Chapter No.

1 Measurements

Science: Science is a Latin word that comes from Scientia means knowledge and is defined as “The
knowledge attained through study or practice”.

Physics: The branch of science in which we study matter, energy, and their mutual relationship.

Matter: Anything which has mass and occupies space is known as matter.

For Example: Pen, Table, etc.

Forms of matter:

Solid, liquid, gas; plasma.

Mass: The quantity of matter in a material is known as mass.

Weight: When the force of gravity acts on mass then it becomes weight (i.e., w=mg)

History:

Classical physics: (old physics / Newtonian physics)

Define The branch of physics that deals with heavy bodies moving at a speed less than the speed of light.

Example: Movement of sun, stars, earth, and moon, etc.

Quantum physics: (modern physics)

Define The branch of physics which deals with lighter bodies moving with speed approaching to the
speed of light.

Example: Movement of electron.

Speed of electron=1× 107 m/s

Speed of light=3× 108 m/s

Natural philosophy: The study of nature that was dominant before the development of modern physics
is known as natural philosophy. (OR)

When a man started to think and observe. He wondered about the world around him. He tried to organize
the disorders in the observed facts about the materials and the things in orderly manner. This result in the
birth of natural philosophy.
In the start of 19th century, there was a huge increase in scientific knowledge and was divided into two
classes.

• Physical science: The study of non-living things is called physical science.

For Example: physics, chemistry.

• Biological science: The study of living things is called biological science.

For Example: Zoology, botany.

Importance of Physics: Physics is the fundamental of all science because it is used is every field of
science.

1.1 Frontiers of science:

There are three main frontiers of physics
First Frontier:
➢ The world of extremely large objects.

For example: The universe.

Size: Objects having a size greater than Earth.

Second Frontier:
➢ The world of extremely small objects.

For example: Electron, proton, etc.

Size: Objects having a size less than a molecule.

1 dot contains atoms= 2 million=2 lakhs

1 atom have size=10-10m

1nucleus have size=10-15m

Third Frontier:

➢ The world of middle-sized objects.

For example: Buildings, Human beings etc.

 Size: Objects having a size greater than a molecule but less than Earth.

Concept: At the end of the 19th century, it was thought that everything about physics has been known.
But at the start of the 20th century, it was thought that some experiments related to our previous
knowledge needed modification. So, this is the dawn of modern physics at that time.

Science and technology: Science and technology is the potent force for change the outlook of mankind.
Internet media is a fast means of communicating and having close contact with one another. The event in
any part of the world will immediately reverberate around the globe.

Mcqs:

➢ Computer networks are the products of chips.

➢ Chips can be made from silicon.
➢ Silicon can be obtained from sand.

Physical Quantities: All the quantities which are measurable and have physical significance are known
as physical quantities.

For Example: Length, mass, time, etc.

Types:

i. Base Quantities.
ii. Derived Quantities

Base Quantities: The minimum number of quantities in terms of which the other quantities are defined
is known as base quantities.

The are seven base quantities:

Base Quantities
Length
Mass
Time
Temperature
Electric current
Amount of substance
Intensity of light

Derived Quantities: The quantities whose definitions are based on other physical quantities are called
derived quantities.
 𝑑
For Example: Force = F= ma, Velocity = 𝑡
etc.

Question: How base quantity can be measured?

Answer: Base quantity can be measured by obeying the following points

i. Choice of standard
ii. Procedure to compare the measured quantity with the standard.

Characteristics of an Ideal Standard:

An ideal Standard has the following characteristics

i. It is accessible.
ii. It is invariable

International System of Units: In 1960 an international committee agreed on a set of definitions and
standards that describe the other physical quantities. The system established by this committee is known
as the system international.

Types:

Base Units: The units assigned to the base quantities are known as base units.

For Example:

Base Quantities Base Units Symbol

Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature kelvin k, θ
Electric current ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol
Intensity of light candela cd

Derived units: The units of derived quantities are known as derived units.

