRIVING A BULLOCK TRAIN
Known as a bullwhacker in the US,
bullocky or bullockie was an Australian
term for the driver of a bullock train.
DOFFER
Seeing someone leading a long line of 19-20TH CENTURY
heavily loaded bulls through the rural DUTIES: COLLECTING & REPLACING
towns of the outback was not an unusual YARN SPOOLS
site. Moving slowly and being assisted
by a dog, it could be a gruelling job. Bulls COFFEE SNIFFER Similar to the role of the bobbin boy,
doffers were typically children employed by
were used to transport all sorts of heavy (DIE KAFFEERIECHER) textile producers to collect filled spindles
goods such as timber and farm equipment and replace them with empty ones. They
across the vast nation, before modern
18TH CENTURY
road and railway infrastructure rendered DUTIES: IDENTIFYING CONTRABAND COFFEE would also maintain the machines with
grease and oil, keep the area clean and
the bullocky obsolete. This is not a job that had a lot of security to it, since it
generally be available to perform tasks
was only around from 1781-87, but with coffee production
when needed. It was a role with promotion
jeopardised by climate change, it may become a thing
potential, too, as head doffers would
CHARWOMAN again. In 1781 the Kingdom of Prussia banned the import
of roasted coffee in order to control money leaving the
organise the group, spot full spindles and
pass instructions down from the supervisor.
14TH-20TH CENTURY country and focus on native industries. Coffee sniffers (or
DUTIES: CLEANING die kaffeeriecher) were about 400 injured war veterans
Since the term char or cherre merely tasked with literally sniffing out coffee. They even had
meant a ‘turn of work’ or a chore, permission to enter peoples’ homes to hunt for contraband
being a charwoman could mean a lot coffee that had been made without a permit.
of different things depending on the
circumstance. In the 14th century
they were hired by the day to carry
out all manner of lowly tasks. By
the 18th century this was mostly GANDY DANCER
cleaning work in grand houses, and 19TH-20TH CENTURY
being a charwoman was different to DUTIES: RAILROAD WORKER
a maid, which was a full-time position. Gandy dancer was a slang term for early railroad workers,
With the advent of modern office especially those employed in the United States, such as on the
buildings, cleaners were sometimes transcontinental railroad. They would lay down the tracks for the
still referred to as charwomen. lines that connected the nation’s towns and cities. Where the
term gandy dancer originated from is somewhat disputed. The
‘dancer’ portion may be in reference to the workers’ synchronised
motions when passing down and placing the sleepers and rails.
‘Gandy’ is less clear, possibly deriving from a tool company that
supplied their equipment.

“They would lay down

All images: © Getty Images

the tracks for the lines that

connected the nation”

37
 GROOM OF
GARDEN HERMIT THE STOOL
15TH-18TH CENTURY 16TH-17TH CENTURY
DUTIES: ADVISE AND ENTERTAIN DUTIES: ATTENDING TO
Sometimes also called an ornamental hermit, this role
involved living on a wealthy estate in a specially designed
THE KING’S HYGIENE
To say that the groom of the
hermitage. Garden hermits were given meals by the staff
stool dealt with the king’s
of the house but were expected to interact very little with
hygiene is leaning heavily into
anyone. They would offer sage council to the family of the
euphemism. The ‘stool’ portion
house when requested, or act as a form of entertainment for
of the job title is really where
their wealthy guests; a sort of garden curiosity. If this is all
the truth lies, as it started as
sounding a little odd, we’re right there with you. But peace
a courtier who attended to
and quiet, time to read a book, and three square meals a day
the monarch’s lavatorial needs.
sounds like a pretty good deal!
The groom of the stool was
also expected to report on
these happenings to track the
king’s health. This intimate
role, while not the most
pleasant, was in fact a very
influential one. It was carried
out by a trusted confidant of
the king and would extend
to managing his finances and
close staff.

HOG REEVE
15TH-20TH CENTURY
DUTIES: CATCHING PIGS
‘Reeve’ was a Middle English term for a steward, and that is a fair description
of the role of hog reeves: their primary duty was to catch escaped pigs in
rural communities. In the early days this might have been an ad hoc role, but
it turned into an elected office with expanded responsibilities to catch other
wayward livestock, assess any damage and issue reprimands to the owners of
the animals if necessary.

GONG FARMER
16TH-19TH CENTURY
DUTIES: CLEANING CESSPITS & PRIVIES
Before modern plumbing, human waste disposal was an
even messier business. Cesspits were a common
solution and they needed to be cleared of their
unpleasant contents on a regular basis. In
stepped the gong farmer, with ‘gong’ being an
Old English term for the waste. They would
arrive at night clear out a castle cesspit,
and were also available for private privy
clearing. To give you some idea of the
quantities being dealt with, gong farmers
could get two shillings per ton cleared.

38
 24 Lost Jobs from History

LEECH COLLECTOR
KNOCKER-UP 18TH-19TH CENTURY
18TH-20TH CENTURY DUTIES: PROCURING MEDICAL LEECHES
DUTIES: WAKING PEOPLE You’re probably familiar with the idea of leeches being used
UP IN THE MORNING in medicine when bloodletting was a common treatment
In the time before people had for all kinds of ailments. But where did they come from?
affordable, reliable clocks at home, Professional leech collectors did the slimy job, and it could be
knocker-uppers were hired to tap quite a lucrative profession if there was a high demand in the
on people’s bedroom windows local area. They would gather leeches by wading bare-legged
with long poles to make sure through bogs and marshes, collecting them when they attached
they weren’t late for work. The themselves to their skin.
job was particularly common
in large industrial towns where
many people worked in factories.
We imagine this could often be a
treacherous job – we only say that
because we know how many times
we’ve wanted to throw our alarm
clock across the bedroom first
thing in the morning!

LINK BOY
“Some 16TH-19TH CENTURY
DUTIES: GUIDING PEDESTRIANS BY TORCHLIGHT
criminal gangs Before the streets were illuminated at night, first by gas lamps

employed and then electricity, walking home on a dark evening through

the streets of London was a dangerous prospect. In stepped

link boys to the link boys, who for a small fee would guide wary (and usually
rich) people. Mentioned in the works of William Shakespeare and

lure people Samuel Pepys, some criminal gangs also employed link boys to lure
people into dark alleys to be robbed.

into dark
alleys to be MASTER OF
THE BUCKHOUNDS
robbed” 14TH-20TH CENTURY
DUTIES: LEADING A HUNTING PACK
Once a powerful royal position, the master of the
buckhounds supplied the hunting dogs for royal hunts.
The English monarch’s dogs were a prized breed, often
exchanged as gifts with foreign dignitaries, so maintaining
the hunting pack was important for the leisure of the
reigning monarch and for diplomacy. In time the master
of the buckhounds was also tasked with running Ascot
racecourse, the home of Royal Ascot, although that
responsibility and the role in general was retired in 1901.
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

39
 MUD CLERK PINSETTER
19TH-20TH CENTURY
19TH CENTURY DUTIES: REPLACING PINS AT BOWLING ALLEYS
DUTIES: STEAMBOAT WORKER Ever since the Industrial Revolution, many different types of job have been lost to
In mid-19th century America, steamboats were a common mechanisation and advances in technology, including the humble pinsetter. Their role,
sight, getting passengers from A to B and laying on pleasure as the name suggests, was to reset the pins during games of tenpin bowling. This is now
cruises. These boats offered all sorts of job opportunities for done by machine, but in the early days of bowling alleys it was a full-time job. Pinsetters
young workers, such as the junior role of mud clerk. They can still be found at some modern bowling alleys, but the job has evolved and today their
were expected to do any and all duties required of them by primary responsibility is maintaining the machinery.
the captain. The ‘mud’ element of the job title derived from
their frequently having to wade through muddy river banks
as the boat came alongside.

POWDER MONKEY
17TH-19TH CENTURY
DUTIES: FETCHING GUNPOWDER FOR NAVAL ARTILLERY
From the earliest days of the Age of the Sail, young boys, mostly
from poor backgrounds, were recruited to work on ships to carry
out menial tasks, often acting as an apprenticeship for future
employment as a sailor. Because of their agility and small size,
one of their roles on board naval vessels was powder monkey,
carrying gunpowder from the powder magazine (the room
where it was stored) in the ship’s hold to the gun crews. It was PRINTER’S
a demanding and dangerous job.
DEVIL
15TH-19TH CENTURY
DUTIES: APPRENTICE TO PRINTER
The printing press revolutionised
the dissemination of information,
making the printed word quick
and cheap to produce at scale.
It created a booming new
industry and, like most skilled
professions from the era, getting
into that industry required an
apprenticeship. Printer’s devil was
the term used for a junior role at
a printing house, and their duties
included mixing ink and getting
the typeface to the printers. Why
call them devils? Because the
apprentice could be blamed for
any errors and mishaps!

40
 24 Lost Jobs from History

RAGPICKER THIEF-TAKER
15TH-20TH CENTURY 17TH-19TH CENTURY
DUTIES: COLLECTING UNWANTED GOODS DUTIES: CAPTURE CRIMINALS
As the production of goods became easier and consumerism Before organised police forces were
took hold, a new problem emerged in people’s lives: they established in the 19th century, the job
kept accumulating old stuff they didn’t want anymore. In of catching criminals was left to
stepped the ragpicker, also known as the junkman, old- civilians. In the absence of cops
clothesman, bone-picker or rag-and-bone man. Rubbish- on the beat, the thief-taker
collection jobs can be traced back to the Middle Ages, but was employed by the victims
the more modern type would gather unwanted items that of crime to hunt down the
had either been left out or offered to them, and reuse them culprits and bring them
or sell them on. The advent of recycling facilities and charity before the courts for
shops has for the most part replaced this role. prosecution. The role was
not dissimilar to that of
bounty hunters in later
years, and significant
rewards could be
earned. As the state took
more responsibility for law
enforcement, the role of
thief-taker declined.

TOSHER “Toshers
19TH CENTURY navigated
SODA JERK DUTIES: SCAVENGING IN SEWERS
In what is often regarded as one of the the sewers of
20TH CENTURY
London at
worst jobs ever, the tosher was someone
DUTIES: SERVE SOFT DRINKS who navigated the sewers of London at

low tide
This is a job some older readers might be low tide to search for anything valuable.
familiar with. Back when sparkling soft Since the sewers collected detritus from

to search for
drinks required a syrup and soda to be the street, this could mean bits of scrap,
mixed separately, restaurants and diners cloth and wood, as well as much more
would employ soda jerks to make and serve
them. The term ‘jerk’ derived from the hand
valuable items such as coins and jewellery.
Entering the sewers was made illegal from scrap and
action they used to operate the soda
fountain behind the bar. The role
1840 due to the dangers of navigating the
underground network. valuable items”
evolved to something like a non-
alcoholic mixologist, serving
up milkshakes, ice-cream

All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

floats and other sugary
beverages. Premixed sodas
and automatic
machines replaced
the role.

41
 SPOOKY STORIES OF SINISTER SPECTRES

ARE NOTHING NEW. HERE, DR IRVING FINKEL TELLS US

ABOUT THE GHOSTS OF ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA

Written by Callum McKelvie

EXPERT BIO
DR IRVING FINKEL
Dr Finkel is a specialist in cuneiform, the ancient
writing system of Mesopotamia, and since
© Shutterstock

1976 he has worked among the collections of

the British Library. His book The First Ghosts
(Hodder & Stoughton) was published in 2021.

