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Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
GAS CLOSED SYSTEM CYCLES
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Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
GAS CLOSED SYSTEM CYCLES
CHIH WU
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Copyright © 2009 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
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PUBLISHERS.
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
CONTENTS
Preface vii
Chapter 1 Otto Cycle 1
Chapter 1A Wankel Engine 17
Chapter 2 Diesel Cycle 19
Chapter 3 Atkinson Cycle 33
Chapter 4 Dual Cycle 37
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Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
PREFACE
Heat engines that use gases as the working fluid in a closed system model
were discussed in this book. Otto cycle, Diesel, Miller, and Dual cycle are internal
combustion engines. Stirling cycle is an external combustion engine. The Otto
cycle is a spark-ignition reciprocating engine made of an isentropic compression
process, a constant volume combustion process, an isentropic expansion process,
and a constant volume cooling process. The thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle
depends on its compression ratio. The compression ratio is defined as
r=Vmax/Vmin. The Otto cycle efficiency is limited by the compression ratio
because of the engine knock problem.The Diesel cycle is a compression-ignition
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Chapter 1
OTTO CYCLE
The piston in a four stroke internal combustion engine executes four complete
strokes as the crankshaft completes two revolution per cycle as shown in Figure
9.1.1. On the intake stroke, the intake valve is open and the piston moves
downward in the cylinder, drawing in a premixed charge of gasoline and air until
the piston reaches its lowest point of the stroke called bottom dead center (BDC).
During the compression stroke the intake valve closes and the piston moves
toward the top of the cylinder, compressing the fuel-air mixture. As the piston
approaches the top of the cylinder called top dead center (TDC), the spark plug is
energized and the mixture ignites, creating an increase in the temperature and
pressure of the gas. During the expansion stroke the piston is forced down by the
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
2 Chih Wu
high pressure gas, producing a useful work output. The cycle is then completed
when the exhaust valve opens and the piston moves toward the top of the cylinder,
expelling the products of combustion.
The thermodynamic analysis of an actual Otto cycle is complicated. To
simplify the analysis, we consider an ideal Otto cycle composed entirely of
internally reversible processes. In the Otto cycle analysis, a closed piston-cylinder
assembly is used as a control mass system.
The cycle is made of the following four processes:
The p-v and T-s process diagrams for the ideal two-stroke Otto cycle are
illustrated in Figure 9.1.2.
T 3 p 3
2
2
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1
4
1
s v
piston
displacement
Applying the First law and Second law of thermodynamics of the closed
system to each of the four processes of the cycle yields:
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Otto Cycle 3
and
The net work (Wnet), which is also equal to net heat (Qnet), is
η = Wnet /Q23 =Qnet /Q23 = 1- Q41 /Q23 =1- (u4 - u1)/(u3 - u2 ) (9.1.10)
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
This expression for thermal efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle can be simplified
if air is assumed to be the working fluid with constant specific heats. Equation
(9.1.10) is reduced to:
where r is the compression ratio for the engine defined by the equation
r = V1 /V2 (9.1.12)
The compression ratio is the ratio of the cylinder volume at the beginning of
the compression process (BDC) to the cylinder volume at the end of the
compression process (TDC).
Equation (9.1.11) shows that the thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle is only a
function of the compression ratio of the engine. Therefore, any engine design that
increases the compression ratio should result in an increased engine efficiency.
However, the compression ratio cannot be increased indefinitely. As the
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
4 Chih Wu
compression ratio increases, the temperature of the working fluid also increases
during the compression process. Eventually, a temperature is reached that is
sufficiently high to ignite the air-fuel mixture prematurely without the presence of
a spark. This condition causes the engine to produce a noise called knock. The
presence of engine knock places a barrier on the upper limit of Otto engine
compression ratios. To reduce engine knock problem of a high compression ratio
Otto cycle, one must use gasoline with higher octane rating. In general, the higher
the octane rating number of gasoline, the higher the resistance of engine knock.
One way to simplify the calculation of the net work of the cycle and to
provide a comparative measure of the performance of an Otto heat engine is to
introduce the concept of the mean effective pressure. The mean effective pressure
(MEP) is the average pressure of the cycle. The net work of the cycle is equal to
the mean effective pressure multiplied by the displacement volume of the
cylinder. That is
The engine with the larger MEP value of two engines of equal cylinder
displacement volume would be the better one, because it would produce a greater
net work output.
The intake and exhaust in the two-stroke Otto cycle occur instantaneously. In
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
order to make the intake and exhaust processes much better, a four-stroke Otto
cycle is commonly used as shown in Figure 9.1.3.
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Otto Cycle 5
When the piston reaches BDC, the exhaust valve is opened, reducing cylinder
pressure to the initial pressure, with a corresponding decrease of temperature
(process 4-1). Finally to complete the four-stroke cycle, with the exhaust valve
open, the piston is pushed upward (process 1-0), clearing the cylinder of the
combustion gases. For each complete cycle of the four-stroke cycle, there are four
strokes and hence two crankshaft revolutions. The power developed by the engine
is give by
Wdot=Wnet(N/2)
where Wdot is the power output, Wnet is the net engine work output per cycle, and
N is the crankshaft revolutions per unit time, respectively.
The Otto cycle can operate either on a two-stroke or a four-stroke cycle.
The advantage of the two-stroke Otto cycle is that it provides twice as many
power strokes as the four-stroke cycle per cylinder per crank shaft revolution.
However, the processes of intake and exhaust scavenging are not as efficient as
those with a four-stroke cycle. It is possible to lose some of the fresh fuel-air
mixture out of the exhaust prior to combustion, and it is also possible for an
appreciable fraction of the burned gases to remain in the cylinder. For these
reasons, the actual power output of the two-stroke cycle is certainly not twice as
great as might be predicted from the number of power strokes per revolution.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Also, the poor intake and scavenging efficiency of the two-stroke cycle leads to a
worsening in fuel economy, compared to a four-stroke cycle. Furthermore, with
the crankcase of the two-stroke cycle used for compressing the incoming charge,
it is not available for lubrication. Therefore, the two-stroke engine cannot be
lubricated as easily as the four-stroke engine. Oil must be mixed with the fuel in
the two-stroke engine to achieve adequate lubrication. For all these reasons, the
two-stroke Otto engine has only a limited application in which fuel economy and
pollution are not primary factors.
EXAMPLE 9.1.1.
