PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

MODULE 12: WAVE

(Dr. Rubaiyet I. Haque)

LECTURE 19
OUTLINE:
▪ Energy and Power of a wave traveling along a string
▪ Wave equation
▪ Interference of traveling waves
▪ Standing waves

ENERGY AND POWER OF A WAVE TRAVELING ALONG A STRING

The energy and power of a wave traveling along a string depend on various factors, including the
characteristics of the wave and the properties of the string.

Energy of a Wave:
The energy of a wave on a stretched string is a measure of the total energy, the sum of its kinetic
energy and potential energy, carried by the wave as it propagates through a medium. The energy of a
wave depends on several factors, including the wave's amplitude (𝐴), frequency (𝑓), and the
properties of the medium through which it travels.
- The propagating wave transports both kinetic energy and elastic potential energy.
- The energy of a wave represents the total amount of energy carried by the wave. It is a measure
of the wave's ability to do work.
- The energy of the wave depends on both the amplitude and the frequency.

Power of a Wave:
The power of a wave travelling along a string is a measure of the rate at which energy is transferred
or the amount of energy transferred per unit of time.
- It quantifies how quickly the wave is doing work or delivering energy to a specific area or point.

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 PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

Energy Transmission:
Total mechanical energy transmission by a wave refers to the sum of its kinetic and potential energies,
𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 … … … (1)
Let us consider a small element of the string. The differential form of the kinetic energy 𝑑𝐾 that is
associated with a string element of mass 𝑑𝑚 is given by,
1
𝑑𝐾 = 𝑑𝑚 𝑢2 … … … (2)
2
Here 𝑢 is the transverse speed of the oscillating string element. We know that,
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑚 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) … … … (3)
𝑑𝑦
𝑢= = −𝜔𝑦𝑚 cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) … … … (4)
𝑑𝑡
Therefore, using this relation and putting 𝑑𝑚 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑥, where 𝜇 is the linear density of string and 𝑑𝑥
is the length element. Therefore, we get,
1 1
𝑑𝐾 = ( 𝜇 𝑑𝑥) (−𝜔𝑦𝑚 )2 cos2 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) = 𝜇𝜔2 𝑦𝑚
2
cos2 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 … … … (5)
2 2
1
Similarly, Elastic potential energy (𝑈 = 𝑘𝑦 2 ) is also carried along with the wave, where 𝜔2 = 𝑘/𝑚.
2
The differential form of the elastic potential energy is,
1 1 1 1
𝑑𝑈 = 𝑘𝑦 2 = 𝑑𝑚 𝜔2 𝑦 2 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑥 𝜔2 𝑦 2 = 𝜇 𝜔2 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
2 2 2 2
1
𝑑𝑈 = 𝜇𝜔2 𝑦𝑚 2
sin2 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 … … … (6)
2
A wave is consisting of many wavelengths. Therefore, for standardization, the kinetic energy
associated with a wavelength of the wave can be calculated by integrating over the wavelength, and
can be expresses as (putting 𝜔 = 2𝜋/𝑇 and 𝑡 = 𝑇),
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
1 2 2 1
𝐾𝜆 = ∫ 𝑑𝐾 = ∫ 𝜇𝜔 𝑦𝑚 cos 2 (𝑘𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜇𝜔2 𝑦𝑚
2
∫ cos 2 (𝑘𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0 0 2 2 0
𝜆
1 1 1 𝑥 sin 2𝑥
𝐾𝜆 = 𝜇𝜔2 𝑦𝑚
2
[ 𝑥+ sin 2𝑥] [∵ ∫ cos 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + ]
2 2 4𝑘 0 2 4
1 1 1 1 1 𝜆 2𝜋
𝐾𝜆 = 𝜇𝜔2 𝑦𝑚 2
[ 𝜆+ sin 2𝑘𝜆 − sin(0)] = 𝜇𝜔2 𝑦𝑚 2
( ) [∵ 𝑘 = ]
2 2 4𝑘 4𝑘 2 2 𝜆
1
𝐾 = 𝜇𝜔2 𝑦𝑚 2
𝜆 … … … (7)
4
Similarly, potential energy associated with each wavelength is (putting 𝜔 = 2𝜋/𝑇 and 𝑡 = 𝑇),
𝜆 𝜆
1 2 2
𝑈𝜆 = ∫ 𝑑𝑈 = ∫ 𝜇𝜔 𝑦𝑚 sin2 (𝑘𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0 0 2
𝜆
1 1 1 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥
𝑈𝜆 = 𝜇𝜔2 𝑦𝑚
2
[ 𝑥− sin 2𝑥] [∵ ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ]
2 2 4𝑘 0 2 4
1 1 1 1 1 𝜆 2𝜋
𝑈𝜆 = 𝜇𝜔2 𝑦𝑚
2
[ 𝜆− sin 2𝑘𝜆 + sin(0)] = 𝜇𝜔2 𝑦𝑚
2
( ) [∵ 𝑘 = ]
2 2 4𝑘 4𝑘 2 2 𝜆
1
𝑈𝜆 = 𝜇𝜔2 𝑦𝑚 2
𝜆 … … … (8)
4