42
 Background: © Getty Images
Ghost: © Adobe Stock/AI generated

43
 hain-rattling phantoms,
figures draped in white
sheets, skull-faced spectres RIGHT An
– we all know what ghosts illustration of a
Babylonian clay
are supposed to look like, tomb from the city
but where do our ideas about them of Ur in ancient
come from? Our fascination with Mesopotamia
ghosts stretches back thousands BELOW-RIGHT The
of years, and can be found in British Museum has
a vast collection of
a variety of civilisations from across cuneiform tablets,
the globe. Some of the earliest a number of which
detail accounts of
records of encounters with spirits
ghost sightings
come from ancient Mesopotamia,
around 600 BCE.
Dr Irving Finkel, curator at the
British Museum and author of The which I think a modern person
First Ghosts: Most Ancient of Legacies, interested in ghosts, who’d possibly
is an expert on the Mesopotamian even thought they’d seen one, would
belief in things that go bump in the sympathise with and identify with.
night. Here he discusses ancient In ancient Mesopotamia, practically
phantoms, rituals to ward off evil, and speaking everybody took ghosts for
the disquieting similarities between granted and they were part of human
ancient and modern accounts of existence. When people died, it was
spiritual encounters. believed that some part of the person
survived in the ‘great waiting room
What can you tell us about some below’. They were supposed to stay
of these early accounts of ghosts? there peacefully but since they were
Ghosts are a funny topic. If people human – and humans often don’t
have had such experiences, they behave as they should – sometimes
often don’t talk about them. It’s a the ghosts came up to the land
kind of furtive matter in our modern of the living. This generated a lot
society. One interesting area concerns of literature, mostly about how to
the origins of ghost beliefs. If you identify the ghost and what could be
ask people in general, they might done to appease them.
think they originate in the Middle
Ages. But the Romans and the Greeks What might a typical Why? Because that’s what people
in particular left a lot of literature Mesopotamian haunting be like? are like and ghosts are reflections
about ghosts. This is quite a rich
area for research and serious things
In ancient Mesopotamia, there
were very large families, with ҔI>ѪƜѧѪ of human beings. So if you were
horrible as a person, the chances are
have been written about ghosts in
the classical world that are fairly
uncles, brothers and grandfathers
living together in quite large Â*ŦþѪ
Ѫ your ghost would be rather similar.

accessible in modern books. However,

I work with cuneiform, which
setups, with a great courtyard in
the middle. The practice was often EoŦ’ĝñ]*Ѫ How would a Mesopotamian
haunting be dealt with?
is the writing system of ancient
Mesopotamia. It began around 3500
to bury family members in the
courtyard. Comfortable families *Ŧ˜ŃĺѮѪ There were two levels to dealing
with a ghost. Firstly, they could
BCE and lasted down till about the
first century AD [CE]. Cuneiform
had a subterranean burial place,
while others had something more ę
fòþ˜Ѫ buy spells and amulets and wear
them around the neck. But if things
was written on clay tablets, which
survived very well. Among these is
economical. But the point is that
the family dead were always quite
’þѪƜoŻ’Ѫ got worse, they would have to
call a professional in. The exorcist
a surprising amount of material on
the subject of ghosts.
nearby. So that meant if one of the
family spirits sought to return, they ?ęo˜ŵѪ would then come to the house and
see if they could find out who the

How did you first become

didn’t have far to go and people were
sympathetic to them, feeling that ÂoŻı$Ѫñ*Ѫ ghost was, because if they knew
the spirit’s identity then they
interested in the subject?
I have worked in the British Museum
if they were unhappy they should
try and help them rather than be ˜IĹĝ]
Ŧҕ could put together a spell directed
against that particular person.
all of my adult life, and we have frightened of them. The fascinating And they had a pocketful of spells.
130,000 pieces of cuneiform. thing to me is that, while most For example, they might make
Once I had the idea of writing ghosts were not so troublesome, some kind of potion of different
something on the subject of ghosts, some were very dangerous – they herbs and recite a spell over it,
I went through the collection and could even cause disease. If we were commanding the spirit to go down
discovered a lot of accounts, mostly to line a whole load of Babylonian to the underworld. There were also
from around 600-400 BCE. The first ghosts up against the wall, there other, incredibly complex rituals
thing that struck me was that they would be ghosts that vary from meek which were far beyond that sort
covered a whole range of material, and nervous to bullying and savage. of thing. For example, the exorcist

44
 MIDDLE-LEFT
The philosopher
Athenodorus is
said to have once
exorcised the spirit
of an old man

LEFT An amulet
from ancient Assyria
for protection
against evil spirits.
Similar amulets
were commonplace
in Mesopotamia

How were Mesopotamian spirits magic and religion, which was written
viewed differently to our modern in the 1920s. It wasn’t a deep or very
concept of the ghost? scientific book, but it recorded a lot of
The stereotypical image today is things that people said and believed.
something in a white sheet, inclined There was a short chapter about
to walk through walls and not taking ghosts in Tibet and it was astonishing
any notice when addressed. But, like because the way they were described
many phenomena in the modern was more or less indistinguishable
human mind, pressure has come from from the Babylonian idea. And 20th
Hollywood. All that stuff, practically century Tibet is quite a long way from
speaking, is fictitious. When we the Mesopotamian world.
find un-influenced, straightforward
accounts by people who’ve seen What would you like people to
ghosts, what they describe is very consider when examining these
similar to those from antiquity. The early accounts?
central principle is that the spirit of When I take The First Ghosts to a
might make figurines out of clay of somebody who died violently, for literary festival I always ask: “Has
the ghost, which were then buried example, is somehow tied to the place anybody here seen a ghost?” Usually
in the ground – so it’s a form of where they lived or they died. This there will be dead silence. Then, after
sympathetic magic. One of the is as it was in ancient Mesopotamia, a while, somebody might put their
tablets that came to light, which all that time ago. There the exorcists hand up and say: “I saw my dead aunt
was written in about 500 BCE, was in Babylonia made long professional when I was a girl.” Then five or six
written by just such an exorcist. lists of who might turn out to be a other people dotted around the room
On one side of the tablet is written ghost. There were 30 or 40 categories, might also come forward and say
out a long spell but on the back is including being burnt to death, gored something strange happened to them.
a drawing of the ghost and another by a bull, or dying in childbirth. The After that, maybe 20 people will
figure. The ghost is an old man, tall other belief that recurs periodically approach me and say: “Well, actually,
and thin with a long beard, and he’s throughout Christian, Jewish and since you asked, something like this
walking with his hands tied in front Islamic thinking is that a spirit of a happened to me.” People don’t just
of him, the rope being pulled by dead person could be summoned to make it up. In fact, for some of them
a woman. Then the exorcist would answer a question. The idea is strange it’s a kind of release. They have never
have tried to discover who the ghost – that the dead always knew what was told anyone, not even their husband
was and perhaps they decided it was going to happen. or wife. Of course, it can’t be that
a great uncle who was never without they are all fantasies or drug-induced.
female company. So the specialist What did you learn from these What would be interesting is to collect
would have provided him with a early accounts? the testimony of this unadulterated
concubine. He’d make figures of There’s a principle underneath shared kind in many different contexts of
the uncle and an attractive woman by all Homo sapiens, and therefore it’s the world and see what that leads to.
from this drawing and she would something that’s not easily dismissed. But the overall matter is something
take him down to the underworld. I would be very interested, if it worth clarifying, because my
All images: © Alamy, © Shutterstock

Together they would live happily could ever come about, in a research argument is this: if you’re a scientist
ever after in the underworld. This programme that investigated ghost and somebody offers you evidence
is a ritual which is childishly belief in far-flung parts of the world. I and you say you won’t believe a word
simple in its principle, but no doubt say that because when I was writing of it, is that a scientific attitude?
extremely effective. the book, I read a work about Tibetan I don’t think it is.

45
 THE CONQUEST OF

Driven by the hunger for new territory, in the 16th century Russia embarked
on the ruthless subjugation of a vast and hostile land in the frozen east
Written by Wayne Bartlett

46
 The Conquest of Siberia

iberia offered vast opportunities to Russia’s (just east of the Ural Mountains) agreed to pay tribute to the
tsars. It was rich in valuable natural resources, tsar. However, this was only a temporary state of affairs. By 1563,
but at the time this was not the oil for which it there was a new khan in place named Kuchum, who had risen to
would later become important but furs such as prominence in the region after wresting power from a rival. He
sable, black fox and beaver. This was lucrative in made it clear that no future tribute would be forthcoming. This
the mid-1500s, but obtaining access to it would not be easy. The was a gradual process, but when in 1573 the tsar’s ambassador to
enormous extent of the territory involved meant that there were the khan was killed on arrival at his court, it was apparent that
many challenges to overcome. Siberia was a fragmented region a moment of truth had been reached.
peopled by various competing tribes who had a reputation (largely During the 1580s, one of the most formidable of the
deserved) for ferocity. They would not take kindly to interlopers adventurers who opened up Siberia for Russia entered the scene:
from the west seeking to extract tribute from them. Vasiliy Timofeyevich, better known as Yermak. He led a band
The first steps at trying to pry away the natives’ wealth were of Cossacks, a tough group of warriors who were outstanding
made by adventurers who were prepared to gamble a great deal horsemen, hard to control, brave and cruel. Emanating from
(including their lives) in the search for profit. The formidable both Russia and Ukraine, they were a fearsome proposition for
Tsar Ivan IV (widely known as ‘The Terrible’) gave permission anyone unfortunate enough to be in their way. At the time fiercely
to a prominent noble family, the Stroganovs, to exploit Siberia’s independent, the Cossacks would be brought into the Russian
potential, essentially as his surrogate. In 1555, the rulers of Sibir orbit in 1654 by the Pereyaslav Agreement, under the terms of

RIGHT Cossack
leader Yermak
Timofeyevich began
the Russian conquest
of Siberia

All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

The harshness of Siberia is

typified by this scene of Chukotka

47
 which the leader of the Ukrainian Cossacks ceded Ukraine to RIGHT The dangers
Russia. This was controversial at the time, leading to war between of exploration are
apparent from this
Russia and Poland, and to some extent its impact extends to the portrayal of Bering’s
present day. It was precipitated by Cossack defeats at the hands of ships being wrecked
Polish forces, leading to the Cossack leader Bohdan Khmelnytsky,
a Ruthenian nobleman, entering into the agreement with Russia.
When Cossack forces moved into Siberia in the early 1580s,
they were supplemented by others including troops from the
Stroganovs as well as conscripted prisoners. Crossing the Urals
into Siberia during the winter, Yermak and his men then rested
up. When the snows began to melt in the following spring they
moved forward by river, using rafts for the purpose. Cunning
played its part too. They put dummies made of straw on the rafts
to give the impression that their numbers were greater than they
actually were. But what Yermak lacked in numbers he made up
for in other ways. His men had firearms whereas Kuchum’s army
relied primarily on bows and arrows.

The Khanate of Sibir

It is worth noting that although Sibir of Sibir, centred around the Irtysh
gave its name to Siberia, the two should River, had come into being with its first
not be confused. The Khanate of Sibir khan, Taibuga, after whom a dynasty,
was just one part of a much larger the Taibugids, was formed. Their rule
territory that we now know as Siberia. was not uncontested, particularly by
The Khanate of Sibir had a long the Shaybanids, descendants of the
and chequered history by the time Mongol khan Jochi, but in 1563 Kuchum
the Cossacks headed up Russian became khan. Among his policies was
incursions into its territory in the late a determined attempt to convert the
16th century. A few centuries before, shamanist Tatars of Siberia to Islam.
it had been overwhelmed when the However, his attacks on Stroganov
Mongols pushed into the region, and trading posts led to dramatic and

“The Cossacks were a

between 1242 and 1502 it formed part ultimately fatal consequences for his
of the extensive territories ruled by the people. Tired of Kuchum’s continued
Golden Horde. raids, Ivan IV unleashed the Cossacks
But Mongol power slowly declined,
and by the 15th century the Khanate
on Sibir, a brutal force that would
overwhelm the khanate.
fearsome proposition for
anyone unfortunate enough
to be in their way”
The Cossacks moved on Iskar, Kuchum’s capital, launching
their attack in October (probably in 1582, the precise year is
uncertain). Their first assault was beaten off but they returned
a few days later and on 23 October they broke into the town.
Ferocious hand-to-hand fighting ensued. Although the defenders
had two cannons, the rest of their weapons were inferior to
those of the Cossacks. A devout Muslim, Kuchum ordered his
mullahs to pray for divine assistance, but his cannons were
taken and it became apparent to him that the fight was lost.
Some of his men deserted him “and fled on horseback to their
homeland without return, to lie there like animals in wild
forests”, according to one account. Seeing that Iskar would fall,
he fled, and the Khanate of Sibir that he ruled came to an end
(though it did make a brief reappearance a few years later).
Cossack losses were heavy, though, and reinforcements were
needed. Yermak therefore sent news of his triumph to Ivan IV
in Moscow along with a selection of furs as tribute – including
A view of the Irtysh River, which ran through the heart of the Khanate of Sibir
2,400 sable, 800 black fox and 2,000 beaver pelts – and a
request for help. Ivan for his part was pleased to add the title