An engine operates on the Otto cycle and has a compression ratio of 8. Fresh
air enters the engine at 27ºC and 100 kPa. The amount of heat addition is 700
kJ/kg. The amount of air mass in the cylinder is 0.01 kg. Determine the pressure
and temperature at the end of the combustion, the pressure and temperature at the
end of the expansion, MEP, efficiency and work output per kilogram of air. Show
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
6 Chih Wu
the cycle on T-s diagram. Plot the sensitivity diagram of cycle efficiency vs
compression ratio.
To solve this problem by CyclePad, we take the following steps:
1. Build
(A) Take a compression device, a combustion chamber, an expander and
a cooler from the closed system inventory shop and connect the four
devices to form the Otto cycle as shown in Figure 9.1.2.
(B) Switch to analysis mode.
2. Analysis
(A) Assume a process for each of the four processes: (a) compression
device as adiabatic and isentropic, (b) combustion as isochoric, (c)
expander as adiabatic and isentropic, and (d) cooler as isochoric.
(B) Input the given information: (a) working fluid is air, (b) the inlet
pressure and temperature of the compression device are 100 kPa and
27ºC, (c) the compression ratio of the compression device is 8, (d)
the heat addition is 700 kJ/kg in the combustion chamber, and (e)
m=0.01 kg.
3. Display results
(A) Display the T-s diagram and cycle properties results as shown in
Figure E9.1.1.a and b. The cycle is a heat engine. The answers are:
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
p=4441 kPa and T=1393ºC (the pressure and temperature at the end
of the combustion), p=241.6 kPa and T=452.1ºC (the pressure and
temperature at the end of the expansion), MEP=525.0 kPa, η=56.47%
and Wnet=3.95 kJ, and
(B) Display the sensitivity diagram of cycle efficiency vs compression
ratio as shown in Figure E9.1.1.c.
Compression
S2 Combustion S3 Expansion S4
Exhaust
S1
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Otto Cycle 7
EXAMPLE 9.1.2.
The compression ratio in an Otto cycle is 8. If the air before compression
(state 1) is at 60ºF and 14.7 psia and 800 Btu/lbm is added to the cycle and the
mass of air contained in the cylinder is 0.025 lbm, Calculate (a) temperature and
pressure at each point of the cycle, (b) the heat must be removed, (c) the thermal
efficiency, and (d) the MEP of the cycle.
To solve this problem by CyclePad, we take the following steps:
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
8 Chih Wu
1. Build
(A) Take a compression device, a combustion chamber, an expander and
a cooler from the closed system inventory shop and connect the four
devices to form the Otto cycle.
(B) Switch to analysis mode.
2. Analysis
(A) Assume a process for each of the four processes: (a) compression
device as isentropic, (b) combustion as isochoric, (c) expander as
isentropic, and (d) cooler as isochoric.
(B) Input the given information: (a) working fluid is air, (b) the inlet
pressure and temperature of the compression device are 60ºF and
14.7 psia, (c) the compression ratio of the compression device is 8,
and (d) the heat addition is 800 Btu/lbm in the combustion chamber,
and (e) the mass of air is 0.025 lbm.
3. Display results
(A) Display the T-s diagram and cycle properties results as shown in
Figure E9.1.2.a and b. The cycle is a heat engine. The answers are
T2=734.2 ºF, p2=270.2 psia, T3=5,407 ºF, p3=1,328 psia, T4=2,094 ºF,
p4=72.24 psia, η=56.47% , Q41=-8.71 Btu, and MEP=213.3 psia.
(B) Display the T-s diagram.
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The power output of the Otto cycle can be increased by turbo-charging the air
before it enters the cylinder in the Otto engine. Since the inlet air density is
increased due to higher inlet air pressure, the mass of air in the cylinder is
increased. Turbo-charging raises the inlet air pressure of the engine above
atmospheric pressure and raise the power output of the engine, but it may not
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Otto Cycle 9
improve the efficiency of the cycle. The schematic diagram of the Otto cycle with
turbo-charging is illustrated in Figure 9.1.3. Example 9.1.3 and Example 9.1.4
show the power increase due to turbo-charging.
EXAMPLE 9.1.3
Determine the heat supplied, work output, MEP, and thermal efficiency of an
ideal Otto cycle with a compression ratio of 10. The highest temperature of the
cycle is 3000ºF. The volume of the cylinder before compression is 0.1 ft3. What is
the mass of air in the cylinder? The atmosphere conditions are 14.7 psia and 70ºF.
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
10 Chih Wu
To solve this problem, we build the cycle. Then (A) Assume isentropic for
compression process 1-2, isentropic for compression process 2-3, isochoric for the
heating process 3-4, isentropic for expansion process 4-5, and isochoric for the
cooling process 5-6; (B) input p1 =14.7 psia, T1=70ºF, V1=0.1 ft3; p2=14.7 psia,
T2=70ºF, V2=0.1 ft3 (no turbo-charger); compression ratio=10, T4=3000ºF,
p6=14.7 psia, and T6=70ºF; and (C) display results. The results are: W12=-0 Btu,
W23=-1.03 Btu, Q34=2.73 Btu, W45=2.67 Btu, Wnet=1.65 Btu, Q56=-1.09 Btu,
MEP=98.80 psia, η=60.19%, and m=0.0075 lbm.
EXAMPLE 9.1.4
Determine the heat supplied, work output, MEP, and thermal efficiency of an
ideal Otto cycle with a turbo-charger which compresses air to 20 psia and
compression ratio of 10. The highest temperature of the cycle is 3000ºF. The
volume of the cylinder before compression is 0.1 ft3. What is the mass of air in the
cylinder? The atmosphere conditions are 14.7 psia and 70ºF.
To solve this problem, we build the cycle as shown in Figure 9.1.3. Then (A)
Assume isentropic for compression process 1-2, isentropic for compression
process 2-3, isochoric for the heating process 3-4, isentropic for expansion
process 4-5, and isochoric for the cooling process 5-6; (B) input p1 =14.7 psia,
T1=70ºF; p2=20 psia, V2=0.1 ft3 (with turbo-charger); compression ratio=10,
T4=3000ºF, p6=14.7 psia, and T6=70ºF; and (C) display results. The results are:
W13=-1.48 Btu, Q34=3.21 Btu, W45=3.52 Btu, Wnet=2.04 Btu, Q56=-1.17 Btu,
MEP=96.20 psia, η=63.54%, and m=0.0093 lbm.
Modern car Otto engine designs are affected by environmental constrains as
well as desires to increase gas mileage. Recent design improvements include the
use of four valves per cylinder to reduce the restriction to air flow into and out of
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Otto Cycle 11
the cylinder, turbo-charges to increase the air and fuel flow to each cylinder,
catalytic converters to aid the combustion of unburned hydrocarbons that are
expelled by the engine, among others.