For Example Unit of Force=F = ma

Derived unit ← 𝑁 = 𝐾𝑔𝑁𝑚𝑠 −2 → Base Unit

Supplementary Unit: The general committee of weight and measurement has not yet described the
certain units of different physical quantities either the base units or derived units. The units of such
quantities are called supplementary units.

It is purely geometric in nature.

Radian: If the arc length becomes equal to the radius of the circle, then the angle subtended at the center
of the circle is known as the radian.

𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Angle in radian = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒

⇒ It is the (2-dimensional) angle (For plane).

⇒ It is represented as rad.

Steradian: It is a solid angle subtended at the center of the sphere by an area of surface equal to the
square of the radius of the sphere. Then, the angle subtended at the center of the sphere is called 1
steradian.

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

Angle in steradian = 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

⇒ It is the (3-dimensional) angle (For space).

⇒ It is represented as Sr.

Scientific Notation: The numbers that are expressed in standard form which employs a power of 10 is
known scientific notation.

Example:

1234.0 ⇒ 1.234 × 103

0.001234 ⇒ 1.234 × 10−3 ∴ 100 = 1

1.234 ⇒ 1.234 × 10°

Conditions:

i. Decimal should be placed after the first non-zero digit.

ii. There must be some suitable power of 10.

Conventions for indicating units:

i. The full name of the unit does not begin with a capital letter even at the name scientist.
Example:

F = 5 newton

ii. The symbol of the unit must be a capital letter in the same of a scientist.

Example:

F=5N

iii. There is no space between the prefix and the unit.

Example:

L = 5 × 103 𝑚

iv. There must be a space between the numerical value and the unit.

Example:

L=5 𝑚

v. In the combination of base of base unit and derived unit. There must be a space between them.

Example:

𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗

= (𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒)(𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑)

= Nm

vi. Combine prefixes are not allowed.

Example:

⇒ 7 × 10−3 × 10−6 𝑚

⇒ 7 × 10−3−6 𝑚

⇒ 7 × 10−9 𝑚
 ⇒ 7 𝑛𝑚

Errors: All measurements are uncertain, imprecise, and imperfect which produces an error.

Reasons:

i. Faulty instrument
ii. Inexperience person
iii. Inappropriate method

Random error: Repeated measurement of some quantity gives different values giving random error.

Removal: This error can be removed by taking the average of all measured values.

Systematic error: Systematic error is produced due to a faulty instrument.

Removal: This error can be removed by comparing the faulty instrument with an accurate instrument.

Precision and Accuracies:

Precision: A precise measurement is that which has less absolute uncertainty.

i.e., least count = Absolute uncertainty.

⇒ smaller the least count, the most precise value will be measured.

Least count: The smallest value that can be measured with an instrument called the least count.

Accuracy: An accurate measurement is one which has less fractional or percentage uncertainty.

𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡
Fractional Uncertainty = 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡
% age uncertainty = 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
x 100

Example 1 Example 2
Length of an object = 25.5cm Length of an object = 0.45 cm
Meter rod (L.C) = 0.1 cm Vernier CALIPER (L.C) = 0.01 cm
Solution Solution
Precision = L.C = 0.1 Cm Precision = L.C = 0.01 Cm
𝐿.𝐶 0.1 𝐿.𝐶 0.01
Fractional uncertainty = 𝑀.𝑉 = 25.5 = 0.004 Fractional uncertainty = 𝑀.𝑉 = 0.45
𝐿.𝐶 0.1 𝐿.𝐶 0.01
% age uncertainty = 𝑀.𝑉 = 100 = 25.5 × 100=0.4% % age uncertainly= 𝑀.𝑉 × 100 = 0.45 × 100=2.0 %
Conclusion

Value of example (2) is more precise but value of example (1) is more accurate.

Significant figure: In any measurement, the accurately known digits and first doubtful digit is known as
significant figure.