48
 The Conquest of Siberia

‘tsar of Siberia’ to the others he already bore. However, it

would be a long, hard process to complete the conquest and
Yermak would not see it concluded. In August 1585, he was
attacked in his camp by a group of Kuchum’s men. He is said
to have drowned in a nearby river while trying to escape
dressed in full armour.
Kuchum remained a free man for some time, though he
was forced to lead a nomadic existence in later years. He
retreated to the territories of the Nogai Horde in southern
Siberia and reached out to Tsar Ivan to ask that he be granted
a small territory on the banks of the Irtysh River. Ivan invited
him to Moscow, encouraging him into his service. Kuchum
opted not to go, which given Ivan’s reputation was probably
wise. Kuchum, whose family had been captured, died in
Bukhara in around 1605.
These were the preliminary moves in the conquest of
Siberia that opened up opportunities for others to follow.
Trappers and fur traders started to probe further into the
region to take advantage of the rich natural resources to
be found. But they needed protection, so winter outposts
and forts were built at the confluences of major rivers and
streams and important portages to subjugate the natives
and collect yasuk (fur tribute). These developed into towns
such as Tyumen (established by Vasily Sukin and Ivan
Myasnoy in 1586).
Other important posts were established in the north such
as at Beryozo in 1593 and Mangazeya (1600–01). Tobolsk (the
second-oldest Russian settlement east of the Urals) became
particularly important. Part of the process of conquest and
domination involved bringing different tribal groups, such
as the Nenets, progressively under the heel of Russia. The
extent of control grew further as towns were established,
such as Surgut and Tara in the east. These collectively

Empress Elizabeth of
Russia ordered the brutal
suppression of native
peoples in Siberia

All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

Vitus Bering, the Danish-born Russian explorer

49
 served several purposes. They were places of security but also
of administration and trade, and also enabled a tighter grip to
be gradually established over the increasingly vast areas that
Russia claimed to rule.
Rivers played a key part in opening up Siberia further. In the
early years of the 17th century, Russians pushed further up the
Ob, and by 1605 they were on the Yenesei, transiting it to the
Sym. As the Russian incursion spread, what were initially separate
pushes eastwards joined up, further strengthening control over
the region. Then it was on to Lake Baikal and the Sea of Okhotsk
before finally the Amur River was reached.
Here the situation changed. Siberian resistance was
evaporating, but the Russians had advanced so far to the east
that a new challenge had emerged in the shape of China. This
introduced a completely different element into the equation.
The Chinese were equipped with powerful artillery and
militarily they posed a strong obstacle to further expansion.
Tensions were inevitable. At the Battle of Hutong, fought
between a fleet of newly constructed Chinese ships (supported
by Korean forces) and Cossacks who had taken up a defensive
position on the Songhua River, the Chinese forces of the Qing this did not stop them from expanding in other directions. ABOVE The fortress
of Albazin in the Amur
dynasty scored a significant victory. In 1639 they had reached the Pacific, a hugely significant
region, site of an epic
In June 1686, a Qing army led by Langtan laid siege to the development. Nine years later, Semen Dezhnev reached what clash between Russia
Russian settlement of Albazin on the border between the later became the Bering Straits. This enabled Alaska to be and the Qing dynasty
two power blocs. An initial assault following a heavy artillery accessed via some simple island-hopping, though this did not
bombardment was beaten off by the Russians and the Qing happen until 1761. What opened up the region more was the
incurred significant losses. What followed was not that different so-called Great Northern Expedition between 1733 and 1743.
to a medieval siege. A total blockade around the city was put There were a number of academics and scientists involved
in place and ruthlessly enforced. Sickness, a greater enemy in this expedition, which was led by Danish-born Russian
sometimes than the soldiers they were fighting against, took hold. commander Vitus Bering. However, the results went far beyond
In October 1686, envoys from Moscow arrived in Beijing, and scientific research. The Russians gradually gained a better
three years later, under the terms of the Treaty of Nerchinsk, the understanding of this vast region and its natural resources
Russians abandoned Albazin in return for trading privileges with (including a greater awareness of nearby Alaska as well as
the Beijing government. When, as a sign of good intent, the Qing Siberia), with major consequences for the area.
army called off the siege of Albazin in late 1686, only 24 of the The Russians, in particular the Cossack forces, brought with
original 500 Russian defenders were still alive. them incredible hardship. Their actions were often violently
Effectively the Treaty of Nerchinsk called a formal halt to oppressive. Three tribal groups – the Kamchadals, the Kuryaks
attempts at further Russian expansion in the Amur region, but and the Chukchi – were particularly harshly persecuted in

The Ural Mountains: the frontier

between Russia and Siberia

50
 The Conquest of Siberia

“Siberian resistance was

evaporating, but the
Russians had advanced so
far to the east that a new
challenge had emerged in
the shape of China”
an extended period that stretched from the mid-17th to the
mid-18th centuries, and many other tribal groupings were also
badly affected. Dissentient men from these tribes were hanged
from meat hooks and other terrors included diseases such as
smallpox, which the local population had no natural immunity
to. In some cases, native populations declined by up to 80
percent. In an attack initiated by the Russian Empress Elizabeth
that lasted from 1744 to 1747, native men were killed and
women and children were enslaved. This was done by Cossacks
“with the help of Almighty God and to the good future of Her
Imperial Highness”, according to one source. Not for the first
time in history, religion was being deployed as justification
for brutal repression. In 1778 Russia made a peace agreement
with Chukotka, at the extreme north-easterly tip of Siberia
(and indeed mainland Asia), bringing this phase of Russian
expansion to an end.
The long-term results of this expansion were devastating. In
Kamchatka, in the very far east of Siberia, today only about five
per cent of the population is of indigenous origin. In 1882, the
explorer Nikolai Yadrintsev identified 12 native groups that had
been exterminated because of Russian expansion. Nature also
suffered greatly, with local animal populations decimated in the
hunt for fur. The shape of Siberia had been altered forever, but
it had come at an unbearable cost to many of those who were
unavoidably caught up in these momentous events.
ABOVE The corpse of the Cossack leader
Yermak is mutilated by his enemies

BELOW A religious procession through

Moscow in the time of Tsar Ivan IV

All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

51
52
 of the

Bloodthirsty privateer to some, heroic governor of Jamaica to

others, the legacy of Henry Morgan is steeped in controversy

O
Written by Callum Mckelvie

f the 5,000 or so pirates who terrorised Monmouthshire. It’s likely he was born around 1635 due to
the Atlantic and Caribbean during the late his recorded age in December of 1671 being about 36, and
17th and early 18th centuries, few names it’s possible he may have been the son of Robert Morgan,
have entered the history books. Alongside a wealthy farmer and landowner. But despite his pedigree,
notorious figures such as Edward Teach, Henry Morgan claimed to have had little formal education
better known as Blackbeard (c.1680 – 1718), and Anne Boney, as a boy, stating that he “left the schools too young” and
one of the most recognised is Henry Morgan – best known was “more familiar with the pike [a long spear-like weapon]
today for having inspired a popular brand of spiced rum. Yet than the book”.
Morgan was not a pirate in the traditional sense at all, but a However, the greatest mystery surrounding Morgan’s
‘privateer’, meaning that the raids he carried out were upon youth is how he found himself going from a rainy village
special commission by the governor of Jamaica. Throughout the in the south of Wales to the Caribbean. His most famous
centuries so much has been said of Morgan’s deeds that much biographer, Alexandre Olivier Exquemelin (1645 – 1707),
All images: © Adobe Stock, © Alamy

of the truth has been lost beneath waves of myth and legend. claimed the young man was kidnapped and sold into
indentured servitude in Barbados. Yet as we shall see, many
The mystery of Morgan of Exquemelin’s claims have come to be doubted and a more
Morgan’s early years are shrouded in mystery but what is popular theory is that Morgan may have first ventured to the
known is that he was a Welshman, born in Llanrumney in Caribbean during the Anglo-Spanish War of 1654-60.

53
 There were rules, however. Attacks on
‘The Western Design’ Spanish settlements were forbidden as
Morgan was most likely one of the many potential acts of war. Nonetheless they
troops sent to the Caribbean as part of ‘The did occur and the perpetrators were rarely
Western Design’, an invasion of Spanish punished, after all any attack on Britain’s
territories in the West Indies overseen by enemies was still advantageous. To the
Sir William Penn and Robert Venables. In privateers, the illegality of such attacks
1653, Oliver Cromwell had become Lord meant that, unlike assaults upon ships, they
Protector of England and was concerned were not required to share their ill-gotten
by the threat he believed Catholic Spain gains with the authorities. It’s unknown
posed. The two nations were diametrically when Morgan first became one of this
opposed religiously, but there may have infamous band, but in 1662 he is thought to
been other incentives such as financial have captained a ship during Christopher
motivations or, as maritime historian Myngs’ attack on Santiago de Cuba.
John F Battick theorised in 1974, a plan to
hinder Spain’s vital trade. Thomas Modyford:
After a disastrous assault on Santo Governor of Jamaica
Domingo in the Dominican Republic On 15 February 1644 Thomas Modyford,
in 1655, in which a young Morgan may an established figure in Barbadian politics
have been involved, Venables and Penn and a notorious slave owner, was appointed
orchestrated a much more successful Governor of Jamaica. Initially ordered to
assault on Jamaica. Within five years all ensure privateering operations conducted
the Spanish residents on the island had from the island ceased, he disobeyed this
been expelled, and Jamaica would remain command when he realised how crucial
a British colony until 1962. Morgan was to Jamaica’s security they had become.
most likely among those first British The threat of invasion still lingered and
settlers who would have had to contend Modyford knew that the buccaneers’
with frequent attacks from Maroons – debilitating attacks kept the Spanish forces
escaped slaves – but also the harsh tropical busy and Jamaica safe.
climate and bouts of disease. But there were also economic
considerations. By the 1660s, buccaneering
Birth of a buccaneer had become an important aspect of the
By 1660, the Restoration of the monarchy island’s trade, and nowhere was this more
in England led to the end of the Anglo- evident than at Port Royal on the southeast
Spanish War but it did not end the coast. From here, privateers would resupply
hostilities between the two nations. and launch their ships and were always
Spain’s refusal to recognise England’s willing to spend some of their plunder.
annexation of Jamaica led to concerns Modyford also found that his own coffers
that they were planning an invasion. could benefit from the legally dubious
A useful weapon against this perceived trade. In fact, historian Margarette Lincoln
threat were the buccaneers, also known believes that Modyford’s main motivation
as privateers. Primarily active during was to “make enough money for himself
the 17th century, unlike traditional while holding on to his post as governor.”
pirates, who targeted commercial vessels In order to operate, privateers required
regardless of nationality, privateers a Letter of Marque, and in 1667 Modyford
received commissions to carry out attacks issued such a document to Morgan. This
against England’s enemies. letter effectively gave Morgan permission
to do whatever he wanted with Spanish
TOP A Spanish
ships, commanding him to use his “best here in full, but there were several that prisoner cowers
endeavours to surprise, take, sink, disperse became particularly infamous due to before Morgan
following his
and destroy all the enemy’s ships or vessels Morgan’s supposed cruelty. capture of Panama
which shall come within your view.” But One of these was his April 1668
Morgan had no intention of limiting his raid upon Puerto del Príncipe, part of ABOVE-LEFT
The privateer is
attacks to enemy vessels. a legendary voyage during which he depicted seizing
attacked many Spanish settlements. a Spanish woman
Scourge of the Spanish Main According to Graham Thomas in his during a raid

Morgan soon developed a terrifying work, The Buccaneer King: The Story of ABOVE-RIGHT
reputation among the Spanish settlers, Henry Morgan, the attack was almost Morgan’s attack on
the Spanish Fleet at
feared for his attacks on various ports compromised by an escaped Spanish Maracaibo in 1669
and cities. From Port Royal he launched prisoner who was able to leak details of
frequent raids on the area known as the the oncoming raid. LEFT Llanrumney
Hall in South Wales
Spanish Main, territories located in the Nonetheless, despite fearsome is thought to be
Caribbean and modern-day South America. resistance, Morgan was able to capture Morgan’s birthplace
His attacks were too numerous to recount the town and ransom its occupants.

54
 Scourge of the Spanish Main
“T he threat of invasion still lingered
and Modyford knew that the buccaneers’
debilitating attacks kept the Spanish Morgan’s Trail
forces busy and Jamaica safe” of Terror
The privateers’ most notorious and
devastating raids

Maracaibo
March 1669
Upon arriving in Maracaibo, Morgan
discovered that the townspeople had
been aware of his coming and many had
fled. He occupied the town for several
weeks, ransoming the wealthy citizens,
with many purportedly tortured.

Gibraltar
March 1669
Following his attack on Maracaibo, Morgan
attempted to sack the town of Gibraltar on
Lake Maracaibo (not the famous territory
bordering Spain). The town was empty but
Morgan’s men soon hunted down the locals,
who were hiding in the woods.

Granada
1663
Morgan, along with John Morris, David Marteen and
Captain Jackman, attacked Granada. Indigenous people
are said to have supported Morgan in the raid as a means
to fight back against the Spanish invaders. The attack on
Granada also saw Morgan leave with a significant portion
of the loot, enough to purchase a plantation.