3. How does the two-stroke Otto cycle differ from the four-stroke Otto
cycle?
4. What is the ratio of the number of power strokes in the two-stroke cycle
divided by the number of power strokes in the four-stroke cycle at a
given value of engine revolutions per minute?
5. On what single factor does the efficiency of the Otto cycle depend?
6. What is compression ratio of an Otto cycle? How does it affect the
thermal efficiency of the cycle?
7. What limits the practical realization of higher efficiencies in the Otto
cycle?
8. Do you know the compression ratio of your car? Is there any limit to an
Otto cycle? Why?
9. Which area represents cycle net work of an Otto cycle plotted on a T-s
diagram and p-v diagram?
10. How do you define MEP (mean effect pressure)? Can MEP of a car in
operation lower than the atmospheric pressure?
11. What is engine knock? What cause the engine knock problem?
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
12 Chih Wu
12. Do you get a better performance using premier gasoline (Octane number
93) for your compact car?
13. How does the modern Otto cycle achieve higher power output without
the use of higher compression ratio?
14. How does the clearance volume affect the efficiency of the Otto cycle?
15. In an ideal Otto cycle, indicate whether the following statements are true
or false:
(A) All the processes are internally reversible.
(B) Cycle efficiency increases with the maximum temperature.
(C) There is a constant ratio between the work and the mean effective
pressure.
(D) The gas temperature after compression is higher than after expansion.
(E) Cycle efficiency depends on the temperature ratio during
compression.
16. Sketch T-s and p-v diagrams for the Otto cycle.
17. For an Otto cycle, plot the cycle efficiency as a function of compression
ratio from 4 to 16.
18. For an Otto cycle, plot the MEP as a function of compression ratio from 4
to 16.
19. Does the initial state of the compression process have any influence on
the Otto cycle efficiency?
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20. What is the initial state of the compression process of your car?
21. How many parameters do you need to know to completely describe the
Otto cycle?
22. The inlet and exhaust flow processes are not included in the analysis of
the Otto cycle. How do these processes affect the Otto cycle
performance?
23. How does the Otto cycle efficiency compare to the Carnot cycle
efficiency when operating between the same temperature range?
24. As a car gets older, will its compression ratio change? How about the
MEP?
25. An engine operates on an Otto cycle with a compression ratio of 8. At the
beginning of the isentropic compression process, the volume, pressure
and the temperature of the air are 0.01 m3, 110 kPa and 50ºC. At the end
of the combustion process, the temperature is 900ºC. Find (A) the
temperature at the remaining two states of the Otto cycle, (B) the pressure
of the gas at the end of the combustion process, (C) heat added per unit
mass to the engine in the combustion chamber, (D) heat removed per unit
mass from the engine to the environment, (E) the compression work per
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Otto Cycle 13
unit mass added, (F) the expansion work per unit mass done, (G) MEP,
and (H) thermal cycle efficiency.
ANSWER: (A) 469.3ºC, 237.5ºC, (B) 2022 kPa, (C) 3.67 kJ/kg, (D) -
1.60 kJ/kg, (E) -300.5 kJ/kg, (F) 474.8 kJ/kg, (G) 236.6 kPa, (H) 56.47%.
26. An ideal Otto Cycle with air as the working fluid has a compression ratio
of 9. At the beginning of the compression process, the air is at 290 K and
90 kPa. The peak temperature in the cycle is 1800 K. determine: (A) the
pressure and temperature at the end of the expansion process (power
stroke), (B) the heat per unit mass added in kJ/kg during the combustion
process, (C) net work, (D) thermal efficiency of the cycle, and (E) mean
effective pressure in kPa.
ANSWER: (A) 232.0 kPa, 747.4 K, (B) 789.6 kJ/kg, (C) 461.7 kJ/kg, (D)
58.48%, (E) 562.3 kPa.
27. An ideal Otto engine receives air at 15 psia, 0.01 ft3 and 65ºF. The
maximum cycle temperature is 3465ºF and the compression ratio of the
engine is 7.5. Determine (A) the work added during the compression
process, (B) the heat added to the air during the heating process, (C) the
work done during the expansion process, (D) the heat removed from the
air during the cooling process, and (E) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
ANSWER: (A) -0.1625 Btu, (B) 0.3638 Btu, (C) 0.2873 Btu, (D) -0.1625
Btu, (E) 55.33%.
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28. An ideal Otto engine receives air at 14.6 psia and 55ºF. The maximum
cycle temperature is 3460ºF and the compression ratio of the engine is 10.
Determine (A) the work done per unit mass during the compression
process, (B) the heat added per unit mass to the air during the heating
process, (C) the work done per unit mass during the expansion process,
(D) the heat removed per unit mass from the air during the cooling
process, and (E) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
ANSWER: (A) -133.2 kJ/kg, (B) 449.7 kJ/kg, (C) 403.9 kJ/kg, (D) -179.0
kJ/kg, (E) 60.19%.
29. An ideal Otto engine receives air at 100 kPa and 25ºC. Work is
performed on the air in order to raise the pressure at the end of the
compression process to 1378 kPa. 400 kJ/kg of heat is added to the air
during the heating process. Determine (A) the work done during the
compression process, (B) the compression ratio, (C) the work done
during the expansion process, (D) the heat removed from the air during
the cooling process, (E) the MEP (mean effective pressure), and (F) the
thermal efficiency of the cycle.
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14 Chih Wu
ANSWER: (A) -238.5 kJ/kg, (B) 6.51, (C) 449.4 kJ/kg, (D) -189.0 kJ/kg,
(E) 291.6 kPa, (F) 52.74%.
30. At the beginning of the compression process of an air-standard Otto
cycle, p=100 kPa, T=290 K and V=0.04 m3. The maximum temperature
in the cycle is 2200 K and the compression ratio is 8. Determine (A) the
heat addition, (B) the net work, (C) the thermal efficiency, and (D) the
MEP.
ANSWER: (a) 52.89 kJ, (b) 29.87 kJ, (c) 56.47%, (d) 853.3 kPa.
31. An Otto engine operates with a compression ratio of 8.5. The following
information is known:
Temperature prior to the compression process: 70oF.
Volume prior to the compression process: 0.05 ft3
Pressure prior to the compression process: 14.7 psia.
Heat added during the combustion process: 345 Btu/lbm.
Determine: (A) the mass of air in the cylinder, (B) the temperature and
pressure at each process endpoint, (C) the compression work and
expansion work in Btu/lbm, and (d) the thermal efficiency.