Rules for finding significant Figures :

i. All non-zero digits are significant.

For example: 1 – 9

0000123 ⇒ 3

157911 ⇒ 6

ii. Zero between the two non zero digits are significant.

Example: 2002 have 4 significant digits.

iii. Leading zero are not significant even in case of decimal point.

Example: 00001 → 1 significant figure

0.000011 → 2 significant figures.

iv. Zero to the right side after the decimal point are significant.

Example: 22.000 → significant digits.

v. Zeroes to left side before decimal point may or may not be significant.

Example: 8000.00 Kg

It depends on least count of measuring instrument.

𝐿. 𝐶 = 1𝑘𝑔 → 4

𝐿. 𝐶 = 10 𝑘𝑔 → 3

vi. If measurements are written in standard form, then all digits except the power of 10 are
significant.
Example: 147 × 106 𝐾𝑚

For multiplication and division: The number of significant figures must be equal to the least accurate
factor.

Example: Factor containing the least significant figures.

Example: = 5.348 × 10−2 × 3.64 × 104

1.336

= 14.5768982 × 103

= 14.6 × 103 = 14600

vii. For addition and subtraction: The significant figure must be equal to the smallest number of
decimal places (i.e., smallest digits after decimal point).

For Example:

➢ 72.1 + 8.42 + 0.0032

= 75.5232

= 75.5

➢ 2.7543 + 4.10 + 1.273

= 8.1273

= 8.13
For Concept

If value is 8000, then significant figures are

i. If least count is not mentioned
S.F ⇒ 1
Reason: Bcz to avoid, confusion and zeros digits are ignored.
ii. If L.C is mentioned
If L.C = 1 ⇒ S.F = 4
If L.C = 10 ⇒ S.F = 3
Scientifically:
L.C = 1

L.C = 10

L.C=100
iii. Zero after decimal point are significant why?
Ans: If measuring device is more accurate then it may be another digit than zero.
Qs: Leading decimal zeros are not significant why?
= 0.008 S.F = 1
= 8 × 10−4 ⇒ S.F = 1

Qs: In standard form, power of 10 is not continued why?

Power of (10) does not affect the final result.
Assessment of total uncertainty in final results: To access the total uncertainty evaluate the total
uncertainty in the final results.

i. For Addition and Subtraction: Absolute uncertainties are added.

Examples

Distance (X) is determined between the two separated positions.

Where, X1= 10.5±0.1 cm , , X2= 26.8±0.1 cm

𝑋 = 𝑋2 − 𝑋1

X= (26.8±0.1)-( 10.5±0.1)

𝑋 = (26.8 − 10.5) ± (0.1 + 0.1)

𝑋 = (16.3 ± 0.2)𝑐𝑚

Range:

X=(16.3-0.2→16.3+0.2) 𝑐𝑚

𝑋 = (16.1 → 16.5)𝑐𝑚

ii. For Multiplication and Division: Percentage uncertainties are added.

Examples

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑉 = 5.2 ± 0.1𝑉

I = 0.84 ± 0.05A

𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼

5.2
= 0.84
⇒ 6.2

𝐿.𝐶
Now: %age uncertainty for 𝑉 = × 100
𝑀.𝑉

0.1
= 5.2 × 100
 = 2%

𝐿.𝐶
% age uncertainty for I = 𝑀.𝑉 × 100

0.05
= 0.84 × 100=6%

Percentage uncertainties are added = 2% +6% ⇒ 8%

8
8% = 100

𝑙.𝑐
%age uncertainty of R = × 100
𝑀.𝑉

8 𝐿.𝐶
100
=6.2

L.C=0.5

R = (6.2 ± 0.5)𝛺

Range:

R = (6.2 − 0.5→6.2 + 0.5)

R = (5.7→6.7) 𝛺

iii. For Power factor: Multiply the percentage uncertainty by that power.

Examples: Volume of sphere.