Portobello
1668
One particularly troubling moment in Exquemelin’s
account of Morgan’s attack is when he claims the
Exquemelin, a crew member who eight – Spanish coins (not to mention privateers used captured Spanish prisoners as
later published an account of the the treasures and trinkets that Morgan human shields, though the veracity of this, as with
voyage, wrote that Morgan carried and his cohorts were able to spirit away). many of Exquemelin’s claims, is hotly debated.
out unspeakable torture upon the During the capture of the Santiago Fort,
Spanish prisoners. However, numerous Exquemelin claimed Morgan’s men
historians – Thomas among them – have marched forward using prisoners as
come to doubt the veracity of these human shields.
claims. Certainly many of the privateers
committed act of torture, but historians
question both Morgan’s involvement and
But Morgan could be as audacious
as he was purportedly cruel. In 1669,
following attacks on Maracaibo and
Panama
1671
City
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

the extent to which this occurred. Gibraltar, he found his escape blocked Morgan’s most audacious attack and the one that
One of Exquemelin’s most shocking by the Spanish fleet. Using a decoy ship, would put an end to his career as a privateer. It has
allegations concerns Morgan’s actions Morgan loaded it with explosives and often been claimed that Morgan himself started
in the city of Portobello in Panama, sailed it towards the Spanish vessels, the fire that destroyed the city, though it has been
which he raided in July 1668, ransoming who failed to notice the ruse until it was suggested that it was in fact the Spanish settlers in
its occupants for 100,000 pieces of too late. But it was Morgan’s final attack an attempt to disrupt Morgan’s plans.

55
 that would be his most infamous and the city to the ground – its ruins can still be
one responsible for putting an end to his seen to this day.
privateering career. But the attack had consequences,
particularly for Morgan and Modyford.
The attack on Panama Shortly beforehand, England and Spain
In 1670, Mariana, Queen Regent of Spain, had signed a peace agreement, known
ordered the Spanish Navy to begin as the Treaty of Madrid, which put an
striking British ships in retaliation for end to all hostilities between the two
the privateers’ raids. Modyford knew this powers. Such was the anger at Morgan’s
action threatened not only the safety attack that the Spanish demanded
of the region but also his position as retribution and England’s King Charles
governor. Morgan was ordered to do II, not wishing to endanger the treaty or
what was needed to put an end to the possibly even start another war, ordered
matter and Panama Viejo, with its canal Modyford and Morgan to be arrested and
flush with ships carrying precious gold brought to England.
and silver, was chosen as an ideal target.
Historian Samir S Patel, writing in ‘Sir’ Henry Morgan
Archaeology Magazine, says Morgan Yet Morgan had little to worry about. To
assembled “the largest pirate fleet in the people of England, he was a national
history” for the operation, comprising hero and the authorities had no intention
“36 ships, 1,846 men and almost 250 of punishing him. Although some sources

Captain Morgan Rum

cannons.” In 1671, Morgan began his attack claim he was imprisoned in the Tower of
by striking Fort San Lorenzo before sailing London, other evidence suggests he was
up the Chartres towards Panama Viejo. a free man. Morgan was never put on trial
But by the time Morgan and his band and, although he did give evidence before
Today the Scourge of the Spanish Main of marauders dropped anchor, news of the Lords of Trade and Plantation, he was
is better known for the popular alcoholic their arrival had spread and many of the found to have been unaware of the treaty
beverage that bears his name treasures they had hoped to seize had and therefore not guilty. In fact, according
already been spirited away. According to to a letter from Modyford, Morgan spent
By the 1940s, the Canadian company Seagram was one of legend, in revenge Morgan burnt the entire his time in England “being feted in London
the largest producers and suppliers of alcoholic beverages
in the world. In 1943, seeking to diversify its product line
from blended and malt whisky, the firm purchased the
rights to produce a brand of spiced rum. The recipe was
bought from a pharmacy in Kingston, Jamaica, which
according to author and liquor expert Frank Flannery
added “medicinal herbs and spices to raw rum”. Perhaps
seeking to emphasise this link to the Caribbean, Seagram
chose to name their new product after Henry Morgan.
A jovial mascot, which has more in common with the
classic image of a pirate than accounts
of the real Morgan, adorns the
bottle today.

56
 Scourge of theXxxxxxxxxxx
Spanish Main

In 1682 Lynch was once more made

Jamaica’s governor and Morgan found
himself stripped of his authority –he would
spend most of his remaining days in the
taverns of Port Royal. Morgan also owned
three plantations, where he kept a large
number of slaves. When Morgan’s estate
was probated in 1689, records show he
held 131 enslaved people, 33 of whom were
listed as “boys, girls or children”.

‘A certain false, malicious,

scandalous and famous libel’
In 1678 Exquemelin published The
Buccaneers of America, in which he gave
an account of his adventures as a member
of Morgan’s crew. When the book was
translated into English in 1684, Morgan
was furious at the claims made within. But
what exactly incensed the ex-privateer?
Some historians believe the graphic
accounts of Morgan torturing Spanish
settlers were the cause of his fury. But
given the edition’s origins as a translation
of the Spanish text, the allegations are
hardly surprising.
However, Mark G Hanna in his 2015
book Pirate Nests and the Rise of the British
Empire 1570-1740 suggests that it may have
been “Exquemelin’s claim that Morgan first
came to the West Indies as an indentured

“T he ex-privateer found himself pronounrncedor not only ‘Sir’ servant,” that angered him.
In 1685 Morgan pursued legal action

nr y M organ bu t the ne w de pu ty gove of Ja ma ica” against publisher Thomas Malthus,

He seeking damages of up to £10,000 – he

was awarded £200. But the damage had
already been done and, with few other
contemporary accounts, Exquemelin’s
TOP-LEFT book became the version of Morgan’s story
taverns and coffee houses, gambling and Return to Jamaica A contemporary
depiction of
upon which many others were based.
going to the races and theatres, and also Morgan served alongside Jamaica’s newly Morgan’s attack on
visited his relatives in Wales.” appointed Governor John Vaughan, Puerto del Príncipe Bloodthirsty pirate
But Morgan could not get too but the latter appears to have disliked LEFT It’s claimed or brave buccaneer?
comfortable in England, because the king the ex-privateer. Vaughan complained Morgan frequently Three years after the libel case, Morgan
had need of his skills. In 1672, Jamaica’s that Morgan “has made himself and his tortured prisoners died at the age of 53 in Port Royal,
new governor, Thomas Lynch, had (in the authority so cheap at the port, drinking ABOVE Morgan the legendary home of the pirates and
words of historian Thomas) “sentenced and gaming at the taverns.” Vaughan depicted with privateers. In the centuries following his
Panama burning
those privateers he could and executed attempted to remove Morgan from his behind him
death he has been proclaimed as both
them,” a stark difference to Modyford, post, believing he had been carousing “a brutal, rapacious, lustful, murderous
who had “kept them close but with some with French privateers, but Morgan ABOVE-INSET villain” (A Romance of the Spanish
The ruins of old
degree of control during peace so that he claimed his actions were not illegal Panama – was this Main by Cyrus Townsend Brady) and
had them there for war.” and were actually in the interests of city burned to the as “a man of courage, determination,
Unfortunately, that same year the preventing French commissions. ground by Morgan bravery” (Thomas).
and his privateers?
Third Anglo-Dutch War began and, Vaughan left the island in 1678 and Today, Morgan remains a controversial
with the privateers gone, Jamaica was Morgan began the first of two terms as figure. Despite the bearded, grinning
now relatively undefended. In 1673, acting governor of Jamaica, focussing fiend adorning the rum bottles that bear
Morgan was questioned on how best much of his time on rebuilding the islands his name, we know he was no mere
to defend the island from attack. The fortifications. During this time his attitude bloodthirsty opportunist of the high seas,
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

king, satisfied upon hearing Morgan’s towards the privateers also underwent a yet this misconception continues. Some
proposals, bestowed upon him the dramatic shift. One evening he is believed defend Morgan’s actions as an archaic form
honour of a knighthood. A year later to have invited 17 men suspected of piracy of warfare, while others look upon him as
the ex-privateer found himself not only to dine and drink with him. When they a cruel monster. Whatever the truth, he
Sir Henry Morgan but also the new drunkenly confessed their guilt, he had will forever be remembered as the Scourge
deputy governor of Jamaica. them arrested and executed. of the Spanish Main.

57
 J T
EXPERT BIOS
JACQUELINE KENT TOM ROBERTS
Jacqueline is an Australian Tom is an historian and
biographer and author who has researcher and has authored
written a number of acclaimed several works, including Before
titles, including A Certain Style: Rupert: Keith Murdoch and
© Getty Images

Beatrice Davis, a Literary Life (Viking, the Birth of a Dynasty (University of

2001), which won Australia’s National Queensland Press, 2015) for which he
Biography Award. won a National Biography Award.

58
The life of transgender pioneer

e c am e o ne of the
el a n d p e r former b Q history
w th e m o d a in ’s L GB T
Ho igu r es in Brit
f ican t f
most signi tten by Em
ily Stanifor
Wri
th

orn in Liverpool in 1935, April Ashley lived a turbulent but glamorous story, a woman who became one of
vibrant but tumultuous life. She became one of the most well known transgender figures in British history.
the first British people to have gender-affirmation
surgery, a procedure she underwent in Morocco What do we know about the early life of April Ashley?
in 1960. The following years were a stressful time Quite a lot, actually. Ashley often spoke about her
for the performer and model: in 1961 she was outed in the childhood in interviews. She was born into a working-
national press, in 1963 she married a British aristocrat – the class Liverpool family, designated male at birth and given
marriage broke down shortly afterwards – and in 1969 her the name George Jamieson. George had a desperately
gender and identity were dissected by the British courts unhappy early life; having gone straight from school into the
during her high-profile divorce. But Ashley would not be merchant navy, he tried to take his own life and was forced
cowed and continued to work, becoming a staunch advocate to undergo psychiatric treatment and a form of aversion
for the transgender community. therapy. Life improved when he went to London and got
Here, we speak to Ashley’s biographers Jacqueline Kent even better when he changed his name to Toni April, started
and Tom Roberts, co-authors of Bonjour, Mademoiselle! April living as a woman and joined Le Carrousel, a glamorous
Ashley and the Pursuit of a Lovely Life, who tell us about her trans cabaret in Paris.

59
 Tell us about her gender-affirmation
surgery, how she felt about it and how
significant it was in 1960…
George Jamieson used to pray that he
would wake up as a girl and achieved
this ambition in 1960 when Toni April
underwent the necessarily brutal surgery
in Casablanca. In 1960 it was a decision
that took enormous courage because the
operation was only just being pioneered
and could have been fatal. But she never
wavered from her determination to take
this step and was delighted when the
operation was successful: the first words
her surgeon spoke to her when she came
out of the anaesthetic was: “Bonjour,
Mademoiselle.” Hence the title of our book.

What was life like for Ashley in the

aftermath of the surgery?
She changed her name from Toni April
to April Ashley and embarked on life
as a model in London. Because she was
beautiful – nearly six feet tall [1.8m] and
with a gamine Audrey Hepburn look – she education. Ewen Forbes-Sempill, for ABOVE-LEFT and it [was] decided his re-registration
had no trouble getting work and for a instance, born in 1912 and assigned Tall and beautiful, was invalid. It took three years and a
Ashley’s striking
while she revelled in her glamorous life, female at birth, was the child of a looks helped her lot of money before Forbes-Sempill’s
including a romance with a rich aristocrat Scottish lord and [lived] as a boy from forge a successful right to the title was conceded. Roberta
modelling career
named Lord Timothy Willoughby. an early age. In 1952 he re-registered his Cowell, who’d had gender-affirming
birth and changed his name, became a ABOVE-MIDDLE surgery in 1952, had gone to University
During their divorce,
What career opportunities were there GP and married, living quietly with his her marriage to
College London as a male, and had
for a transgender person in the 1960s? wife until 1965 when his elder brother Corbett was declared become known as a fighter pilot, a racing

l
null and void by

e
These depended wholly on the usual died and he applied to inherit. However, driver and a successful business owner.

ous
the British courts

r
trio of assets: social class, money and the title could go only to a male heir, April had none of these advantages, so

Le Car
because Ashley had
been assigned male therefore no means of earning a living
at birth apart from what she could find for
herself. Being spectacularly good-looking,

r is
she could seek work as a model or a film

de Pa
or stage actor. She had some success as
a model and hostess: for a while her face
was her fortune.