ANSWER: (A) 0.0038 lbm, (B) 787.1ºF and 294.1 psia, 2802ºF and
769.5 psia, and 926.2ºF and 38.46 psia, (C) -122.8 Btu/lbm and 321.2
Btu/lbm, (D) 57.52%.
32. The compression ratio in an Otto cycle is 8. If the air before compression
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(state 1) is at 80ºF and 14.7 psia and 800 Btu/lbm is added to the cycle
and the mass of air contained in the cylinder is 0.02 lbm, Find the heat
added, heat removed, work added, work produced, net work produced,
MEP and efficiency of the cycle.
ANSWER: heat added=16 Btu, heat removed=-6.96 Btu, work added=-
2.4 Btu, work produced=11.43 Btu, net work produced=9.04 Btu,
MEP=205.4 psia, and efficiency of the cycle=56.47%.
33. The compression ratio in an Otto cycle is 10. If the air before
compression (state 1) is at 60ºF and 14.7 psia and 800 Btu/lbm is added
to the cycle and the mass of air contained in the cylinder is 0.02 lbm,
Find the heat added, heat removed, work added, work produced, net work
produced, MEP and efficiency of the cycle.
ANSWER: heat added=16 Btu, heat removed=-6.37 Btu, work added=-
2.69 Btu, work produced=12.32 Btu, net work produced=9.63 Btu,
MEP=221.0 psia, and efficiency of the cycle=60.19%.
34. The compression ratio in an Otto cycle is 16. If the air before
compression (state 1) is at 60ºF and 14.7 psia and 800 Btu/lbm is added
to the cycle and the mass of air contained in the cylinder is 0.02 lbm,
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Otto Cycle 15
Find the heat added, heat removed, work added, work produced, net work
produced, MEP and efficiency of the cycle.
ANSWER: heat added=16 Btu, heat removed=-5.28 Btu, work added=-
3.61 Btu, work produced=14.34 Btu, net work produced=10.72 Btu,
MEP=236.2 psia, and efficiency of the cycle=67.01%.
35. An Otto engine with a turbo-charger operates with a compression ratio of
8.5. The following information is known:
Temperature prior to the turbo-charging compression process: 70oF.
Pressure prior to the turbo-charging compression process: 14.7 psia.
Pressure after the turbo-charging compression process: 20 psia.
Heat added during the combustion process: 345 Btu/lbm.
Volume after the compression process: 0.05 ft3
Determine: (A) the mass of air in the cylinder, (B) the temperature and
pressure at each process endpoint, (C) the compression work and
expansion work in Btu/lbm, and (D) the thermal efficiency.
ANSWER: (A) 0.0033 lbm, (B) 118.7ºF and 20.0 psia, 804.4ºF and 308.7
psia, 2820ºF and 800.9 psia, and 914.4ºF and 38.14 psia, (C) -125.7
Btu/lbm and 362.2 Btu/lbm, (D) 58.10%.
36. An ideal Otto Cycle with a turbo-charger using air as the working fluid
has a compression ratio of 9. The volume of the cylinder is 0.01 m3. At
the beginning of the turbo-charging compression process, the air is at 290
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
K and 90 kPa. The air pressure is 150 kPa after the turbo-charging
compression process. The peak temperature in the cycle is 1800 K.
determine: (A) the pressure and temperature at the end of the expansion
process (power stroke), (B) the heat per unit mass added in kJ/kg during
the combustion process, (C) net work, (D) thermal efficiency of the cycle,
and (E) mean effective pressure in kPa.
ANSWER: (A) 200.5 kPa, 645.9 K, (B) 710.9 kJ/kg, (C) 7.11 kJ/kg, (D)
64.11%, (E) 534.6 kPa.
37. A gasoline engine has a volumetric compression ratio of 9. The state
before compression is 290 K, 90 kPa, and the peak cycle temperature is
1800 K. Find the pressure after expansion, work input, work output, net
work output, heat input, thermal efficiency, and mean effective pressure
of the cycle.
ANSWER: 1951 kPa, -292.7 kJ/kg, 754.4 kJ/kg, 461.7 kJ/kg, 789.6
kJ/kg, 58.48%, 562.3 kPa.
38. A gasoline engine has a volumetric compression ratio of 12. The state
before compression is 290 K, 100 kPa, and the peak cycle temperature is
1800 K. Find the pressure after expansion, work input, work output, net
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
16 Chih Wu
work output, heat input, thermal efficiency, and mean effective pressure
of the cycle.
ANSWER: 3242 kPa, -353.7 kJ/kg, 812.6 kJ/kg, 458.9 kJ/kg, 728.5
kJ/kg, 62.99%, 602.1 kPa.
39. A gasoline engine has a volumetric compression ratio of 8 and before
compression has air at 280 K and 85 kPa. The combustion generates a
peak pressure of 6500 kPa. Find the peak temperature, work input, work
output, net work output, heat input, thermal efficiency, and mean
effective pressure of the cycle.
ANSWER: 2676 K, -260.4 kJ/kg, 1083 kJ/kg, 822.9 kJ/kg, 1457 kJ/kg,
56.47%, 995.9 kPa.
40. A gasoline engine has a compression ratio of 10:1 with 4 cylinders of
total displacement 2.3 L. The inlet state is 280 K and 70 kPa. The fuel
adds 1800 kJ/kg of heat in the combustion process. Find the work input,
work output, net work output, heat input, thermal efficiency, and mean
effective pressure of the cycle.
ANSWER: -0.6085 kJ, 2.78 kJ, 2.17 kJ, 3.61 kJ, 60.19%, 1050 kPa.
41. A gasoline engine has a compression ratio of 12:1 with 4 cylinders of
total displacement 2.3 L. The inlet state is 280 K and 100 kPa. The fuel
adds 1800 kJ/kg of heat in the combustion process. Find the work input,
work output, net work output, heat input, thermal efficiency, and mean
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Chapter 1A
WANKEL ENGINE
As shown in Figure 9.1.5, the rotor divides the housing into three volumes.
Let us follow volume A as it passes through a cycle. The air-fuel mixture enters
the engine in process 1-2 as shown in Figure 9.1.5. As the rotor turns, this volume
is sealed off and compressed, corresponding to the compression stroke 2-3. When
the volume reaches a minimum (process 3-4, corresponding to TDC), the spark is
fired and combustion takes lace. The hot gas then expands and turns the rotor in
the power stroke, process 4-5. Finally, in process 5-2-1, the exhaust ports are
uncovered to the volume, and the gas are exhausted from the engine. The p-V
diagram is exactly the same as that of the Otto cycle.