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 PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

The total energy associated with a wavelength is the sum of the potential energy and the kinetic
energy, thus,
1 1 1
𝐸𝜆 = 𝐾𝜆 + 𝑈𝜆 = 𝜇𝜔2 𝑦𝑚
2
𝜆 + 𝜇𝜔2 𝑦𝑚
2
𝜆 = 𝜇𝜔2 𝑦𝑚
2
𝜆 … … … (9)
4 4 2

The power of a wave refers to the rate at which energy is transferred by the wave, or amount of energy
transferred per unit time. The power of a wave traveling along a string can be calculated using,
1 2 2
𝐸𝜆 𝜇𝜔 𝑦𝑚 𝜆 1 𝜆 1 𝜆
P= = 𝐸𝜆 𝑓 = 2 = 𝜇𝜔2 𝑦𝑚 2
= 𝜇𝑣𝜔2 𝑦𝑚 2
… … … (10) [∵ 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 = ]
𝑇 𝑇 2 𝑇 2 𝑇
Here 𝑃 is the power carried by the wave, 𝐸𝜆 is the energy carried by the wavelength of the wave, and
𝑇 is the time period and 𝑓 refers to the frequency and of the wave. This equation shows that power is
the product of energy and the frequency of the wave.

Rate of Energy Transmission (Alternative method):

The rate at which kinetic energy passes through a string element can be obtained by dividing equation
(5) by 𝑑𝑡, and thus the rate at which kinetic energy is carried along by the wave.
𝑑𝐾 1 2 2 𝑑𝑥 1
= 𝜇𝜔 𝑦𝑚 cos2 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) = 𝜇𝑣𝜔2 𝑦𝑚
2
cos 2 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) … … … (11)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑𝑥
Here, 𝑣 = refers to the wave speed.
𝑑𝑡

Now, the average rate at which kinetic energy is transported is,

𝑑𝐾 1 1
( ) = 𝜇𝑣𝜔2 𝑦𝑚
2 [cos 2 (𝑘𝑥
− 𝜔𝑡)]𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝜇𝑣𝜔2 𝑦𝑚
2
… … … (12)
𝑑𝑡 𝑎𝑣𝑔 2 4
Here the average is taken over an integer number of wavelengths and have used the fact that the
1
average value of the square of a cosine function over an integer number of periods is .
2

Similarly, dividing equation (6) by 𝑑𝑡 gives the rate at which potential energy passes through a string
element, and, thus, the rate at which kinetic energy is carried along by the wave.
𝑑𝑈 1 2 2 𝑑𝑥 1
= 𝜇𝜔 𝑦𝑚 sin2 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) = 𝜇𝑣𝜔2 𝑦𝑚 2
sin2 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) … … … (13)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
Now, the average rate at which potential energy is transported is,
𝑑𝑈 1 1
( ) = 𝜇𝑣𝜔2 𝑦𝑚
2 [sin2 (𝑘𝑥
− 𝜔𝑡)]𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝜇𝑣𝜔2 𝑦𝑚
2
… … … (14)
𝑑𝑡 𝑎𝑣𝑔 2 4
So, the rate of total energy transmission is the sum of the potential energy rate and the kinetic energy
transmission rate, thus
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐾 𝑑𝑈 1 1 1
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ( ) =( ) +( ) = 𝜇𝑣𝜔2 𝑦𝑚
2
+ 𝜇𝑣𝜔2 𝑦𝑚
2
= 𝜇𝑣𝜔2 𝑦𝑚
2
… … … (15)
𝑑𝑡 𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝑎𝑣𝑔 4 4 2
Here, 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 is the average power, which is the average rate at which energy of both kinds is transmitted
by the wave.