How working in cabaret changed April Ashley’s life

In 1947 Le Carrousel de Paris, a restaurant It was during this time that Ashley, having
and cabaret venue near the Moulin Rouge, been discharged from the merchant navy and
was taken over by nightclub owner Marcel working in a tea house in London, became
Ouizman and moved to a new base near aware of Le Carrousel as a drag cabaret
the Avenue des Champs-Élysées. Ouizman venue. She moved to Paris after getting a
had already been at the head of Madame job there in 1956, performing alongside stars
Arthur, Paris’ first ‘gender-twist cabaret’ that, like Coccinelle under the name Toni April. Of
from the 1930s, hosted performers known the beginning of her career as a performer
as ‘transformistes’ – usually cisgender men at Le Carrousel, Ashley said: “Little did I
acting as female impersonators. know it at the time, but I had found another
By the late 1940s the stars of Madame home.” While at Le Carrousel, she learned
Arthur were a group of transgender women how Coccinelle had travelled to Casablanca,
who performed as singers, dancers and Morocco, in 1958 for gender affirmation
entertainers. Acts such as Coccinelle, a singer surgery. Two years later Ashley followed
and celebrity, and Bambi, an Algerian-born Coccinelle’s journey and underwent her own
showgirl, gained top billing at Ouizman’s Le surgery by gynaecologist Dr Georges Burou.
Carrousel, helping it to become one of the The following year she officially changed her
most successful nightclubs in Paris. name to April Ashley.

60
 April Ashley

LEFT Ashley’s
modelling career
suffered as a result
of her outing as a
transgender woman

RIGHT She refused

to shy away after
her divorce and had
a variety of jobs in
the UK and abroad

How did Ashley get ‘outed’ as down after a short time she
a transgender woman and what felt entitled to compensation
effect did this have on her? and asked for the villa Corbett
A former housemate tipped off the owned in Marbella and which
tabloid newspaper The People about he’d said he intended to give
April’s gender [confirmation] and a her. Arthur counter-sued for
journalist came to interview her. She divorce on the grounds that
thought it best to explain the whole story, April had been born male and
which was duly published in November therefore the marriage was null
1961 with the headline “‘Her’ secret and void. The matter went to
is out”. As a result April lost all her court at the end of 1969, and the
modelling work and therefore her income, judge ruled that indeed the form
and was almost destitute. She was very of marriage should be dissolved,
bitter about it, understandably. since marriage was between a
man and a woman and April’s
What was the public response like birth certificate described her
towards Ashley once she was outed? as male. April left the High
As a result of the article in The People, Court with nothing except
April lost her entire modelling career. She humiliation and despair.
received abusive phone calls and letters; In its denial of
people would shy away from her at parties. legal status to
The aristocratic friends she had made transgender
refused to have anything to do with her. women, the
In fact, her entire social and professional ramifications
life in London collapsed overnight. of Corbett v Corbett were
April Ashley paid a very high price for
being the first transgender person with
considerable, in the UK and
elsewhere. The rights of trans Her entire social and
an established public profile to discuss
transgender issues frankly.
men and women were set back
for a generation. professional life in London
Ashley’s marriage to Arthur Corbett What was Ashley’s life like collapsed overnight”
ended in a high-profile divorce case following her high-profile
that had ramifications for both Ashley divorce from Corbett?
and the transgender community. Can She had no intention of fading away
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

you tell us about it? quietly: she had become adept at handling
The court case forms the centrepiece the press and she made sure that
of our book, and its details are both the media knew how she felt. “I am
fascinating and enraging. Briefly: completely unprotected and so are all
April married Arthur Corbett, a minor the others in my position,” she said. It
aristocrat, and when the marriage broke was true. Her knowledge that because of

61
 her birth certificate How significant a figure was April
her lived reality Ashley in transgender history and
and legal states what is her legacy?
were completely In her later years April gave a
at odds was worse great deal of encouragement to the
than devastating. trans community and to gay men
Her confidence in and women, as well as to people
who she was had been who wished to undergo gender
completely destroyed [confirmation] surgery. She was
and she needed to use appointed MBE for services to
every bit of her Scouse transgender equality in 2012; the
resilience to cope with the then-Prince Charles, who awarded
next stage of her life. her the honour, said: “April, this has
Fortunately, she was a highly been a long time coming, hasn’t it?”
skilled networker, as well as being There were other honours and awards.
charming and persuasive, and she used April Ashley was the highest-profile
these assets to talk her way into a variety transgender person in Britain for
of jobs. Capitalising on her notoriety, she a long time, and her wit and forthright
worked for a few years as a glamorous honesty about her life endeared her
hostess at AD8, a successful London to many. “I write to people all the
restaurant. When that job fell apart she time,” she told the ITV programme
relocated to Hay-on-Wye and worked for Loose Women. ‘’Being trapped in the
Richard Booth, a wealthy entrepreneur wrong body is a terrible thing, feeling
who owned and ran several bookshops so isolated and not knowing who to

“Be beautiful inside and that

makes you beautiful outside,
and be bloody brave”
(and who was very important in setting turn to or what to turn to. And so the
up the well-known literary festival there). advice I always give is: I cannot help
She ran a craft shop in the USA for a while you, I’m not a professional, but I would
and visited Australia before returning be very kind to myself and to other
permanently to the UK to live, becoming people, be beautiful inside and that
well-known on the TV talk circuit. makes you beautiful outside, and be
bloody brave.”
What were some of the other setbacks
faced by Ashley and how did she
overcome them?
BONJOUR, MADEMOISELLE!
There were many others,
APRIL ASHLEY AND THE
mainly concerned with
PURSUIT OF A LOVELY LIFE
(SCRIBE, 2024) BY JACQUELINE
health and money. KENT AND TOM ROBERTS IS
April suffered AVAILABLE TO BUY NOW
cardiac and other
medical problems,
possibly due
to the lack
of hormone
treatment after her
1960 surgery. She was always
short of money but her strong and
unsentimental work ethic saved
her; she took on a dizzying number
of different jobs in order to make ends
meet. She lived overseas in what she
considered enforced exile because of
All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images

her notoriety and she never worked in

England again.

LEFT In 2012, Ashley was RIGHT Ashley was

appointed a Member of the Order the highest-profile
of the British Empire (MBE) for transgender person in
services to transgender equality Britain for many years

62
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 Greatest Battles

S
cotland’s King James IV was a quintessential
Renaissance prince, ruling his kingdom in
an era when the great works of Greece and
Rome were being rediscovered and classical
culture reborn across Europe. He vigorously
supported the new learning, but a king’s first and
foremost role in that day was that of war-leader, and
James was every bit the warrior-monarch.
He adopted new weapons and tactics for his army,
and poured vast resources into developing a national
navy for Scotland that could compare with that of
young King Henry VIII in England, Scotland’s larger
and more powerful neighbour to the south.
There had already been much conflict between
BRANXTON, ENGLAND England and Scotland for hundreds of years. In 1502,

9 SEPTEMBER 1513 an attempt was made to bring calm to long-troubled

Anglo-Scottish relations with the nations entering
into the Treaty of Perpetual Peace, which saw James
Written by Marc DeSantis IV wed to Henry VII’s daughter Margaret Tudor (also

64
the sister of Henry VIII) in the next year. While this ORGANISING FOR WAR a strong numerical, and perhaps even qualitative,
agreement was not without its merits, it created an With Henry away on the Continent, another figure advantage over the English. It should also be borne
obvious threat to Scotland’s long-standing alliance would have to lead the defence of the English in mind that he was not seeking to conquer England,
with France should events force James to choose north. Senior command of the English army fell something beyond his ability, but to mount a short
between peace with England or his connections to 70-year-old Thomas Howard, the Earl of Surrey, and sharp raid in support of France that would win
with the French. and his son, also named Thomas, who was the Lord him glory and prestige.
Centuries earlier, Scotland and France had Admiral of England. The Scots had adopted the most modern
entered into the Treaty of Paris in 1295, which called The main commanders of the Scottish army, weaponry and tactics then in use in Europe: the pike
for either to come to the aid of the other in times which numbered an impressive 42,000, were of phalanx. This resembled a block of soldiers, arrayed
of war with England. This was the beginning of course James himself, and Lord Alexander, the in multiple ranks and files, with each man holding a
what was known in Scotland as the ‘Auld Alliance’, Earl of Home. Home had charge of Scotland’s 5.5m pike (an extremely long spear). The Swiss had
and it would play a significant role in the Flodden difficult East March on the border with England perfected this offensive formation as a way to get to
campaign. In 1513 Henry VIII, eager for martial glory, and was well-acquainted with warfare. But he had grips with an opponent as quickly as possible and
departed for France as part of his commitment no experience of commanding large numbers of trample them. James modelled his own army on
to the anti-French Holy League. In response, troops in a set-piece battle. that of the vaunted Swiss, and in the summer of 1513
James declared war against his brother-in-law, England was a wealthier, more populous French officers trained the Scottish conscripts in
mustered his army in late July and struck into and stronger nation than Scotland. Yet many of how to do battle in this deadly pike formation.
© Getty Images

Northumberland in the north of England in a bid England’s best troops were currently in France with Meanwhile the equipment used by Surrey’s
to show his support for his French allies. their king. In Northumberland, James would have English army was somewhat behind the times. The

65
 Greatest Battles

01 Opening salvos
The Battle of Flodden begins with
a cannonade. Though the Scottish guns are
04 The king attacks
Taking a pike in his hands, James
IV leads his own huge division into battle
heavier, and fire bigger cannonballs, the English and encounters the same difficulties with
gunners are more experienced and with their the rain-soaked mire that lies between the
lighter pieces inflict more losses on the Scots. Scottish army and their English foes.

02 The Scottish charge

Scottish Earls Home and Huntly
lead their pikemen into battle against the
enemy’s right under Edward Howard. The
English are routed except for a small group
of men around Howard, who is rescued by
Lord Dacre’s reserve of Border horsemen.
07

06
08
05

03 04

02

01

03 A muddy mess
Map illustration: Rocío Espín Piñar

Earls Errol, Crawford and Montrose

attack the Lord Admiral’s division with their pike
columns. Though English archery has little effect,
the momentum of the Scottish charge is severely
reduced by the deep mud and difficult terrain
along Branxton Hill.

66
 Battle of Flodden

05 Close combat
The momentum of the pike charge
has been lost, and the Scots throw down
06 King James falls
Seeing that the battle is going
against him, James attempts to get to
halberd, a relatively short 2.4m weapon combining
these weapons and fight with swords instead. Surrey and kill him. It’s reported that
These are outreached by English halberds and he almost reaches the earl before he an axehead and a spike was the ubiquitous
a bitter melee ensues. is himself slain. footsoldiers’ weapon. Also common was the famed
longbow, a weapon with which so many earlier
battles had been won by the English. Armies fight
with the weapons that have previously brought
them success, and the longbow was one in which
the English placed great trust.
In one very significant regard the Scots and
English forces were different from their medieval
forebears. Both sides had powerful artillery trains,
with the Scots having heavier pieces more suited
for sieges, while the English had lighter field
pieces better suited for open battle. An important
English advantage lay in their having more
experienced artillerists.

THE CAMPAIGN BEGINS

An opening Scottish move ended disastrously. On
13 August 1513, in what was later called the ‘Ill Raid’,
Home’s mounted raiders, slowed by their loot, were
ambushed by English longbowmen, who inflicted
heavy losses. Subsequently, the main Scottish
army under James crossed the River Tweed, the
traditional Anglo-Scottish border, at Coldstream on
22 August. Its initial target was Norham Castle, one
“NOW 8KM INSIDE THE ENGLISH of the great border fortresses. A siege began on 24
August, and the castle surrendered on 29 August.

BORDER, JAMES HAD DONE WHAT After an inauspicious start, James had won his first
victory of the campaign.

HONOUR REQUIRED OF HIM TO DRAW Two other strongholds, Etal and Ford, fell
in short order, and James made camp at Ford
from 1 September to 5 September. On the 5th, he
OFF PRESSURE FROM HIS FRENCH ALLY” established a fortified position on Flodden Hill,
overlooking Ford.
Flodden Hill, sometimes
referred to as Flodden Edge, was an
extremely favourable position, and
having deployed his cannons to
take full advantage of the high
ground, the Scottish king
waited for the English
to arrive. He was not
interested in going any
further south – now
8km inside the

Lord Admiral Thomas Howard

as he may have appeared on
the field in 1513

07 Stanley arrives
Sir Edward Stanley’s division
finally appears on the battlefield
and takes up position on the English
forces’ left.

08 Highlanders routed
The Scottish highlanders under Earls
Argyll and Lennox remain uncommitted to battle
while the rest of the army fights against the
English. They are put to rout by Stanley’s men.