Note that there are three volumes of gas at various stages of the cycle at a
given time. In other words, there are three power strokes per rotor revolution. The
output shaft of the engine is geared to run at three times the rotor angular velocity,
so that there is one power stroke for each output shaft revolution.
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
18 Chih Wu
The Wankel engine has a high power to weight ratio, with few parts than that
of a conventional Otto piston engine. For example, a six cylinder piston engine
with twelve valves and accompanying hardware to control their motion can be
replaced by a two rotor rotary engine with no valves. Further the high inertia force
of the reciprocating piston and the accompanying noise and vibration are replaced
by the smooth and quiet rotary motion of the engine. However, the rotary engine
has relatively high emissions of unburned fuel. The problems of reducing
emissions to meet standards as well as achieving a competitive fuel economy have
prevented widespread use of the engine to date.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Chapter 2
DIESEL CYCLE
The Diesel cycle was proposed by Rudolf Diesel in the 1890s. The Diesel
cycle as shown in Figure 9.2.1 is somewhat similar to the Otto cycle, except that
ignition of the fuel-air mixture is caused by spontaneous combustion owing to the
high temperature that results from compressing the mixture to a very high
pressure. The basic components of the Diesel cycle are the same as the Otto cycle,
except that the spark plug is replaced by a fuel injector and the stroke of the piston
is lengthened to provide a larger compression ratio.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Since the duration of the heat addition process is extended, this process is
modeled by a constant pressure process. The p-v and T-s diagram for the Diesel
cycle are illustrated in Figure 9.2.2.
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
20 Chih Wu
T p 3
2
3
4
2
4
1
1
s v
piston
displacement
Applying the First law and Second law of thermodynamics of the closed
system to each of the four processes of the cycle yields:
and
The net work (Wnet), which is also equal to net heat (Qnet), is
η = Wnet /Q23 =Qnet /Q23 = 1- Q41 /Q23 =1- (u4 - u1)/(h3 - h2) (9.2.10)
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Diesel Cycle 21
This expression for thermal efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle can be simplified
if air is assumed to be the working fluid with constant specific heats. Equation
(9.2.10) is reduced to:
where r is the compression ratio, and rc is the cut-off ratio for the engine defined
by the equation
r = V1 /V2 (9.2.12)
and
rc = V3 /V2 (9.2.13)
A comparison of the thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle and the thermal
efficiency of the Otto cycle shows that the two thermal cycle efficiencies differ by
the quantity in the brackets of equation (9.2.11). This bracket factor is always
larger than one, hence the Diesel cycle efficiency is always less than the Otto
cycle efficiency operating at the same compression ratio.
Since the fuel is not injected into the cylinder until after the air has been
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
EXAMPLE 9.2.1
A Diesel engine receives air at 27ºC and 100 kPa. The compression ratio is
18. The amount of heat addition is 500 kJ/kg. The mass of air contained in the
cylinder is 0.0113 kg. Determine (a) the maximum cycle pressure and maximum
cycle temperature, (b) the efficiency and work output, and (c) the MEP. Plot the
sensitivity diagram of cycle efficiency vs compression ratio.
To solve this problem by CyclePad, we take the following steps:
1. Build
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
22 Chih Wu
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Diesel Cycle 23
EXAMPLE 9.2.2
A Diesel engine receives air at 60ºF and 14.7 psia. The compression ratio is
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
16. The amount of heat addition is 800 Btu/lbm. The mass of air contained in the
cylinder is 0.02 lbm. Determine the maximum cycle temperature, heat added, heat
removed, work added, work produced, net work produced, MEP and efficiency of
the cycle.
To solve this problem by CyclePad, we take the following steps:
1. Build
(A) Take a compression device, a combustion chamber, an expander and
a cooler from the closed system inventory shop and connect the four
devices to form the Diesel cycle.
(B) Switch to analysis mode.
2. Analysis
(A) Assume a process for each of the four processes: (a) compression
device as isentropic, (b) combustion as isobaric, (c) expander as
isentropic, and (d) cooler as isochoric.
(B) Input the given information: (a) working fluid is air, (b) the inlet
temperature and pressure of the compression device are 60ºF and
14.7 psia, (c) the compression ratio of the compression device is 16,
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
.
24 Chih Wu
(d) the heat addition is 800 Btu/lbm in the combustion chamber, and
(e) the mass of air is 0.02 lbm.
3. Display results
(A) Display cycle properties results. The cycle is a heat engine. The
answers are Tmax=4454ºF, Qadd=16 Btu,Qremove=-6.97 Btu, Wadd=-
3.61 Btu, Wexpansion=12.65 Btu, Wnet=9.03 Btu, MEP=199 psia, and
η=56.45%.
turbo-charging and pre-cooling the air before it enters the cylinder in the Diesl
engine. The difference between a super-charger and a turbo-charger is the manner
in which they are powered. Since the inlet air density is increased due to higher
inlet air pressure or lower air temperature, the mass of air in the cylinder is
increased. Turbo-charging raises the inlet air pressure of the engine above
atmospheric pressure and raise the power output of the engine, but it may not
improve the efficiency of the cycle. The schematic diagram of the Diesel cycle
with turbo-charging or super-charging is illustrated in Figure 9.2.3. The bottom
schematic diagram of Figure 9.2.4 illustrates the Diesel cycle with turbo-charging
and pre-cooling. The following three examples (Example 9.2.2, Example 9.2.3,
and Example 9.2.4) show the power increase due to super-charging, and pre-
cooling and super-charging.
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Diesel Cycle 25
EXAMPLE 9.2.3
Find the pressure and temperature of each state of an ideal Diesel cycle with a
compression ratio of 15 and a cut-off ratio of 2. The cylinder volume before
compression is 0.16 ft3. The atmosphere conditions are 14.7 psia and 70ºF. Also
determine the mass of air in the cylinder, heat supplied, net work produced, MEP,
and cycle efficiency.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
To solve this problem, we build the cycle as shown in Figure 9.2.4. Then (A)
Assume isobaric for the pre-cooling process 7-8, isentropic for compression
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
26 Chih Wu
process 8-9, isentropic for compression process 9-10, isobaric for the heating
process 10-11, isentropic for expansion process 11-12, and isochoric for the
cooling process 12-13; (B) input p7=14.7 psia, T7=70ºF; p13=14.7 psia, T13=70ºF;
p8=14.7 psia, T8=70ºF; p9=14.7 psia, V9=0.16 ft3 (no turbo-charger and no pre-
cooler); compression ratio=15, and cut-off ratio=2; and (C) display results. The
results are: T8=70ºF, T9=96.87ºF, T10=1105ºF, T11=2670ºF, T12=938.1ºF, Qin=4.5
Btu, Wnet=2.72 Btu, MEP=98.31 psia, η=60.37%, and m=0.012 lbm.