4
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3

% age uncertainty in V = 3 x % age uncertainty in 𝑟

Let 𝑟 = 2.25 ± 0.01 𝑐𝑚

4
∴ 𝑉 = 3 (3.14)(2.25)3

= 47.689 𝑐𝑚3

𝐿.𝐶 0.01
% age uncertainty in 𝑟 = 𝑀.𝑉 × 100 ⇒ 2.25 × 100=0.4%
Total % age uncertainty in 𝑉 = 3 × 0.4 ⇒ 1.2%

1.2 𝐿.𝐶
=
100 47.7

1.2 × 47.7
= 𝐿. 𝐶
100

0.6 = 𝐿. 𝐶

𝑉 = 47.7 ± 0.6𝑐𝑚3

Range:

𝑉 = (47.1 → 48.3) cm3

iv. For Average Value:

• Find the average of measured value.
• Find the deviation of each measured value from the average value.
• Mean deviation is the uncertainty in the final results.

Example: Diameter of wire (6)

1. 1.20
2. 1.23
3. 1.19
4. 1.22
5. 1.21
6. 1.22
i. Average value:

1.20+1.23+1.19+1.22+1.21+1.22
=
6

= 1.21

ii. Deviation: Deviation = Avg. value – measured value

1.21 – 1.20 = 0.01
1.21 – 1.23 = 0.02
1.21 -1.19 = 0.02
 1.21 – 1.22 = 0.01
1.21 – 1.21 = 0
1.21 – 1.22 = 0.01

∴ Hint: here, sign is ignored either positive or negative.

iii. Mean Deviation:

0.01 + 0.02 + 2.02 + 0.01 + 0 + 0.01
=
6
=0.01

So, Avg Value is

= 1.21 ± 0.01 𝑚𝑚

Range:

= 1.201 → 1.22 𝑚𝑚

iv. For timing experiment:

(i.e stop watch)

Dividing the least count by number of vibrations.

Example: Stop watch = 30 vibrations of simple pendulum are calculated

So,

30 vibrations = 54.6 sec

54.6
1 vibration = 30

1 vibration = 1.82 sec

Uncertainty:

𝐿. 𝐶
=
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

0.1
= = 20.003 𝑠𝑒𝑐
30

So, time period:

 (1.82 ± 0.003) 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Range:

(1.817 → 1.823) 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Dimension: SQ + MCQ’s

The power of base quantity in terms of which the physical quantity can be represented is known as
dimension.

MCQs: Each base quantity is represented by specific symbol written with in square brackets like [ ]. It
gives the qualitative nature of physical quantities.

Dimension of Base quantities:

Quantity Dimension
i. Length [L]
ii. Mass [M]
iii. Time [T]
iv. Temperature [θ, K]
v. Electric current [A]
vi. Amount of substance [N]
vii. Intensity of light [J]

Dimension of derived quantity: The dimension of derived quantities can be derived from base
quantities by two methods.

i. By formula
ii. By units

Quantity Formula Unit

Velocity d [L] m [L]
v= ⇒ [T] ⇒ [LT −1 ] s
⇒ [T] ⇒ [LT −1 ]
t

Acceleration 𝑉 𝑑/𝑡 𝑑 𝑚 [𝐿]

𝑎= ⇒ ⇒ 𝑡 2 ⇒ [𝐿𝑇 −2 ] ⇒ [𝑇 2 ] ⇒ [𝐿𝑇 −2 ]
𝑡 𝑡 𝑠2
Properties:

i. Pure number has no dimension.

i.e 1, 2, 3, 4, …………..9.
ii. Ratio of same physical quantity has no dimension.

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Example: strain = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

∴ Strain has no units.

iii. Dimension can be multiplied or decimal divided like algebra.

iv. Sum or difference of same physical quantities has same dimension even if there is a

i.e.,

[𝐿] + [𝐿] → [𝐿]

[𝐿] + 2[𝐿] → [𝐿]

[𝐿] + [𝐿] → [𝐿]

Applications: It is used to check the correctness of given formula.