67
 Greatest Battles

English border, he had done what honour required an era in which personal honour was all. To march
of him to draw off pressure from his French ally. away would have possibly resulted in his own loss
In the meantime, Surrey was raising his forces. of face and a diminishment of his position, since
While at Durham on 29 August he took possession Surrey had himself challenged the Scottish king
of the banner of Saint Cuthbert, patron saint to battle and James had accepted that challenge.
of northern England, for use as the standard So for Surrey, it was either fight now with a hungry
of his army. Surrey arrived at Newcastle on 30 army against a Scottish force in a good position
August, with the city having been selected as a on Flodden and likely lose, or risk humiliation by
prime muster point because it was a good port refusing battle altogether. He chose to fight.
through which supplies could be transported. On With James unwilling to leave Flodden, Surrey
1 September, having collected several contingents decided to take a huge risk. A frontal assault
there, Surrey moved his army to Bolton, where the against the fortified hill would in all probability
full English muster met him on 4 September. All be repulsed at huge cost to his army. But what
told, it’s thought that he had about 26,000 men about a flank attack? To the north of Flodden Hill
under arms, including 1,200 experienced marines lay Branxton Hill. If he could put his own army
from the fleet brought by his son, Lord Admiral on Branxton he would be between the Scottish
Thomas Howard. But the gathering was hampered army and its line of retreat back to Scotland. Surrey
by several days of bad weather. would turn the tables on James and besiege him in
With the armies now in close proximity, there his fort on Flodden. The earl decided that he would
came an exchange of heralds. On 5 September, cross the River Till, head north in a semicircular
Surrey sent Thomas Hawley, Rouge Croix, to the movement, recross the Till, and then head
king, while the English moved to make camp southward again for Branxton. On 8 September,
at Wooler Haugh the following day. James sent the English crossed the river and marched on to
a messenger of his own, Islay Herald, to Surrey Barmoor, where they made their final camp.
on 6 September. As well as delivering messages,
Edinburgh after the Battle of Flodden, 1513.
heralds were tasked with getting a good look at the BATTLE COMMENCES From Cassell’s History of England (1905)
enemy’s forces and positions. Hawley delivered the The English broke camp at Barmoor in the early
accusation that James had invaded England without morning of 9 September. The strung-out army was
good cause, and offered him battle on 9 September. vulnerable while on the march, but fate was kind to of nearly two kilometres had opened up between
James accepted the challenge. Surrey. His army crossed the River Till in two places: the last of his soldiers and his father’s main body of
The heralds returned to their respective armies his own main division at the Heaton Fords and the troops. The English were outnumbered as it was,
on 7 September. Surrey now sent Hawley back to vanguard under his son at Twizell Bridge, further to and if James had struck right then he might have
James with a proposal that the battle be fought the north and west. wiped out the advance elements. Learning of his
on level ground, which would mean James would The Scots knew of the English movement, but son’s difficulty, Surrey hurried his soldiers onward.
have to give up his excellent defensive position on appear to have guessed that the enemy’s objectives Meanwhile, James refrained from going on the
Flodden Hill. Despite his chivalric nature, he was might be Berwick on the coast or to mount a offensive, perhaps thinking that it would be better
understandably unwilling to do this. punitive raid into southern Scotland’s borderlands. to have the whole English army in front of him so
Time was not on the side of the English. Surrey’s But once it was known that Surrey had recrossed the when his pike blocks moved ahead they would
large force was proving difficult to feed, and he Till and was again west of the river, it was clear that crush the entire English force all at once.
would not be able to keep his army in the field for Surrey had outflanked them. Their once envious This gave the English the time they needed
much longer. With his supplies close to exhaustion, position on Flodden now left them overextended to form a proper line of battle in front of the
Surrey could have backed away from battle, not an in enemy territory, with no direct route back to Scots, between the slope of Branxton Hill and
illogical decision to modern minds, but this was Scotland. To make things worse, the Scottish troops the Pallinsburn, a narrow stream. They deployed
were still oriented in the direction from which in four major divisions. From right to left was
they’d hoped the English would attack, but Surrey the division, or ‘battle’, of Edmund Howard,
James IV was the last monarch from
the British Isles to die in battle had shrewdly refused to give the Scots what they comprising his retainers and levies. To his left
wanted. Now they themselves were in peril. was the Lord Admiral’s division. Beside that was
James reoriented his army on the fly to face the main English division commanded by Surrey
northwest along the nearby Branxton Hill, which himself. Behind them all were stationed Lord
would force the English to face the guns and pikes Dacre’s (Dacre was warden of the English West
of the Scots once more. The Scots would also have March) division of Border horsemen. Trailing far
the advantage of a defensive slope, just as they behind was another division under Sir Edward
had on Flodden. Their cannons could pound the Stanley, a younger son of the Earl of Derby. His
English from a distance, and if the artillery did not men would only reach the field a good while after
crack open the English line then the Scottish pike fighting had started.
blocks, attacking in echelon, Swiss-style, would. On the other side, from left to right, the Scots had
But not all was well. Though the repositioning was deployed their own Border horse and highlanders
carried out, it did not leave the Scots enough time under Home and Earl Huntly. Another battle under
to take a good look at the terrain around their new the Earls Errol, Crawford and Montrose was to their
position at Branxton Hill, and this was likely the right. Beside these earls was the king’s own division,
cause of much grief to follow. and on the far right was a division of highlanders
The English march to Branxton, once the commanded by Earls Lennox and Argyll. A division
recrossings were made, was troubled. Howard was under Earl Bothwell was held in reserve behind the
in the lead with the vanguard, but a yawning gap main Scottish line on Branxton Hill.

68
 Battle of Flodden
“TIME WAS NOT ON THE SIDE OF
THE ENGLISH. SURREY’S LARGE
FORCE WAS PROVING DIFFICULT
TO FEED, AND HE WOULD NOT BE
ABLE TO KEEP HIS ARMY IN THE
FIELD FOR MUCH LONGER”

It was late afternoon when the battle began with

a resounding cannonade. Scottish and English
guns opened fire, and the English had the better of
the exchange, with James’ weapons having little
effect on the English. The Scottish artillerists may
have had a harder time shooting downwards, and With their deadly halberds, the
English gained the upper hand
their shot did little damage, plunging deep into in the close-quarters fighting
the soft ground that had been turned into mud by
the endless rain. In contrast, the English artillery
train, despite being composed of lighter pieces,
was skipping their shot over the ground and killing The Scots pulled off their shoes to get a better the English to take prisoners. In addition to James
many Scots while they stood in formation. purchase on the soft ground, but their pike and Earls Argyll and Lennox, Earls Errol, Crawford,
Now the Scottish soldiers went into action. Home phalanxes were quickly losing cohesion, leaving Montrose and Bothwell were slain, while Earls
and Huntly’s division started first, and because them in dire straits. They threw down their pikes in Home and Huntly managed to flee to safety. The
the Scots wore armour the English longbows, also favour of their swords, but these were outreached victory wasn’t bloodless for Surrey – some 4,000
hampered by the wind, made scant impression by English bills and the Scots were unable to sustain Englishmen also lay dead on the battlefield – but it
on them. The hedge of Scottish pikes shattered their momentum. was a clear-cut triumph.
Howard’s division, with the majority of the men A bloody struggle ensued up and down the line Need the Battle of Flodden have turned out
fleeing the field, leaving him behind with just a of battle that continued well into the evening and this way? On the morning of 9 September, James
few retainers. Surrey restored order by sending in no quarter was given to the Scots, whether lord or had held a seemingly impregnable position atop
his reserve force of Border horse under Dacre. The commoner. With the battle slipping away, James Flodden Hill. Victory was close, if only Surrey had
horsemen rushed in, rescued Edmund, and stopped tried to fight his way to Surrey. If he could kill the done what James had wanted him to. Instead,
Home and Huntly’s forward progress. earl, he might salvage something from the day. It is Surrey outmanoeuvred the king with his risky but
Next to go on the offensive were the pikemen of said that he got to within a spear’s length of Surrey successful crossing and recrossing of the River Till.
Errol, Crawford and Montrose, who attacked the before being cut down. James’ body was found later Surrey pried James from Flodden and forced him to
Lord Admiral’s division. The earls found themselves with an arrow lodged in his jaw, his throat gashed fight from a less satisfactory position on Branxton.
unexpectedly bogged down in the rain-soaked and his left hand dangling from his arm. At least some of the unexpected difficulties that
grass, a waterlogged dip between them and the Lennox and Argyll, with their highlanders, had the Scots experienced when attacking over the
English, and then a slight ascent towards the enemy. in the meantime stayed out of the fighting, maybe waterlogged ground must be due to the Scots’ hasty
It didn’t help matters that the already dreadful because they’d received no direct orders to attack. repositioning, which did not allow for a proper
muck had been made even worse by the charge of Eventually, the straggling division under Stanley examination of the terrain.
thousands of Scottish pikemen. appeared, better late than never for the English, and In the deep, sticky muck of Flodden, the Scottish
At roughly the same time, James picked up a Argyll and Lennox’s men were driven from the field. pike phalanx soon lost its all-important cohesion
pike and led his division of around 15,000 pikemen Both of the Scottish earls were slain. and the shorter English halberd had the better
against the English. For the king to take such of the chaotic close-quarters combat. Perhaps if
an enormous risk to his own person may seem COUNTING THE COST James had had the benefit of fair weather and a
All images: © Getty Images

reckless, but this was an age when monarchs still Scots of all ranks lay dead in droves at Flodden. In flat, dry battlefield, he might have won a brilliant
led armies from the front as a matter of honour. His addition to their king, they lost around 10,000 men, victory over his English foes. That was not to be,
own pikemen encountered the same terrible terrain including large numbers of noblemen. Scottish and the king lay dead alongside thousands of his
as had the troops to their left. casualties were no doubt increased by the refusal of subjects before the day was out.

69
 What If…

Confederate victory at Antietam might have contributed to the

end of Abraham Lincoln’s presidency in the election of 1864

G
eneral Robert E Lee’s Confederate Democrats as well. The ante was upped again, and things can shift so quickly
INTERVIEW WITH Army of Northern Virginia was turned considerably when the most famous and dramatically in wartime. Look at the
back during the Battle of Antietam, Rebel army crossed the Potomac River summer of 1864: it was the darkest time
its first invasion of the North during into the United States. A Union defeat of the war, and it appeared as though he
© Dr. Gary W. Gallagher

the American Civil War (1861-65). General at Antietam would not have been good would not be re-elected. He issued the
George B McClellan, commanding the for the Lincoln administration, that’s for famous Blind Memorandum that stated
Union Army of the Potomac, claimed sure. It would have complicated Lincoln’s as much and that the war would have to
victory but has been criticised for failing life tremendously. It would have deferred be won before the Democrats took over
DR GARY W to win decisively. Still, Antietam was a the Emancipation Proclamation at least since they would not be in a position to
GALLAGHER turning point in the war. In its aftermath, for a short time, pushing that down the win after they had taken the White House.
Dr Gallagher is President Abraham Lincoln issued the road until what at least appeared to be Then General [William] Sherman took
the John L Nau
III Professor in Emancipation Proclamation, support for a victory had occurred. I don’t know if the Atlanta and General [Philip] Sheridan won
the History of the recognition of the Confederacy and even victory at Stones River in Tennessee in victories in the Shenandoah Valley. That
American Civil War,
direct intervention by Great Britain was the Western theatre at the end of the year turned things around completely, and
Emeritus, at the
Corcoran Department quelled, and Lee’s wounded army retired would have been enough. when things shift on the battlefield, then
of History, University to the safety of Virginia. So how would Lincoln would not have resigned. He morale shifts behind the lines.
of Virginia. He
received his Bachelor a Confederate victory at Antietam have had two more years before he had to run
of Arts degree at impacted the Lincoln presidency and the What would have happened to Lincoln
Adams State College course of the Civil War? if he had not been re-elected in 1864?
in 1972 and Master of
Arts and Doctorate Would he have survived?
at the University How would a Confederate victory at He would have become a one-term
of Texas, Austin,
in 1977 and 1982.
the Battle of Antietam have affected the president who’d failed, who had presided
Dr Gallagher is the presidency of Abraham Lincoln? over a failed war effort. A lot of things had
author or co-author The late summer of 1862 was a very to click into place for his assassination to
of numerous books,
essays and published difficult time for Lincoln and the have occurred. I think Lincoln would have
lectures, receiving Union. The terrible fighting of the had to be re-elected for his assassination to
many awards and Seven Days and then the defeat at take place. I do take John Wilkes Booth at
accolades as one
of the preeminent Second Bull Run had put Lincoln in a his word as he said he was in the audience
Civil War historians rough place. The off-year elections were when Lincoln gave a speech stating that
of our time.
looming, and the ability to retain control Black men would be given the right to
of the government was always linked to vote. That was it for Booth. He could not
how the armies were doing in the field. stand the thought of Black men voting.
The House of Representatives and the Lincoln won the election of 1864
Senate included many Democrats, and because Atlanta fell to Sherman’s Union
Democrat voters made up about 45 army and because of Sheridan’s Valley
percent of the electorate. campaign with the victory at the Third
RIGHT General To move forward on emancipation, Battle of Winchester. These occurred
Robert E Lee led the
Confederate Army into Lincoln needed broad support, and he not between the first and third weeks of
Maryland in 1862 only needed Republicans in the army but September, and then Sheridan won