EXAMPLE 9.2.4
Find the pressure and temperature of each state of an ideal Diesel cycle with a
compression ratio of 15 and a cut-off ratio of 2, and a super-charger which
compresses fresh air to 20 psia before it enters the cylinder of the engine. The
cylinder volume before compression is 0.16 ft3. The atmosphere conditions are
14.7 psia and 70ºF. Also determine the mass of air in the cylinder, heat supplied,
net work produced, MEP, and cycle efficiency.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
To solve this problem, we build the cycle as shown in Figure 9.2.4. Then (A)
Assume isobaric for the pre-cooling process 7-8, isentropic for compression
process 8-9, isentropic for compression process 9-10, isobaric for the heating
process 10-11, isentropic for expansion process 11-12, and isochoric for the
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Diesel Cycle 27
cooling process 12-13; (B) input p7=14.7 psia, T7=70ºF; p13=14.7 psia, T13=70ºF;
T8=70ºF; p9=20 psia, V9=0.16 ft3 (with turbo-charger and no pre-cooler);
compression ratio=15, and cut-off ratio=2; and (C) display results. The results are:
T8=70ºF, T9=96.87ºF, T10=1249ºF, T11=2958ºF, T12=938.1ºF, Qin=6.12 Btu,
Wnet=3.90 Btu, MEP=106.5 psia, η=64.51%, and m=0.015 lbm.
EXAMPLE 9.2.5.
Find the pressure and temperature of each state of an ideal Diesel cycle with a
compression ratio of 15 and a cut-off ratio of 2. A pre-cooler which cools the
atmospheric air from 70ºF to 50ºF, and a super-charger which compresses fresh
air to 20 psia before it enters the cylinder of the engine are added to the engine.
The cylinder volume before compression is 0.16 ft3. The atmosphere conditions
are 14.7 psia and 70ºF. Also determine the mass of air in the cylinder, heat
supplied, net work produced, MEP, and cycle efficiency.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
To solve this problem, we build the cycle as shown in Figure 9.2.5. Then (A)
Assume isobaric for the pre-cooling process 7-8, isentropic for compression
process 8-9, isentropic for compression process 9-10, isobaric for the heating
process 10-11, isentropic for expansion process 11-12, and isochoric for the
cooling process 12-13; (B) input p7=14.7 psia, T7=70ºF; p8=14.7 psia, p13=14.7
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
28 Chih Wu
psia, T13=70ºF; T8=50ºF; p9=20 psia, V9=0.16 ft3 (with turbo-charger and pre-
cooler); compression ratio=15, and cut-off ratio=2; and (C) display results. The
results are: T8=50ºF, p8 =14.7 psia, T9=96.87ºF, p9=20 psia, T10=1184ºF,
p10=886.3 psia, T11=2829ºF, p11=886.3 psia, T12=864.8ºF,p12=36.76 psia; Q78=-
0.0745 Btu, W89=-0.1247 Btu, W910=-2.89 Btu, W1011=1.75 Btu, Q1011=6.12 Btu,
W1112=5.2 Btu,Wnet=3.93 Btu, MEP=108.2 psia, η=64.25%, and m=0.0155 lbm.
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Diesel Cycle 29
to the engine in the combustion chamber, (D) heat removed from the
engine to the environment, and (E) thermal cycle efficiency.
ANSWER: (A) 1412ºF and 994.3 psia, (B) 3283ºF and 994.3 psia, (C)
448.5 Btu/lbm, (D) -158.4 Btu/lbm, (E) 64.48%.
19. The pressure and temperature at the start of compression in an air Diesel
cycle are 101 kPa and 300 K. The compression ratio is 15. The amount of
heat addition is 2000 kJ/kg of air. Determine (A) the maximum cycle
pressure and maximum temperature of the cycle, and (B) the cycle
thermal efficiency.
ANSWER: (A) 2879 K and 4476 kPa, (B) 54.79%.
20. An ideal Diesel engine receives air at 103.4 kPa and 27ºC. Heat added to
the air is 1016.6 kJ/kg, and the compression ratio of the engine is 13.
Determine (A) the work added during the compression process, (B) the
cut-off ratio, (C) the work done during the expansion process, (D) the
heat removed from the air during the cooling process, (E) the MEP (mean
effective pressure), and (F) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
ANSWER: (A) -385 kJ/kg, (B) 2.21, (C) 673.5 kJ/kg, (D) -437.7 kJ/kg,
(E) 735.6 kPa, (F) 56.94%.
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
30 Chih Wu
21. An ideal Diesel engine receives air at 15 psia and 65ºF. Heat added to the
air is 160 Btu/lbm, and the compression ratio of the engine is 6.
Determine (A) the work added during the compression process, (B) the
cut-off ratio, (C) the work done during the expansion process, (D) the
heat removed from the air during the cooling process, (E) the MEP (mean
effective pressure), and (F) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
ANSWER: (A) -94.10 Btu/lbm, (B) 1.62, (C) 167.2 Btu/lbm, (D) -86.87
Btu/lbm, (E) 36.64 psia, (F) 45.71%.
22. An ideal Diesel engine receives air at 100 kPa and 25ºC. The maximum
cycle temperature is 1460ºC and the compression ratio of the engine is
16. Determine (A) the work done during the compression process, (B) the
heat added to the air during the heating process, (C) the work done during
the expansion process, (D) the heat removed from the air during the
cooling process, and (E) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
ANSWER: (A) -434.1 kJ/kg, (B) 832.2 kJ/kg, (C) 710.5 kJ/kg, (D) -318.0
kJ/kg, (E) 61.79%.
23. A Diesel engine receives air at 60ºF and 14.7 psia. The compression ratio
is 20. The amount of heat addition is 800 Btu/lbm. The mass of air
contained in the cylinder is 0.02 lbm. Determine the maximum cycle
temperature, heat added, heat removed, work added, work produced, net
work produced, MEP and efficiency of the cycle.