Example:

1
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔

If both sides have same dimension. Then, formula is correct.

ii. It is used to drive formula according to the theory.

Example:

𝐹 ∝ 𝑞1 𝑞2

1
𝐹∝
𝛾2

𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹∝
𝛾2
∴ Coulomb’s Law

𝐾 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=
𝛾2

Principle of homogeneity: To check the correctness of given formula, if both sides have same
dimension. Then it is called principle of homogeneity.

𝑳
Example: 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√
𝒈

L.H.S: ∴= 𝒂 = [𝑳𝑻−𝟐 ]

𝑇 = [𝑇] → (1)

𝟏
𝒍 𝑳 𝑳 𝟐
R.H. S: 𝟐𝝅√𝒈 ⇒ √𝒈 ⟹ [𝑳𝑻−𝟐 ]

1 1
[𝐿2 ] [𝐿2 ]
⟹ 1 1 ⇒ 1
−2×
[𝐿 2 𝑇 2] [𝐿 2 𝑇 −1 ]

= [𝑇] → (2)

𝐿
From eq (1) and (2) : 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔

ii. V=f 𝜆

𝑑 [𝐿]
L.H.S: V = 𝑡
⇒ [𝑇] = [𝐿𝑇 −1 ] ⇒ 1

1 1
R.H.S: 𝑓𝜆 = [𝑇 −1 ][𝐿] ∴ 𝑓 = 𝑇 = [𝑇]

= [𝑇 −1 ]

[𝐿𝑇 −1 ] ⇒ 2

From eq (1) and (2):

𝑉 = 𝑓𝜆
Deriving a possible formula: The success of this method for deriving a relation for relation for
physical quantity depends on the correct guessing of various factors on which the physical quantity
depends.

Example: Derive a relation for the time periods of a simple pendulum using dimensional analysis.
The various possible factors on which the time period T may depend:

Solutions:

Time period depends on:

i. Length of a pendulum (L)

ii. Mass of the Bob. (m)
iii. Angle 𝜃.
iv. Acceleration due to gravity.

𝑻 ∝ 𝒎𝒂 × 𝒍𝒃 × 𝜽𝒄 × 𝒈𝒅

𝑇 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑎 × 𝑙 𝑏 × 𝜃 𝑐 × 𝑔𝑑 − (𝐴)

Dimensions of both sides: [𝑇] = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 [𝑀]𝑎 × [𝑙]𝑏 × [𝐿𝐿−1 ]𝑐 × [𝐿𝑇 −2 ]𝑑

Comparing the Dimensions: [𝑇]1 = [𝑇]−2𝑑

[𝑀]° = [𝑀]𝑎

[𝐿]° = [𝐿]𝑏+𝑐−𝑐+𝑑

Equating Powers: 1 = -2d

−1
2
=𝑑 ⇒ 1

Also

a =0

Also from relation,

0 =𝑏+𝑐−𝑐+𝑑

0= 𝑏+𝑑

−𝑑 = 𝑏
Using eq (1)

−1
−( = 𝑏)
2
1
=𝑏
2

Put values in eq A,
1 −1
𝑇 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑚° × 𝐿2 × 1 × 𝑔 2
1 −1
𝑇 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 1 × 𝐿2 × 1 × 𝑔 2
1
𝐿2
𝑇 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 1
𝑔2

𝐿
𝑇 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 √
𝑔

Numerical:

1.1: A light year is the distance light travels in one year? (Speed of light = 3.0 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1)

Given data:

𝑡 = 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

= 365 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠

= 365 × 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

365 × 24 × 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑡

= 365 × 24 × 60 × 60𝑠

𝑉 = 𝐶 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 3.0 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1

Formula: S = Vt

Sol: = 3.0 × 108 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60

Result: =9.4608 × 1015 𝑚

1.2: a) How many seconds are there in 1 year?