70
 All Images: © Sara Biddle, © Getty Images

71
 What If…

THE PAST
1862
MCCLELLAN SQUANDERS
OPPORTUNITY
General George B McClellan’s
Union Army of the Potomac
substantially outnumbered General
Robert E Lee’s Confederate Army
of Northern Virginia during the
Maryland Campaign, but even the
discovery of Lee’s Special Order
No 191 failed to spur McClellan to
decisive action. The order, found
in a camp recently occupied by
Confederate troops, outlined Lee’s
entire plan for the campaign. When
he read it, McClellan shouted:
“Here is a paper with which, if I cannot whip
Bobby Lee, I will be willing to go home.”
Still, McClellan was slow in his pursuit of Lee
and committed his troops piecemeal during
Antietam, which resulted in a tactical draw
but enough of a strategic Union victory to
compel Lee to withdraw into Virginia.
ABOVE Union troops another victory, at Cedar Creek in October. the war when he said: “The progress of
charge Confederates at
the Battle of Antietam
These were huge victories, and that is our arms, upon which all else chiefly
1863 BELOW George B
the elephant in the room. If Sherman
and Sheridan had not won on the
depends…” To me, anyone trying to
figure out why this or that might have
McClellan commanded
battlefield, Lincoln would have lost the happened must always look at what
LINCOLN ISSUES
the Army of the
Potomac at Antietam election of 1864, maybe not to George the armies were doing. Trying to craft
EMANCIPATION McClellan, but to some Democrat. And a narrative that doesn’t involve the

PROCLAMATION
this is despite the fact that a Confederate military situation is so wrong-headed.
force under General Jubal Early had
On 22 September 1862, Lincoln issued
threatened Washington, DC, in June How would the Union war effort
a preliminary proclamation. The final version
of the Emancipation Proclamation was 1864 and actually lobbed a few artillery have been affected in the immediate
signed on 1 January 1863, and declared shells into the city. aftermath of a Confederate victory at
that “all persons held as slaves” in states During his second inaugural address, the Battle of Antietam?
then in rebellion against the US “are, and Lincoln acknowledged the significance General McClellan would have
henceforward shall be free”. The proclamation
did little to change the circumstances of
of the fact that the Union was winning hunkered down and stayed close to
slaves in territory not under the control of Washington, and a Union defeat at
the Union army, but the character of the Civil Antietam would have brought into even
War changed in that the abolition of slavery sharper relief that someone had to rise
became a declared war aim of the US.
up to command the US armies in the
Eastern Theatre of the war. Lincoln
could not just put a sign up that read:
1864 ‘Capable Army Commander Please
Come In.’ I don’t think a Union defeat at
Antietam would have lost the war, but
AFTER WINNING REELECTION, I do think it would have complicated
LINCOLN IS ASSASSINATED Lincoln’s life quite a bit.
Lincoln defeated McClellan in the November
election, 212-21 votes in the electoral college. Aside from delaying the Emancipation
“Lincoln was lucky that he had his best Proclamation, how would a
commanders come forward when they Confederate victory at Antietam have
did,” explains Dr Gary W Gallagher. “He was
impacted the cause of emancipation?
fortunate to have General [Ulysses S] Grant,
and that partnership was key.” In winning Emancipation was tied directly to what
another presidential term, Lincoln sealed the soldiers were doing. Wherever the
his own fate and was assassinated by John US armies went, there was a chance
Wilkes Booth in April 1865, just weeks after for emancipation. Juneteenth occurred
delivering his second inaugural address.
in Texas in 1865, and that was because

72
 The Confederacy had Won at Antietam?

THE POSSIBILITY
1862
MARYLANDERS SUPPORT
THE CONFEDERACY
General Robert E Lee believed that a victory
on Union soil might yield immense benefits
for the Confederacy, including the support
of Marylanders. Recruits, he hoped, would
rally to the cause and augment the ranks of
his battle-worn Army of Northern Virginia.
while he supplied his army in Maryland Maryland farmers would contribute to the
and the northern part of the Valley. Lee sustenance of the Confederate forces, and
Virginia farmers gather their harvests amid
knew he was outnumbered and felt that
a temporary peace. While Marylanders were
the best tactic was to make his opponent initially reluctant, a Confederate victory at
conform to what he was doing. He has Antietam might have led to Maryland seceding
emancipation didn’t come to Texas ABOVE Lincoln issued been criticised for that, but I think he from the Union and joining the Confederacy.
the Emancipation
until 1865. The Union army didn’t get Proclamation after
was right. The Army of Northern Virginia
to Texas until that time. Generals like victory at Antietam was played out logistically. Lee needed
Sherman didn’t particularly care about
Black people, but the army was the
ABOVE -RIGHT
to give that respite to the people of
northern Virginia and to replenish his
1863
A crowd gathers in
engine of emancipation during the Washington, DC, army as well.
Civil War just like the British Army had
been during the War of 1812 and the
for Lincoln’s second
inaugural address
What would have been the next military
GREAT BRITAIN INTERVENES
The British government weighed the
American Revolution. move of Lee and the Confederate Army advantages and risks associated with
of Northern Virginia following a victory involvement, diplomatic and/or military, in
the American conflict. The British textile
Would Great Britain have become at the Battle of Antietam? industry depended on the availability of
involved in the American Civil War with Lee’s army was really small in September Confederate cotton, but direct intervention
a Confederate victory at Antietam? and October, with about 50,000 men might mean war with the US. A Confederate
British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston and with only about 35,000 present at victory at Antietam, which followed the
battlefield success at Second Bull Run, might
and the Foreign Secretary John Russell Antietam, and it haemorrhaged [men].
have brought Britain closer to direct support
had already discussed the possibility McClellan had 85,000 men, so there were of the Rebel cause, perhaps even with
that Britain might attempt to broker real limits to what Lee could accomplish a commitment of naval and land forces.
a deal that would bring the war to an at Antietam, and the relative proximity of
end. A Confederate victory at Antietam the two armies to logistical support was
would have certainly brought some kind
of reaction from London. It would not
easier for McClellan.
Lee was not in a position to threaten
1864
necessarily have involved sending troops Washington, DC, or Philadelphia so I
to support the Confederacy, but who believe he would have tried to remain LINCOLN EXITS, DEMOCRATS

All images: © Alamy, © Getty Images, © Shutterstock

knows exactly what it would have been?
Regardless, it would not have been good
in the North as long as possible,
manoeuvring through the rich
NEGOTIATE PEACE
A Confederate victory at Antietam could
for Lincoln or for the United States. agricultural part of Maryland and possibly have led to the eventual end of Lincoln’s
defending the passes in South Mountain, political career and decreased the probability
Why didn’t the people of Maryland rally while knowing that every day he was of his assassination. Assuming he gained the
Republican nomination for a second term in
to the Confederate cause as General Lee on US soil would cause problems for the
1864, continuing battlefield defeats would
had hoped? Lincoln administration. His presence have meant the Democratic challenger in the
The Army of Northern Virginia was in there would also help the Democratic presidential election would likely have won
the wrong part of Maryland, the Unionist party’s opposition to Lincoln, and that the White House. A Confederate
part and the part that did not have many was good for the Confederacy. victory would likely have ended
General McClellan’s military
slaveholders. Lee’s army was in horrible If you swap commanders at Antietam, and political careers too. He
condition in the autumn of 1862, and only I believe Lee would have been the victor. had stated his intent to see
a general with Lee’s audacity would have McClellan failed to use his numerical the war through to Union
taken that army into the United States, superiority – some of the Union troops victory, denying his party
platform’s peace plank. The
crossing the Potomac River. were not even engaged in the fighting
end of McClellan’s ambitions
Lee’s army was ragged and in its at Antietam. After the battle, Lee stayed would have paved the way
worst shape until late in the war, but he on the field for a full day and then for another Democrat to take
wanted to give respite to the farmers of withdrew across the Potomac in one centre stage and negotiate
northern Virginia and provide them an night. It took McClellan seven weeks to an end to the Civil War.

opportunity to bring in their harvest, cross the river.

73
74
 Through History

ANCIENT INDIAN ARTEFACTS

A new exhibition explores the imagery of ancient
Indian religions and their role in today’s society

T
hree of the world’s oldest faiths
– Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism
– have been practised in India for
centuries, with ancient devotional art for
each religion created side by side in the same
workshops. As a result, the sacred imagery
of these faiths shares many similarities;
similarities that are highlighted in a new
exhibition at the British Museum that explores
how these beliefs have transformed over time
into the “living traditions” of today’s Hindus,
Buddhists and Jains.
In partnership with an advisory panel of
representatives from each faith, the Ancient
India: Living Traditions exhibition brings
together over 180 objects from the British
Museum’s South Asian collection and from
other institutions around the world. It
“examines how India’s ancient indigenous
religions moulded its sacred landscape and
continue to influence spiritual and artistic
traditions. Ancient India also brings to the fore
the provenance of every object, their stories and
the journey from their creation to acquisition
by museums.” The exhibition will also delve
into the importance of nature spirits in these
religions and how symbolic depictions of gods
transformed to show them in human form.

THE BUDDHA
IN CHINA
Inspired by earlier
Indian devotional
images, this
All images: © The Trustees of the British Museum

watercolour painting
of the Buddha is one
of the oldest in China’s
JAVANESE GANESHA
famous Library Cave This sculpture of the god
in Dunhuang. Dating Ganesha dates from between
from between 701-750 1000-1200 CE and was made in
CE, the artwork is an Java, Indonesia, from volcanic
example of how Indian stone. The pose of the elephant-
Buddhist missionaries headed god with his feet
spread their faith in together is typical of Javanese
other countries. portrayals of Ganesha.

75
 Through History

THE HUMAN BUDDHA

SACRED SERPENT
It’s thought that the
representation on this casket is
one of oldest dateable images of
the Buddha in human form. The Featuring a five-headed
gold reliquary is thought to date cobra, stone plaques like
from the 1st century CE and shows this were sometimes placed
Buddha standing between gods next to sacred tree shrines
Indra and Brahma. in India. Depictions of divine
snakes have been venerated
in Indian religions since
ancient times and continue
to be worshipped today.

ENLIGHTENMENT
Made from white marble,
this statue is in the shape of an
SPIRITUAL GANESHA
enlightened teacher from the Jain The god of new beginnings
religion, known as a tirthankara, Ganesha is worshipped across the
and dates from between 1150 and Hindu, Buddhist and Jain faiths
1200. In the centre of his chest, and is often depicted alongside
the meditating tirthankara has an imagery of nature spirits. In this
endless knot – a sacred symbol. sandstone sculpture he is shown
with a snake wrapped around him.

Ancient India:
Living Traditions
is at the British Museum
until 19 October 2025

76
 Ancient Indian Artefacts
DOUBLY DIVINE
In this painting, the Hindu gods Shiva and
Parvati are represented as two halves of one
figure. On the left side, Shiva is shown with the
River Ganges flowing from his head, while on
the right Parvati wears a crown.

All images: © The Trustees of the British Museum

FORTUNATE GODDESS
Dating from around 1780, this image is of the goddess Gaja-
Lakshmi (also known as Elephant Lakshmi). Gaja-Lakshmi is the
goddess of good fortune, with the elephant motif symbolising
monsoon clouds ready to bring life and fertility to earth.

