Dr.

Vandana Rathore
Associate Professor
[email protected]

Engineering Physics
Unit-1

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 Program Name:
B. Tech (Hons) in Computer Science & Engineering
(AI-ML)/Data Science/UX
Course Code: AC10087
Subject Name: Engineering Physics

Unit-1 Laser

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INTRODUCTION OF LASERS :

BASIC PRINCIPLE :

POPULATION INVERSION :

LASER LEVEL - TYPES AND

CHARACTERISTICS OF LASER

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 In 1704, Newton characterized light as a stream of particles. Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory
explained light as rapid vibrations of EM field due to the oscillation of charged particles.
Laser is the short form of Light Amplification by stimulated emission of Radiation. Laser is
light of special properties.
Plank introduced the "quantum" concept in 1900 when this was explained. The energy was
not continuous, it is discrete and can only be the multiples of a small unit.
Einstein proposed the concept of "photon", we can say light is composed of individual
particles called photons which posses a discrete amount of ENERGY or QUANTA.
Einstein also predicted in 1917 that when there exist the population inversion between the
upper and lower energy levels among the atom systems, it was possible to realize amplified
stimulated radiation, i.e., laser light.
When we know the principles of laser, this won’t be too big a surprise. But the wide and
continuously expanding applications of lasers are indeed miracles.

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BASIC PRINCIPLE : Absorption :
i. A system containing two energy levels namely the ground state and the excited state.

ii. The number of atoms in the ground state is more than the number of atoms in the
excited state.

iii. For an atom to move from the ground state to the excited state it should absorb energy
at least equal to the difference between the two energy levels.

iv. If E1 is the energy of atoms in the ground state and

E2 the energy of atoms in the excited state.

v. The energy required for excitation should be greater than or equal to E2 – E1.

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 (1) ABSORPTION PROCESS

E2

E1
The process of raising the atoms from the ground state to the excited state is known as
‘absorption’.
The number of atoms, per unit volume undergoing absorption will be proportional to N1, the
number of atoms per unit volume in the ground state and Q, the energy density of the incident
radiation.
The number of atoms undergoing absorption per unit volume per unit time can be
expressed as

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 N ab  B 12 N 1 Q .......( 1)
B12 is called the proportionality constant, which depends on the energy
levels E1 and E2.
Emissions :
An atom after absorbing energy goes to the excited state and does
not stay there indefinitely.

They make transition to the ground state E1.

(2) Spontaneous Emission :

• The spontaneous emission does not require any external energy.

• After its lifetime from the excited state atom goes back to the ground state.

• The average lifetime of carriers in the excited state is 10-8 sec, thus they go back to the ground
state by emitting energy.
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 SPONTANEOUS EMISSION
E2

E1

The number of atoms making spontaneous emission per unit volume per unit
time can be expressed as

N sp  A 21 N 2 .......( 2 )
A21 is proportionality constant, which depends on the energy levels.

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 (3) Stimulated emission :
The atom in the excited state is given an external energy
and is forced to go to the ground state.

The atom in the excited state is not allowed to stay for its
lifetime.

E2

E1
STIMULATED EMISSION

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The number of transitions per unit volume per unit time can be expressed as

N st  B 21 N 2 Q .......... ..( 3 )
B21 is a constant, which depends on the energy levels. A21, B12 and B21 are called as Einstein’s co-
efficients.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Oswmij538Q
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WJ05XOJiaDY

Thursday, September 15, 2022 11

Einstein’s theory of spontaneous and stimulated emission : At thermal
equilibrium, the number of upward transition should be equal to the number of
downward transitions per unit volume per unit time.

N ab  B 12 N 1 Q .......( 1)

N sp  A 21 N 2 .......( 2)

N st  B 21 N 2 Q .......... ..( 3 )

B12 N 1 Q  A21 N 2  B 21 N 2 Q .......( 4 )

Thursday, September 15, 2022 12

(B 12 N 1  N 2 B 21 )Q  A 21 N 2

A 21 N 2
Q 
(B 12 N 1  N 2 B 21 )
Multiply and divide by N 2 on N and D we will get
A 21
Q 
 N 1 
 B 12  B 21 
 N 2 
A 21 1
Q 
B 21 B 12 N 1
 1
B 21 N 2
Einstein proved thermodynamically that the probability of stimulated absorption (Spontaneous
Emission) is equal to the probability of stimulated emission i.e.