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 PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

PROBLEM: A string has linear density 𝜇 = 525 𝑔/𝑚 and is under tension 𝜏 = 45 𝑁. We send a
sinusoidal wave with frequency 𝑓 = 120 𝐻𝑧 and amplitude 𝑦𝑚 = 8.5 𝑚𝑚 along the string. At what
average rate does the wave transport energy?
ANSWER: We know the angular frequency, 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋(120 𝐻𝑧) = 754 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠.
𝜏 45 𝑁
And the wave speed, 𝑣 = √ = √ = 9.26 𝑚/𝑠
𝜇 0.525 𝑘𝑔/𝑚

Therefore, average power,

1 1
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝜇𝑣𝜔2 𝑦𝑚
2
= (0.525 𝑘𝑔/𝑚)(9.26 𝑚/𝑠)(754 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)2 (0.0085 𝑚)2 ≈ 100 𝑊
2 2

PROBLEM 16-26: A string along which waves can travel is 2.70 𝑚 long and has a mass of 260 𝑔.
The tension in the string is 36.0 𝑁. What must be the frequency of traveling waves of amplitude
7.70 𝑚𝑚 for the average power to be 85.0 𝑊?

PROBLEM 16-27: A sinusoidal wave is sent along a string with a linear density of 2.0 𝑔/𝑚. As
it travels, the kinetic energies of the mass elements along the string vary. Figure a gives the rate
𝑑𝐾/𝑑𝑡 at which kinetic energy passes through the string elements at a particular instant, plotted as
a function of distance 𝑥 along the string. Figure b is similar except that it gives the rate at which
kinetic energy passes through a particular mass element (at a particular location), plotted as a
function of time 𝑡. For both figures, the scale on the vertical (rate) axis is set by 𝑅𝑠 = 10 𝑊. What
is the amplitude of the wave?

WAVE EQUATION
The wave equation is a partial differential equation that governs the motion of the wave. It can be
used to predict the amplitude, frequency, and phase of the wave at any point in space and time. It
mathematically represents the propagation of waves, such as sound waves, light waves, and water
waves, among others.
The general differential equation that governs the travel of waves of all types is,
𝜕2𝑦 1 𝜕2𝑦
=
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2
Here the waves travel along an 𝑥 axis, and the elements of the string oscillate parallel to the 𝑦 axis.
The wave moves with speed 𝑣, in either the positive 𝑥 direction or the negative 𝑥 direction.
- As the wave passes through any element on a stretched string, the element moves perpendicularly
to the wave’s direction of travel (we are dealing with a transverse wave).
- Applying Newton’s 2nd law to the element’s motion, a general differential equation can be derived,
known as the wave equation that governs the travel of waves of any type.

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 PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

Fig. (a) A string element as a sinusoidal transverse wave travels on a stretched string. Forces 𝐹⃗1 and 𝐹⃗2 act at the left
and right ends, producing acceleration 𝑎⃗ having a vertical component 𝑎𝑦 . (b) The force at the element’s right end is
directed along a tangent to the element’s right side.
Figure a shows a snapshot of a string element of mass 𝑑𝑚 and length 𝑙 as a wave travels along a
string of linear density 𝜇 that is stretched along a horizontal 𝑥 axis.
- Let us consider that the wave amplitude is small so that the element can be tilted only slightly from
the 𝑥 axis as the wave passes.
- The force 𝐹⃗2 on the right end of the element has a magnitude equal to tension 𝜏 in the string and is
directed slightly upward.
- The force 𝐹⃗1 on the left end of the element also has a magnitude equal to the tension 𝜏 but is
directed slightly downward.
- Because of the slight curvature of the element, these two forces combine to produce a net force
that causes the element to have an upward acceleration 𝑎𝑦 .
Newton’s second law written for y components (𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦 ) gives us,
𝐹2𝑦 − 𝐹1𝑦 = 𝑑𝑚 𝑎𝑦
The mass element 𝑑𝑚 can be written in terms of the string’s linear density 𝜇 and the length of the
element as 𝑑𝑚 = 𝜇𝑙, since the element can have only a slight tilt, 𝑙 = 𝑑𝑥 (Fig. a) and we get,
𝑑𝑚 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑥
The acceleration 𝑎𝑦 is the second derivative of the displacement 𝑦 with respect to time, thus,
𝑑2𝑦
𝑎𝑦 =
𝑑𝑡 2
Figure b shows that 𝐹⃗2 is tangent to the string at the right end of the string element. Thus, we can
relate the components of the force to the string slope 𝑆2 at the right end as,
𝐹2𝑦
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒, 𝑆2 =
𝐹2𝑥
We can also relate the components to the magnitude 𝐹2 (= 𝜏) with
2 2
𝐹2 = 𝜏 = √𝐹2𝑥 + 𝐹2𝑦