77
 The books, TV shows and films causing a stir in the history world this month
© AP / Ron Frehm

DAVID FROST VS
Learn about one of TV’s greatest broadcasters in this new documentary
Directors: Matthew Hill, Liz Mermin, Francis Longhurst Streaming: Sky Released: Out now

S
ir David Frost was arguably one of the While the result is certainly emotional, this Hollywood film could portray. One of the most
greatest television interviewers ever to episode can’t help but feel slightly unfocussed. fascinating inclusions is the behind the scenes
grace the airwaves. In 1962, the 23-year-old By the end, it comes across more as a celebration footage from the original recordings, which
Cambridge graduate hosted the satirical That of John’s strength and perseverance than his provides a rare insight into one of television’s
Was The Week That Was, becoming a household relationship with Frost. most compelling moments.
name overnight. In 1968 he took his talent across More successful episodes, such as the one The crown jewel of the series is its finale,
the Atlantic when he began to host an eponymous concerning Frost’s legendary 1974 interview with focussing on Frost’s interviews with individuals
television programme on stations in the USA. Richard Nixon, spend time engaging with the at the heart of the Israel-Palestine conflict.
Throughout a 50-year career, Frost interviewed interview process as well as the subject matter. The documentary makers set themselves the
personalities such as John Lennon, Richard Nixon Celebrity life stories can be fascinating but are well unenviable task of covering the history of the
and Muhammed Ali (above, with Frost). documented elsewhere. Elton John’s life has been conflict, while also examining Frost’s discussions
Now, Sky TV’s new documentary series David the subject of numerous documentaries and films. with figures such as Yasser Arafat and Benjamin
Frost Vs tells the story of the TV giant through David Frost Vs is only truly engrossing when it Netanyahu. Alongside all of this it also wraps
some of his most famous and challenging devotes time to Frost himself. up Frost’s own story and assesses his legacy as
interviews. Each episode focuses on a specific The Nixon episode is a good example of this, a television interviewer and talk show host.
person or topic and explores the history of that where the history of the interview itself takes David Frost Vs is a compelling introduction to
subject, as well as Frost’s examination of them. up the majority of the runtime. Although this one of television’s greatest personalities. While
The episode focusing on Elton John primarily landmark piece of television was previously the some episodes are more successful than others, on
concentrates on the singer’s personal struggles, subject of the 2008 movie Frost/Nixon starring the whole it makes for fascinating viewing and is
bringing in everything from Ryan White (the Michael Sheen and directed by Ron Howard, a fitting tribute to Frost’s legendary talent. CM
American teenager who contracted Aids after a the episode shows that Frost’s ability to pull off
blood transfusion) to the death of Princess Diana. such a coup was far more audacious than any

78
 Book Film TV Podcast Games Other
Reviews by
Callum McKelvie, Jackson van Uden, Catherine Curzon

WHAT TO EXPECT WHEN YOU’RE

DEAD: AN ANCIENT TOUR OF
DEATH & THE AFTERLIFE
Everybody dies, but how have we dealt with it?
Author: Robert Garland Publisher: Princeton University Press
Price: £25 Released: Out now

“S
tudies prove that everybody dies deceased, the various attitudes attached
eventually” is an apt and amusing to those rituals and how practices that
opener from Robert Garland as are commonplace today were reserved
he introduces his tour of death and the for a select few during other eras. Garland
afterlife. It’s a tour that ranges from the best highlights this when talking about
prehistoric mists of the Neanderthals cremation, a commonplace method today
to the colourful world of the ancient that the ancient Egyptians reserved for
Egyptians to the stiff-upper-lipped criminals and the Holy Roman Emperor
attitudes of the British. Charlemagne outlawed entirely.
It’s a fascinating topic when you As well as an incredible depth of
consider that around 100,000,000,000 knowledge, one of the highlights of this
people have died since the last Ice Age, book is the occasional light, humorous
from societies and cultures that had touch that Garland brings to one of life’s
distinctly different perceptions, attitudes most difficult topics. He shows us how
and feelings towards death and what past societies dealt with death and the
happens afterwards. idea of an afterlife in a way that was often
Our favourite part of What to Expect full of vibrancy. JvU
When You’re Dead is learning about how
different societies disposed of their

THE SHAKESPEARE LADIES CLUB:

THE FORGOTTEN WOMEN WHO RESCUED THE BAWDY BARD
Discover the remarkable females who saved Shakespeare.
Authors: Christine Hainsworth & Jonathan Hainsworth Publisher: Amberley Price: £22.99 Released: 15 June 2025

T
his book tells the story of the four women who But despite the efforts of the Shakespeare Ladies
became the Shakespeare Ladies Club. Formed Club, many of their achievements are still credited
in 1736, more than a century after William to men, and the authors do their best to correct this.
Shakespeare’s death, these women loved the work They also delve into the legacy of the women and
of the Bard so much that their small group met consider their successors, celebrating the names
regularly to read and discuss the playwright’s of other women who have been influential in the
works. Highly influential in society, they threw Shakespearean theatrical sphere.
their weight and money behind a campaign for Unfortunately, because no contemporary letters
more productions of Shakespeare’s plays, helping or papers survive that document the meetings
keep his memory alive. of the club, we are denied an insight into the
Christine and Jonathan Hainsworth’s book gatherings themselves. This is not the fault of
is readable, accessible and sensibly laid out, the authors, of course, and we do hear from the
comprising short biographies of each of the women women via letters and other papers. There is also
before bringing their threads together. It examines a fascinating afterword that pays tribute to other
how they campaigned for a statue of Shakespeare scholars whose work into the Shakespeare Ladies
and more productions of his plays, and generally Club inspired and informed this book. CC
brought Shakespeare back into the limelight, with
each contributing to the status he enjoys today.

79
 RECOMMENDS…
Weird History of Military Theory and
the Victorians the Conduct of War
Thanks to much of the popular cultural output from Author Azar Gat Price £18.99 Publisher Hurst & Company
the era, the Victorians have a reputation for being a
relatively buttoned-up and mannered people. But
War has changed throughout history, most notably
from freak shows to the occult, there’s much more to
under the influence of technological revolutions in
the period of history and its people than that.
modern times. In his authoritative analysis Azar Gat
Out Out addresses the relationship between politics and war.
now! Buy Weird History of the Victorians in shops or online at
magazinesdirect.com Price: £14.99
now! He examines the meaning of victory and concepts
such as the principles of war and military doctrine.

AN ACCIDENTAL HISTORY
OF TUDOR ENGLAND: TO SUDDEN DEATH
FROM DAILY LIFE
A history of a people, through their unfortunate deaths.
Authors: Steven Gunn and Tomasz Gromelski Publisher: John Murray Price: £25 Released: 19 June 2025

I
n An Accidental History of Tudor While it might have been easy to
England: From Daily Life to Sudden compile a compendium of the Tudor
Death, authors Steven Gunn and world’s strangest deaths, instead Gunn
Tomasz Gromelski take a unique and Gromelski’s scholarly research
approach to a subject that has already and approach shines through. Their
been extensively explored. Over 300 expertise enables them to transform
fascinating and eminently readable what could be a simple approach into
pages, they delve into thousands something far deeper, bringing back
of coroners’ reports and discover to life names that may not have been
a history of Tudor England where heard in centuries. That these names
death tells the stories. belong to ordinary people, whose
Far from the dramas of the Spanish stories now weave into a greater
Armada and the endless cut and history of their times, is a fitting
thrust of Hampton Court Palace, testament to the role the public plays
this is a world in which setting foot in shaping their world, far beyond
outside one’s house can be dangerous, throne rooms.
let alone staying at home to face the Often moving and always insightful,
perils it contains. In these pages men An Accidental History of Tudor
drown in monster potholes, bell- England: From Daily Life to Sudden
ringing turns deadly, and even the Death serves not only as an historical
innocent frolicking of a puppy can record but also as a reminder that
prove fatal to its owner. Among the people really haven’t changed that
eye-poppingly weird stories there much at all. Many of these people
are run-ins with desperate criminals, will be instantly recognisable in their
tragic accidents, appalling domestic daily struggles and in illustrating
violence and all manner of sickness these similarities, as well as their
and disease. differences, it makes their stories
Gunn and Gromelski bring the even more compelling. This book
world of Tudor England to life as really takes the reader into the homes,
never before. Far from the nobles workplaces and surrounding streets
and aristocrats, they conjure up and countryside of the Tudor people,
a world of the lower classes and turning the not-always green and
bring it vividly back to life. Although pleasant land into a place where death
the foundations of this book are lurked around every corner.
in reports of death and its myriad An Accidental History of Tudor
causes, the pages bustle with life England: From Daily Life to Sudden
and colour. The authors evoke a Death is highly recommended and
“Rich in insight and compellingly sometimes-neglected and forgotten will appeal to a broad range of readers.
readable, this is a wonderful book with world in every word, bringing
together thousands of reports into
This is history at its best. CC

a unique and evocative approach” one remarkable social history.

80
 VS
Fact versus fiction on the silver screen

THE FLESH AND THE FIENDS

Director: John Gilling Starring: Peter Cushing, June Laverick, Donald Pleasence Country: Britain Year: 1960

This film tells the gruesome tale of Burke and Hare, VERDICT: Despite drawing largely on
the folklore of the murders, the film is
but does it sacrifice facts for blood and gore? more accurate than other retellings.

01 The movie follows William

Hare (Donald Pleasence) and
William Burke (George Rose) as they
02 Cushing’s Knox has a
damaged eye. This is factual,
with Knox scarred by smallpox.
03 Billie Whitelaw plays Mary
Patterson, a sex worker
who romances medical student
04 Burke is executed after
Hare gives evidence
against him. This occurred, but
05 Knox ultimately feels
remorse, but in truth his
guilt has always been in doubt.
commit murders in Edinburgh. They Cushing said Knox “closed his one Chris Jackson. Later, Jackson is Hare’s fate, blinded by a flaming Burke claimed Knox had no
sell the bodies to Dr Knox (Peter good eye to the way in which Burke killed by Hare. There is no evidence torch, draws on a rumour that he knowledge of their crimes but
Cushing) for dissection. The film and Hare obtained cadavers so he that Patterson was a sex worker, was thrown into a lime pit and many doubted how a doctor could
portrays five killings but Burke and could pursue his researches for the and Jackson and his gruesome ended his days as a blind beggar. not have been suspicious. Knox
Hare murdered at least 16. ultimate good of mankind”. death are fictional. We’ll probably never know the truth. relocated to London in 1856.
All images: © Alamy

81
 On The Menu

Did
you know?
This dish is
usually prepared
the night before,
allowing the flavours
to penetrate
the beef.

Ingredients

All images: © Getty Images

900g braising beef or skirt steak 1/8 tsp ground allspice

ROPA VIEJA
1 yellow onion 1/8 tsp ground cloves
3 bell peppers (green, yellow 120ml of dry white wine
and red) 235ml of chicken broth
4 cloves of garlic 480g tin of crushed tomatoes
200g of tomato paste 2 bay leaves
2 tsp dried oregano 1 large peeled carrot
2 tsp ground cumin 1 large stick of celery

STEWED BEEF SPAIN/CUBA, 16TH CENTURY – PRESENT

2 tsp sweet paprika 135g of green olives
1 tsp smoked paprika 20g of fresh chopped parsley

C
onsidered to be the national dish METHOD
of Cuba, ropa vieja doesn't actually
originate from the Caribbean island. 01 Preheat the oven to gas mark 4 (180°C) and thinly 05 Return the beef to the pot and add the bay
Its roots can be traced back to the slice the onions and peppers. leaves, carrot, celery and tomatoes. Add
Sephardic Jews of Spain and the wider 02 Pat the beef dry a little before seasoning with salt enough stock to just cover everything and
Iberian peninsula. A prohibition in Judaism and pepper. Heat a Dutch oven on medium high then cover the Dutch oven and transfer to
against work on the Sabbath led to the and add olive oil before searing the steak. To avoid the preheated oven to cook for at least 90
creation of this overnight stew made from overcrowding the pan cut up the beef and work in minutes or until the beef is tender.
beef, tomatoes and paprika. batches, if necessary. 06 Remove from the oven and take out the
The name translates as 'old clothes' but 03 Set aside the meat once browned, but keep any bay leaves, carrot and celery. Set aside the
don't let that put you off! Cuban legend has juices in the pan. Add the onions and peppers and beef and, using two forks, begin shredding
it that an impoverished man shredded and cook until tender. Add the garlic and cook for an it. Return the beef to the pot along with the
cooked his own clothes to feed his family, additional minute and then lower the heat. olives and stir through.
praying all the while, only for the meal to 04 Stir in the tomato paste and herbs, cooking for an 07 Return the Dutch oven to a medium heat
transform into a hearty stew of meat and additional minute. Then add the white wine and on the stove and simmer until the sauce has
vegetables. The ingredients for ropa vieja are, bring everything to a simmer for two minutes or reduced to a rich glaze for the meat.
therefore, fairly humble and cheap but offer until the alcohol smell has cooked out, deglazing 08 Stir in the parsley, season with salt and
plenty of bang for their buck. the pan as you go. pepper. Serve with rice and beans.

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