B 12  B 21
Then we have

A 21 1
Q  ........( 5 )
B 21  N 1 
  1 
 N 2 

Thursday, September 15, 2022 14

From Boltzmann’s distribution law, at a given temperature T, the ratio of the population of two
levels is given by

N 1 ( E  E ) kT
 e 2 1
......( 6 )
N 2
or
N 1 h  kT
 e ........( 7 )
N 2

where k is Boltzmann constant. Substituting the value of N1/N2 in this Eqn. (5), we get
A 21 1
Q  hv
B 21   8
 e KT
 1 
 
 

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According to Planck’s black body radiation theory, we have

8  hc 1
Q  h  (9)
 5 (e kT
 1)
Here ‘c’ is the velocity of light. If B12 = B21 = B, Eqn (8) can be expressed as

A 21
Q  h  kT (10)
B 21 (e  1)
Comparing the above Eqns. 9 and 10, we get

A 21
8  hc
 (11)
B 21
 5

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 Population inversion
• POPULATION INVERSION
• Under ordinary conditions of thermal equilibrium the number of atoms in higher energy level 2
(N2) is considerably smaller than the number in lower energy level 1 (N1), so that there is very
little stimulated emission compared to absorption. Hence under ordinary condition an incident
photon is more likely to be absorbed rather than emission. Hence laser action will not take
place.
• If however the larger number of atoms are made available in the higher energy level (N2> N1)
then stimulated emission will take place easily. This process of achieving the larger number of
atoms in the higher energy level rather than the lower energy level is known as population
inversion.
• The term population inversion describes an assembly of atoms in which the majority are in
energy levels above ground state (lower energy level).

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 E1 level is ground state, E2 and E3 are both excited states in three level but in four level E1
E2 ground state and E3 and E4 excited state. The pumping process excites the atom to go to
level E3 and E4 directly from E1.

Hence the population inversion can only be achieved by the indirect routes mentioned above. A two
level pumping is not suitable for obtaining population. The time span The time span , for which atoms
has to stay at upper
t level E2, must be longer for achieving population inversion condition. According to
Heisenberg uncertainty principle,
 E . t  

• Delta (t) will be longer if, delta (E) is smaller, that is, E2 is narrow. If is smaller, the
pumping efficiency is smaller, as a consequence of which less number of atoms are
excited, and population inversion is not achieved.

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 PUMPING
The process of achieving population inversion is known as “pumping” of
atoms. Most commonly used methods are as follows:
• Optical pumping (used in ruby Laser).
• Electric discharge (used in Helium - Neon Laser).
• Inelastic - atom - atom collisions.
• Direct conversion (used in semi - conductor Laser).
• Chemical reaction (used in CO2 Laser).
• Laser Medium:
• Active Medium:

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Laser action summary :
Step 1 : Choose a proper lasing medium
Step 2 : Establish population inversion by suitable pumping
Step 3 : Stimulated emission takes place
Step 4 : Positive feed back (optical resonator)
Step 5 : Amplification of light
Characteristics of laser :
(i) Directionality :
The directionality of a laser beam is expressed in terms of the full
angle beam divergence which is twice the angle that the outer
edge of the beam makes with the axis of the beam.

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At d1 and d2 distances from the laser window, if the
diameter of the spots are measured to be a1 and a2
respectively, then the angle of divergence (in degrees)
can be expressed as

For a typical laser, the beam divergence is about 1

milli radian.

(a 2  a 1 )
 
2 (d 2  d 1 )

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(ii) Monochromaticity :
•The degree of monochromaticity is expressed in terms
of line width (spectral width). The three most important
mechanisms which give rise to the spectral broadening
(frequency spread) are Doppler broadening, Collision
broadening and natural broadening .

(iii) Coherence : The purity of the spectral line is expressed in

terms of coherence Coherence is expressed in terms of ordering of light
field. (1) Temporal coherence and (2) Spatial coherence

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 Difference between spantaneous and stimulated emission
Property Spantaneous Stimulated Emission
Emission(Ordinary Light) (Laser light)

(1) Stimuli Not required required

(2) Monochromaticity Less High

(3) Directionality Less High

(4) Intensity Less High

(5) Coherence Less High

• Example 1. Find the intensity of a laser beam of 10mW power and having a diameter of
1.3m. Assume the intensity to be uniform across the beam.
Power P = 10 mW = 10 x 10-3 watt
Diameter d = 1.3 mm = 1.3 x 10-3 m

Power 4P
I  
Area d 2
4  10  10  3 watt
I 

3 . 14  1 . 3  10  3 m 2
m2

I  7537 W 2  7 . 5 kW
m m2

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• Example 2. A laser beam can be focused on an area equal to the square of its wavelength λ2 . For a
He-Ne laser λ = 6328Å. If the laser radiates energy at the rate of 1 mW, find out the intensity of
focused beam.