b) How many nanoseconds in 1 years?

 c) How many years in 1 second?

a) t=( ) years.

t = 1 year

= 365 days

= 365 × 24 ℎ

= 365 × 24ℎ × 60𝑚𝑖𝑛

= 365 x 24 x 60 x 60

t = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟓𝟑𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒔

b) t = ( ) ns.

t = 1 year

= 3.1536 × 107 𝑠

Multiply & ÷ 𝑖𝑛𝑔 by 109

7
109
𝑡 = 3.1536 × 10 𝑠 × 9
10

∴ 10−9 = 𝑛

= 3.1536 × 107+9 × 10−9

𝒕 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟓𝟑𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝒏𝒔

c) t( ) 1

t = 1 year

= 3.1536 × 107 𝑠

1 year = t

3.1536 × 107

0.31709 × 10−7 = 𝑡

3.17 × 10−1 × 10−7 = 𝑡

3.17 × 10−8 𝑠 =𝑡

1.3: The length and width of a rectangular plate are measured to be 15.3 cm and 12.80cm,
respectively. Find the area of the plate.
Given data ∴ Hint
L=15.3 cm There are three least significant figures.
W = 12.8 cm
A=?
Formula: A = 𝐿 × 𝑊

Sol: = 15.3 x 12.8

= 195.84 𝑐𝑚2

Result: A = 196 𝑐𝑚2

1.4: Add the following masses given in Kg upto appropriate precision 2.189, 0.089, 11.8, and 5.32.

Given data ∴ Hint

𝑚1 = 2.189 There are 1 least S.F in 11.8.
𝑚2 = 0.089
𝑚3 = 11.8
𝑚4 = 5.32
Formula: Masses = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 + 𝑚4

Sol: = 2.189 + 0.089 + 11.8 + 5.32

= 19.398

Result: mases = 19.4 Kg

𝑮 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
1.6: What are the dimensions and units gravitational constant G in the formula 𝑭 =
𝜸𝟐

𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2
Given data: 𝐹 = 𝛾2

To find: Unit of G = ?

Dimensions of G = ?

Sol: 𝐺 = 𝑁𝑚2

Kg x kg

𝐺 = 𝑁𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2

Hint: F = ma

𝑁 = 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −2

𝑁 = [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ]

Dimensions:

𝐺 = [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ]−2 [𝐿]2

 [𝑀][𝑀]

= [𝑀𝐿3 𝑇 −2 ]

[𝑀]2

2[𝑀1−2 𝐿3 𝑇 −2 ]

= [𝑀−1 𝐿3 𝑇 −2 ]

1.7: Show that expression 𝑽𝒇 = 𝑽𝒊 + is dimensionally correct, where vi is the velocity at t = O, is

acceleration and 𝑽𝒇 is velocity at time t.

Data: 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡

Dimensionally correct = ?

Solution: L.H.S

𝑽𝒇 = [𝑳𝑻−𝟏 ] (1)

Vi + at

[𝐿𝑇 −1 ] + [𝐿𝑇 −2 ] [𝑇]

[𝐿𝑇 −1 ] + [𝐿𝑇 −1 ]

[𝐿𝑇 −1 ] → (2)

From eq (i) and (ii)

𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡

1.8: Speed of sound = v → depends on:

(i) Density of medium (p)

(ii) Elasticity of medium (E)

𝑉 ∝ 𝑃𝑎 𝐸 𝑏

𝑉 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑃𝑎 𝐸 𝑏

𝑉 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑎 𝐸 𝑏 → (𝐴)

Putting the dimensions:

[𝐿𝑇 −1 ] = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 [𝑀𝐿−3 ]𝑎 [𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2 ]6

Comparing the dimension:

 [𝐿]+ = [𝐿]−3𝑎−𝑏

[𝐿]−1 = [𝑇]−2𝑏

[𝑀]° = [𝑀]𝑎+𝑏

Equating the power:

⇒ 1 = −3𝑎 − 𝑏

⇒ −1 = −2𝑏

−1
=𝑏
−2
1
=𝑏
2

⇒𝑂 =𝑎+𝑏

A = -b

Putting the value of B

−1
𝑎=
2

Put the powers in eq A

−1 1
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑃 2 𝐸 𝑃2
1
𝐸2
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 1
𝑃2

𝐸
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 √
𝑃

1.9: E = 𝒎𝑪𝟐 Einstein equation Dimensionally consistant=?