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Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Diesel Cycle 31
ANSWER: (A) -78.19 Btu/lbm, (B) 1757ºF, (C) 139.8 Btu/lbm, (D) -
45.53 Btu/lbm, (E) 52.32 psia, (F) 57.51%.
26. A Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 18. Air intake conditions (prior
to compression) are 72ºF and 14.7 psia, and the highest temperature in
the cycle is limited to 2500ºF to avoid damaging the engine block.
Calculate: (A) thermal efficiency, (B) net work, and (C) mean effective
pressure. Compare engine efficiency to that of a Carnot cycle engine
operating between the same temperatures.
ANSWER: (A) 64.35%, (B) 195.9 Btu/lbm, (C) 83.76 psia; 82.04%.
27. A Diesel engine is modeled with an ideal Diesel cycle with a
compression ratio of 17. The following information is known:
Temperature prior to the compression process: 70oF.
Pressure prior to the compression process: 14.7 psia.
Heat added during the combustion process: 245 Btu/lbm.
(A) Determine the temperature and pressure at each process endpoint.
(B) Solve for the net cycle work (Btu/lbm).
(C) Solve for the thermal efficiency.
ANSWER: (A) 1185ºF and 776.2 psia, 2208ºF and 776.2 psia, 582.3ºF
and 28.92 psia, (B) 157.3 Btu/lbm, (C) 64.2%.
28. An ideal Diesel cycle with a compression ratio of 17 and a cutoff ratio of
2 has a temperature of 313 K and a pressure of 100 kPa at the beginning
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32 Chih Wu
30. Find the pressure and temperature of each state of an ideal Diesel cycle
with a compression ratio of 15 and a cut-off ratio of 2. A pre-cooler
which cools the atmospheric air from 80ºF to 50ºF, and a super-charger
which compresses fresh air to 25 psia before it enters the cylinder of the
engine are added to the engine. The cylinder volume before compression
is 0.1 ft3. The atmosphere conditions are 14.7 psia and 80ºF. Also
determine the mass of air in the cylinder, heat supplied, net work
produced, MEP, and cycle efficiency.
ANSWER: [50ºF and 14.7 psia, 133.5ºF and 25 psia, 1293ºF and 1108
psia, 3045ºF and 1108 psia, and 854.9ºF and 35.81 psia], m=0.0114 lbm,
Q=4.78 Btu, Wnet=3.19 Btu, MEP=116.4 psia, η=66.7%.
31. A diesel engine has a state before compression of 95 kPa, 290 K, a peak
pressure of 6000 kPa, and a maximum temperature of 2400 K. Find the
work input, work output, net work output, heat input, thermal efficiency,
and mean effective pressure of the cycle.
ANSWER: -471.6 kJ/kg, 1373 kJ/kg, 901.8 kJ/kg, 1457 kJ/kg, 61.90%,
1087 kPa.
32. A diesel engine has a state before compression of 100 kPa, 290 K, a peak
pressure of 5000 kPa, and a maximum temperature of 2400 K. Find the
work input, work output, net work output, heat input, thermal efficiency,
and mean effective pressure of the cycle.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
ANSWER: -427.7 kJ/kg, 1316 kJ/kg, 888.5 kJ/kg, 1518 kJ/kg, 58.52%,
1138 kPa.
33. At the beginning of compression in a Diesel cycle T=300 K and p=200
kPa; after combustion is complete T=1500 K and p=7 Mpa. Find the
work input, work output, net work output, heat input, thermal efficiency,
and mean effective pressure of the cycle.
ANSWER: -390.6 kJ/kg, 782.7 kJ/kg, 392.1 kJ/kg, 657.3 kJ/kg, 59.65%,
985.8 kPa.
34. At the beginning of compression in a Diesel cycle T=300 K and p=100
kPa; after combustion is complete T=1500 K and p=5 Mpa. Find the
work input, work output, net work output, heat input, thermal efficiency,
and mean effective pressure of the cycle.
ANSWER: -442.5 kJ/kg, 814.1 kJ/kg, 371.6 kJ/kg, 584.6 kJ/kg, 63.57%,
460.3 kPa.
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Chapter 3
ATKINSON CYCLE
A cycle called Atkinson cycle is similar to the Otto cycle except that the
isochoric exhaust and intake process at the end of the Otto cycle power stroke is
replaced by an isobaric process. The schematic diagram of the cycle is shown in
Figure 9.3.1. The cycle is made of the following four processes:
Applying the First law and Second law of thermodynamics of the closed
system to each of the four processes of the cycle yields:
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
34 Chih Wu
and
The net work (Wnet), which is also equal to net heat (Qnet), is
η = Wnet /Q23 =Qnet /Q23 = 1- Q41 /Q23 =1- (h4 - h1)/(u3 - u2) (9.3.10)
This expression for thermal efficiency of the cycle can be simplified if air is
assumed to be the working fluid with constant specific heats. Equation (9.3.10) is
reduced to:
EXAMPLE 9.3.1
Find the pressure and temperature of each state of an ideal Atkinson cycle
with a compression ratio of 8. The heat addition in the combustion chamber is 800
Btu/lbm. The atmospheric air is at 14.7 psia and 60ºF. The cylinder contains 0.02
lbm of air. Determine the maximum temperature, maximum pressure, heat
supplied, heat removed, work added during the compression processes, work
Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Atkinson Cycle 35
produced during the expansion process, net work produced, MEP, and cycle
efficiency. Draw the T-s diagram of the cycle.
To solve this problem, we build the cycle as shown in Figure E9.3.1. Then
(A) Assume isentropic for the compression process 1-2 and the expansion process
3-4, isochoric for the heating process 2-3, and isobaric for the cooling process 4-1;
(B) input p1=14.7 psia, T1=60ºF, mdot=0.02 lbm; r=8 for the compression process
1-2, and q=800 Btu/lbm for the heating process 2-3. and (C) display results. The
results are: Tmax=5407ºF, pmax=1328 psia, Qadd=16 Btu, Qremove=-5.28 Btu,
Wcomp=-3.82 Btu, Wexpan=14.54 Btu, Wnet=10.72 Btu, MEP=74.00 psia, and
η=67.02%.
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Gas Closed System Cycles, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
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suojasi pientä raivattua valkamaa, jossa oli muutama telakin —
kevätkalastajain jäljiltä — ja samalla kivi oli hyvä maamerkki, näkyi
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Kallu oli päättänyt olla aivan vaiti. — "Se joka ei mitään puhu, ei
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Varsinkin Kallu.
Hän ei ole koskaan sitä salannut, että hän oli löytänyt kaksi
kuollutta rannalta ja haudannut ne hiekkaan ja asettanut laudoista
tekemänsä ristin kummankin haudalle.