However, as the element is assumed to be slightly tilted, 𝐹2𝑥 ≫ 𝐹2𝑦 and therefore we can write,

2
𝜏 = 𝐹2𝑥 [∵ 𝜏 = √𝐹2𝑥 ]

Substituting this into Equation and solving for 𝐹2𝑦 yield, 𝐹2𝑦 = 𝜏𝑆2
Similar, analysis at the left end of the string element gives us, 𝐹1𝑦 = 𝜏𝑆1

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 PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

The net force,

𝑑2 𝑦
𝜏𝑆2 − 𝜏𝑆1 = (𝜇 𝑑𝑥) 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑆2 − 𝑆1 𝑑𝑆 𝜇 𝑑 2 𝑦
= =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜏 𝑑𝑡 2
Because the string element is short, slopes 𝑆2 and 𝑆1 differ by only a differential amount 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑆2 −
𝑑𝑦
𝑆1 , where 𝑆 is the slope at any point, and 𝑆 = . Therefore,
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑆 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝜇 𝑑2 𝑦
= ( )= [∵ 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜏 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 𝑦 𝜇 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= [∵ 𝑆 = ]
𝑑𝑥 2 𝜏 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥
𝜏
We know, speed 𝑣 = √ . Therefore,
𝜇

𝑑2𝑦 1 𝑑2 𝑦
=
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑡 2
This is the general differential equation that governs the travel of waves of all types.

PROBLEM 16-28: Use the wave equation to find the speed of a wave given by
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = (3.00 𝑚𝑚) sin[(4.00 𝑚−1 )𝑥 − (7.00 𝑠 −1 )𝑡]

PROBLEM 16-29: Use the wave equation to find the speed of a wave given by
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = (2.00 𝑚𝑚)[(20 𝑚−1 )𝑥 − (4.0 𝑠 −1 )𝑡]0.5

INTERFERENCE OF WAVES
Interference:
Interference of waves refers to the phenomenon that occurs when two or more waves meet or overlap
with each other in a given region of space. When waves interact, their amplitudes (peak values) can
either reinforce each other, or cancel each other out.
Constructive Interference: Constructive interference occurs when two waves with same amplitudes
and frequencies travelling in the same direction meet in phase, meaning their crests align with each
other, or their troughs align with each other.
- In this case, the amplitudes of the waves add up, resulting in a wave with a larger amplitude. The
resulting wave is characterized by regions of increased intensity or brightness.
- Constructive interference is observed when the path difference between the waves is an integer
multiple of the wavelength.

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 PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

Fig. Two identical sinusoidal waves, 𝑦1 (𝑥, 𝑡) and 𝑦2 (𝑥, 𝑡), travel along a string in the positive direction of an x axis. They
interfere to give a resultant wave 𝑦′(𝑥, 𝑡). The resultant wave is what is actually seen on the string. The phase difference
f between the two interfering waves is (a) 0 𝑟𝑎𝑑 or 0°, (b) 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 or 180°, and (c) 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 or 120°. The corresponding
resultant waves are shown in (d), (e), and (f).

Destructive Interference: Destructive interference occurs when two waves with same amplitudes and
frequencies travelling in the same direction meet out of phase, meaning their crests align with the
troughs of the other wave.
- In this case, the amplitudes of the waves cancel each other out, resulting in a wave with a smaller
or zero amplitude.
- The resulting wave is characterized by regions of decreased intensity or darkness.
- Destructive interference is observed when the path difference between the waves is an odd multiple
of half the wavelength.

Equation of Interference:
Let us consider, one wave traveling along a stretched string be given by,
𝑦1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
and another wave shifted from the first wave by phase constant 𝜙 is given by,
𝑦2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

These waves have the same angular frequency 𝜔 (and thus the same frequency 𝑓), the same angular
wave number 𝑘 (and thus the same wavelength 𝜆), and the same amplitude 𝑦𝑚 . They both travel in
the positive direction of the 𝑥 axis, with the same speed. They differ only by a constant angle 𝜙, the
phase constant. These waves are said to be out of phase by 𝜙 or to have a phase difference of 𝜙, or
one wave is said to be phase-shifted from the other by 𝜙.