Sol:

L.H.S:

E=W = Fd = mad

𝐸 = [𝑀][𝐿𝑇 −2 ][𝐿]

𝐸 = [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ] 𝑉 = 𝐶 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

R.H.S:

𝑚𝑐 2 = [𝑀][𝐿𝑇 −1 ]2

= [𝑀][𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]

𝑚𝑐 2 = [𝑀][𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ] (2)

From eq (i) and (ii)

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

1.10: Suppose, we are told that the acceleration of a particle moving in a circle of radius 𝜸,with
uniform speed V is proportional to some power 𝜸, say 𝜸𝒏 , and some power of v, say 𝑽𝒎 , determine
the power of 𝜸 and v.

Acceleration depends on:

i. 𝜸𝒎
ii. 𝑽𝒎

Determine the power 𝝉 nd vs.

𝛼 ∝ 𝛾𝑛𝑣𝑚

𝑎 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝛾 𝑛 𝑣 𝑚

Putting the dimensions:

[𝐿𝑇 −2 ] = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 [𝐿]𝑛 [𝐿𝑇 −1 ]𝑚

Comparing the dimensions:

[𝐿] = [𝐿]𝑛+𝑚

[𝑇]−2 = [𝑇]−𝑚

Equating powers:

1= n + m

2=-m

2=m

1=n+2

1= n + 2

1-2=n
-1 = n

𝟏
1. 5: Find the value of ‘g’ and its uncertainty using 𝜸 = 𝟐𝝅√𝒈 made during an experiment length of
simple pendulum 1.100cm. time for 20 vibrations = 40.7s length was measured by a metre rod scale
of accuracy upto 1 mm and time by stop watch of accuracy upto 0.1s.

Given:

1
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔

1
∴ 100 ×
100

𝐿 = 100𝐶𝑚 ⇒ 100 × 10−2 𝑚 = 1𝑚

40.2
20 vibrations = 40.2s ⇒ 1 vibration = 20
= 2.01𝑠

L.C of meter rod = 1mm ⇒ 10 x 10−3 𝑚

1
= 102
= 0.001𝑚

𝐿. 𝐶 of stop watch = 0.1s

To find: g = ?

Uncertainty of g = ?

𝐿
Solution: T = 2𝜋√𝑔

Taking a square on b.s

2
𝐿
(𝑇)2 = (2𝜋√ )
𝑔

1
𝑇 2 = 4𝜋 2 ( )
𝑔

1
𝑔 = 4𝜋 2 ( )
𝑇2

Putting the values:

1
𝑔 = 4(3.14)2 ×
(2.01)2
 9.76𝑚𝑠 −2

Uncertainty of g:

%age of uncertainty of g = %age uncertainty of L + % age uncertainty of 𝑇 2

= % age uncertainty of L + 2 + % age uncertainty of T (a)

𝑳.𝑪
% age uncertainty of T = X 100
𝑴.𝑽

Uncertainty of time measurement = L. C No. of vibrations

0.1
L.C (Absolute uncertainty ) = 20
⇒ 0.005

Put in equ (1)

0.005
% age uncertainty of time = 2.01
× 100

= 0.248%

= 0.25%

Put in eq (A)

% age uncertainty of g = % age uncertainty of L + 2x % age uncertainty of T

= 0.1 + 2 (0.25)

= 0.6%
0.6
=9.76 ×
100

= 0.06

= (9.76 ± 0.06)𝑚𝑠 −2