Niin kauan kuin tämä sai Kallulta apua, pysyi hän ystävänä ja
sanoi, kun Kallu selitteli Viirin tapausta: "Niin. Sinä teit oikein. Ihan
kuin laupias samarialainen sinä teit. Niin olisi jokainen kunnon mies
tehnyt!", mutta kun Kallu lakkasi antamasta rukiita ja rahaa velaksi
(kun Hantsu jätti kaiken maksamatta) suuttui Hantsu ja alkoi viittailla
kaikennäköisiin kamahuttamisiin — aivan samalla tavalla kuin
Pokkokin — ja suoraan Kallulle itselleen.
Niin niin.
Kerran oli Kallu ollut saraimessaan. Tuuli oli lyönyt ovet kiinni,
mutta näki hän hommailla siellä sittenkin — järjestellä tyhjiä silakka-
astioita, airoja, köysiä ynnä muuta. Rantaan tuli miehiä.
Aavistamatta, että Kallu on saraimessaan, alkoivat ne avoimesti
jutella siitä, että eiköhän Kallu sittenkin liene Viirissä ottanut hengiltä
niitä kahta merimiestä. "Koko kylähän sitä jo hokee! Mistäs ne jutut
oikein läksivät liikkeelle, ellei olisi mitään alkua. Ei savua ilman tulta!"
—
Ei auta!
Kallua vaivasivat nuo Viirin kaksi vainajaa siinä määrin, että hän
pelkäsi pimeässä.
Laivarikko Viirissä.
Pimeä yö.
Hän pyytää apua ja armoa kuulta, jonka hän näkee, mutta olo
tulee vielä kammottavammaksi.
*****
— Ihan yksin.
— En näistä.
Kallu oli hyvin hyvällä tuulella. Hänestä näytti siltä, ettei näistä
luista ja kalloista enää ole hänelle mitään vaaraa. Mistä lienee hän
lisäksi saanut sellaisen omituisen ripityshalupuuskan. Hän tunsi
tarvetta tunnustaa mitä hyvänsä ja jos vallesmanni sillä kertaa olisi
huomannut häneltä kysellä enemmän, olisi hän saanut tietää kaiken.
Suoraa päätä ei Kallu taas tahtonut kajota itse pääasioihin. Hän
tahtoi johtaa vallesmannin asiaan kautta rantain, toisia asioita pitkin
ja sitä varten hän sanoi näin:
— On minulla pari rahaa, jotka ovat kuuluneet näille vainajille.
Annan minä ne vallesmannille hyvin mielelläni, jos käy laatuun.
Niin se kävi.
Tuo tärkeä kysymys jäi tekemättä ja kuin lumottuna ja loihdittuna
hän tarkasteli vain rahoja ja alkoi himoita niistä toista itselleen. Hän
sanoi Kallulle:
*****
PURJELAIVA "BATAVIAN"
MIES
Menetti henkensä laivan tuhoutuessa
v. 1884
ja lepää tämän patsaan
alla
Saaren korkein kohta oli pieni ylätasanko, jossa oli kuoppia siellä
ja täällä ja jossa kasvoi tiheä ja korkea heinä ja joku vaivainen
kataja. Paikoin oli se harmaantunutta, sammaloitunutta kivikkoa.
Sieltä ylhäältä, tasangon reunoilta, vietti maa joka taholle alas
rantaan pengermittäin, ikäänkuin jättiläisportain.
Kaikkialla penkereillä näki vain kiviä. Ne olivat niillä harmaiksi
sammaltuneita, niinkuin ylätasangollakin, saaren päällä. Alhaalla
rannassa ne olivat puhtaita ja värikkäitä: Kirkkaita kuin suuria
helmiä: Valkeita, harmaita, punaisia ja vihertäviä. Kaikki ne olivat
pyöreiksi sorvautuneita. Ne olivat eri suuria, päänkokoisista
nyrkinkokoisiin ja pienempiinkin. Saaren rantoihin vyöryi aina laine
tai ummikas. Siitä syystä ei rantakiviin voinut kasvaa sammalta, ei
jäkälää, eikä limaa. Ne olivat aina aivan puhtaita. Päivä lämmitti niitä
täällä suojan puolella, vaikka oli jo myöhä syksy. Niiden värit olivat
kirkkaammat vedessä kuin maalla. Pohja näkyi kauas. Kivet
välkkyivät päivän paisteessa veden alla, jossa ne painuivat yhä
alemmaksi ja alemmaksi ja näyttivät keinuvan ummikkaan mukana
ja katosivat lopulta kokonaan näkyvistä. Siitä eteenpäin näkyi vain
sininen, vihertävä, aaltoileva, uponneita laivoja ja miehiä
pimentoonsa kätkevä syvyys.
Täällä on rauha!
Markuksen sielun täytti suuri onnen ja levon tunne. Hän päätti
usein tulla täällä käymään, milloin elämä ihmisten saarella alkaisi
käydä sietämättömäksi. Myöhempinä vuosinaan hän sai tulla tänne
usein kuin korpeen rukoilemaan. Täältä lienee ollut kotoisin ne useat
hänen vapaista sävellyksistään, joita hän usein yksin soitteli
viulullaan, muun muassa silloin kerran eräälle oikealle säveltäjälle.
Siitä olikin Markus heti ensi käynnillään varma, että Viiri on kaunis,
mutta ettei siitä saisi maalari mitään kuvattavaa, ei kertoja, ei
runoilija — ainoastaan sävelillä voi sen kuvata ja sen hän teki usein
— niillekin, jotka eivät ymmärtäneet, mitä hänen soittonsa sisälsi —
ja tahtoivat, nuo typerät ja tomppelit, tietää hänen vapaan
sävelteoksensa nimen.
Nimen!
Tuskin hän itse aina oli selvillä mitä hän soitti, mutta
tietämättäänkin hän vaistomaisesti kuvaili tuuliaispäiden laulua Viirin
raunioissa, soivaa Viiriä, laineen kohinaa sen helmirannoilla, mustia
vihurien juovia merellä ja purjelaivaa niiden kiidätettävänä, sillä ei
mikään muu koko hänen elämässään ollut tehnyt häneen niin syvää
ja lähtemätöntä vaikutusta.
V luku.
LAIVARIKKO JA RUOSKA.
Kallu: Saa saa! Miksei tätä nyt kysyä saa. Saahan sitä.
— No anna viismarkkaa!
— Sen saat, mutta sillä ehdolla, ettet juo itseäsi siaksi ja että lähtö
tapahtuu tänään.
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