λ = 6328 Å = 6328 x 10-10 m

P = 1 mW = 10-3 W
A = λ2 = (6328 x 10-10)2 m2 = 40 x 10-14 m2
Intensity
P
I 
A
10  3 Watt 9 2
  2 . 5  10 W m
40  10 14 m 2
TYPES
CO 2 Nd–YAG He-Ne Ruby
OF LASER
LASER, Laser Laser
LASER
Dye lasers and Gas Laser
Laser Pump
Operation wavelength(s) Applications
medium source
390-435 nm (stilbene), Research, spectroscopy,
Other
460-515 nm (coumarin birthmark removal, isotope
laser,
Dye lasers 102), 570-640 nm separation. The tuning
flash
(rhodamine 6G), many range of the laser depends
lamp
others on which dye is used.
 LASER OPERATION APPLICATIONS AND
PUMP SOURCE
TYPE WAVELENGTH(S) NOTES

Interferometry, holography,
632.8 nm (543.5 nm, 593.9
Helium- Electrical spectroscopy, barcode scanning,
nm, 611.8 nm, 1.1523 μm,
neon laser discharge alignment, optical
1.52 μm, 3.3913 μm)
demonstrations.
454.6 nm, 488.0 nm, 514.5 Retinal phototherapy (for
nm (351 nm,457.9 nm, 465.8 Electrical diabetes), lithography, confocal
Argon laser
nm, 476.5 nm, 472.7 nm, discharge microscopy, pumping other
528.7 nm) lasers.

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 SOLID STATE LASERS/ SEMICONDUCTOR LASERS

LASER GAIN OPERATION

PUMP
MEDIUM AND WAVELENG APPLICATIONS
SOURCE
TYPE TH(S)
Holography, tattoo removal. The first type of
Ruby laser 694.3 nm Flash lamp
visible light laser invented; May 1960.

Material processing, rangefinding, laser

Flashlamp,
Nd:YAG 1.064 μm, target
laser
laser (1.32 μm) designation, surgery, research, pumping
diode
other lasers

Laser gain medium Operation

Pump source Applications
and type wavelength(s)

Telecommunications,
Semiconductor laser 0.4-20 μm,
holography, printing, weapons,
diode (general depending on active
Electrical machining, welding, pump
information) region material.
current sources for other lasers.

Optical discs.
GaN 0.4 μm
Nd: YAG Laser (Doped insulator laser) :
Lasing medium :
The host medium (active medium) for this laser is Yittrium Aluminium
Garnet (YAG = Y3 Al5 O12) doping of (with 1.5% trivalent neodymium ions
(Nd3+) present as impurities).

The (Nd3+) ions occupy the lattice sites of yittrium ions as substitutional
impurities and provide the energy levels for both pumping and lasing
transitions.
When an (Nd3+) ion is placed in a host crystal lattice it is subjected to the
electrostatic field of the surrounding ions, the so called crystal field.

The crystal field modifies the transition probabilities between the various
energy levels of the Nd3+ ion so that some transitions, which are forbidden
in the free ion, become allowed.
Nd: YAG laser
 The length of the Nd: YAG laser rod various from 5cm to 10cm depending on the power
of the laser and its diameter is generally 6 to 9 mm.

The laser rod and a linear flash lamp are housed in a elliptical reflector cavity
Since the rod and the lamp are located at the foci of the ellipse, the light emitted by the
lamp is effectively coupled to the rod.

The ends of the rod are polished and made optically flat and parallel.
•The optical cavity is formed either by silvering the two ends of the rod or by using two
external reflecting mirrors.
• One mirror is made hundred percent reflecting while the other mirror is left slightly
transmitting to draw the output

• The system is cooled by either air or water circulation.

ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM

Simplified energy level diagram for the Nd-ion in YAG showing the principal laser transitions
 This laser system has two absorption bands (0.73 m and 0.8 m)
Optical pumping mechanism is employed.
Laser transition takes place between two laser levels at 1.06 μm between (E3
and E2 levels).
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS :
The laser output is in the form of pulses with higher repetition rate
Xenon flash lamps are used for pulsed output.
Nd: YAG laser can be operated in CW mode also using tungsten-halide
incandescent lamp for optical pumping.
Continuous output powers of over 1KW are obtained.
Nd: Glass lasers are operated in the pulsed mode at wavelength 1.06 m
Nd:YAG/ Nd: Glass laser applications :
These lasers are used in many scientific applications which involve generation of
other wavelengths of light.
The important industrial uses of YAG and glass lasers have been in materials
processing such as welding, cutting, drilling.
Since 1.06 m wavelength radiation passes through optical fibre without
absorption, fibre optic endoscopes with YAG lasers are used to treat
gastrointestinal bleeding.
•YAG beams penetrate the lens of the eye to perform intracular procedures.
•YAG lasers are used in military as range finders and target designators.
 CO2 LASER
Introduction:
CO2 lasers belong to the class of molecular gas
lasers.
In the case of atoms, electrons in molecules can be
excited to higher energy levels, and the distribution of
electrons in the levels define the electronic state of
the molecule.
Besides, these electronic levels, the molecules
have other energy levels.
who designed CO2 laser in the year 1964…….?
Active medium:
It consists of a mixture of CO2, N2 and helium or water
vapour. The active centres are CO2 molecules lasing on the
transition between the rotational levels of vibrational bands of
the electronic ground state..
Optical resonators:
A pair of concave mirrors placed on either side of the
discharge tube, one completely polished and the other partially
polished.

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Pumping :
Population inversion is created by electric discharge of the mixture.
When a discharge is passed in a tube containing CO2, electron impacts
excite the molecules to higher electronic and vibrational-rotational levels.
This level is also populated by radiationless transition from upper excited
levels.
The resonant transfer of energy from other molecules, such as, N2, added
to the gas, increases the pumping efficiency.
A carbon dioxide (CO2) laser can produce a continuous laser beam with a
power output of several kilowatts while, at the same time, can maintain high
degree of spectral purity and spatial coherence.
In comparison with atoms and ions, the energy level structure of molecules
is more complicated and originates from three sources: electronic motions,
vibrational motions and rotational motions.
Fundamental Modes of vibration of CO2 :
Three fundamental modes of vibration for CO2
Symmetric stretching mode (frequency 1),
Bending mode (2) and
Asymmetric stretching mode (3).

In the symmetric stretching mode, the oxygen atoms oscillate

along the axis of the molecule simultaneously departing or
approaching the carbon atom, which is stationary.
INDEPENDENT MODES OF VIBRATION OF CO2 MOLECULE
Contd.
In the ‘bending mode’, the molecule ceases to be exactly
linear as the atoms move perpendicular to the molecular
axis.
In ‘asymmetric stretching’, all the three atoms oscillate:
but while both oxygen atoms move in one direction, carbon
atoms move in the opposite direction.
The ‘internal vibrations’ of carbon dioxide molecule can be
represented approximately by linear combination of these
three normal modes.
CO2 LASER
 As the electric discharge is passed through the tube, which contains a
mixture of carbon dioxide, nitrogen and helium gases, the electrons striking
nitrogen molecules impart sufficient energy to raise them to their first
excited vibrational-rotational energy level.
This energy level corresponds to one of the vibrational - rotational level of
CO2 molecules, designated as level 4.
collision with N2 molecules, the CO2 molecules are raised to level 4.
The lifetime of CO2 molecules in level 4 is quiet significant to serve
practically as a metastable state.
Hence, population inversion of CO2 molecules is established between
levels 4 and 3, and between levels 4 and 2.
The transition of CO2 molecules between levels 4 and 3 produce lasers of
wavelength 10.6 microns and that between levels 4 and 2 produce lasers of
wavelength 9.6 microns.
ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM Co2 Laser
 The He molecules increase the population of level 4, and also help in emptying
the lower laser levels.
The molecules that arrive at the levels 3 and 2 decay to the ground state
through radiative and collision induced transitions to the lower level 1, which in
turn decays to the ground state.
The power output of a CO2 laser increases linearly with length. Low power
(upto 50W) continuous wave CO2 lasers are available in sealed tube
configurations.
•Some are available in sizes like torches for medical use, with 10-30 W power.
•Some of these lasers are large room sized metal working lasers with output
power 10-20 kW.
• Recently CO2 lasers with continuous wave power output exceeding 100 kW.
• The wavelength of radiation from these lasers is 10.6m.