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 PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

From the principle of superposition, the resultant wave is the algebraic sum of the two interfering
waves and has displacement,
𝑦 ′ (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦1 (𝑥, 𝑡) + 𝑦2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) + 𝑦𝑚 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
1 1
We know that, sin 𝛼 + sin 𝛽 = 2 sin (𝛼 + 𝛽) cos (𝛼 − 𝛽)
2 2

Therefore,
1 1
𝑦 ′ (𝑥, 𝑡) = [2𝑦𝑚 cos 𝜙] sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
2 2
The resultant wave is also a sinusoidal wave traveling in the direction of increasing 𝑥. The resultant
1
wave differs from the interfering waves in two respects, namely, its phase constant is 𝜙, and its
2
′ 1
amplitude 𝑦𝑚 = [2𝑦𝑚 cos 𝜙].
2

Constructive Interference:
For constructive interference, the amplitude of the resulting interference wave is maximum that is
2𝑦𝑚 . Thus,
1 1
2𝑦𝑚 cos 𝜙 = 2𝑦𝑚 ⇒ cos 𝜙 = 1 = cos(0)
2 2
Thus, for constructive interference, 𝜙 = 0 𝑟𝑎𝑑 (𝑜𝑟 0°). In other word, the two interfering waves
should be exactly in phase. The equation for the constructive interference is,
𝑦 ′ (𝑥, 𝑡) = 2𝑦𝑚 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) [∵ 𝜙 = 0 𝑟𝑎𝑑]
This is the equation of fully constructive interference (Fig. a).

Destructive Interference:
For destructive interference, the amplitude of the resulting interference wave is zero. Thus,
𝜙 𝜙 𝜋
2𝑦𝑚 cos =0 ⇒ cos = 0 = cos ( )
2 2 2
Thus, for destructive interference, 𝜙 = 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 (𝑜𝑟 180°). In other word, the two interfering waves
should be exactly out of phase. The equation for the destructive interference is,
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑦 ′ (𝑥, 𝑡) = [2𝑦𝑚 cos ] sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + ) = 0 [𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝜙 = 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 & cos = 0]
2 2 2
This is the equation of fully destructive interference (Fig. b).

CHECKPOINT: Here are four possible phase differences between two identical waves, expressed
in wavelengths: 0.20, 0.45, 0.60, and 0.80. Rank them according to the amplitude of the resultant
wave, greatest first.
ANSWER: 0.20 and 0.80 tie, then 0.60, 0.45

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PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

PROBLEM: Two identical sinusoidal waves, moving in the same direction along a stretched
string, interfere with each other. The amplitude 𝑦𝑚 of each wave is 9.8 𝑚𝑚, and the phase
difference 𝜙 between them is 100°.
′
(a) What is the amplitude 𝑦𝑚 of the resultant wave due to the interference, and what is the type of
this interference?
(b) What phase difference, in radians and wavelengths, will give the resultant wave an amplitude
of 4.9 𝑚𝑚?
ANSWER: (a) Since they are identical, the waves have the same amplitude. Thus, the amplitude
′
𝑦𝑚 of the resultant wave is given by,
′
1
𝑦𝑚 = |2𝑦𝑚 cos 𝜙| = |(2)(9.8 𝑚𝑚) cos(100°/2)| = 13 𝑚𝑚
2
′
Since, the phase difference is between 0° and 180°, and, correspondingly, the amplitude 𝑦𝑚 is
between 0 and 2𝑦𝑚 (= 19.6 𝑚𝑚), the interference is intermediate.
′ 1
(b) We have, 𝑦𝑚 = |2𝑦𝑚 cos 𝜙|
2
′
𝑦𝑚 (4.9 𝑚𝑚)
Therefore, 𝜙 = 2 cos−1 = 2 cos −1 = ±2.636 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ≈ ±2.6 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2𝑦𝑚 2(9.8 𝑚𝑚)

In wavelengths, the phase difference is,

𝜙 ±2.636 𝑟𝑎𝑑
= = ±0.42 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

PROBLEM 16-31: Two identical traveling waves, moving in the same direction, are out of phase
𝜋
by rad. What is the amplitude of the resultant wave in terms of the common amplitude 𝑦𝑚 of the
2
two combining waves?

PROBLEM 16-32: What phase difference between two identical traveling waves, moving in the
same direction along a stretched string, results in the combined wave having an amplitude
1.50 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 that of the common amplitude of the two combining waves? Express your answer in
(a) degrees, (b) radians, and (c) wavelengths.

PROBLEM 16-33: Two sinusoidal waves with the same

amplitude of 9.00 𝑚𝑚 and the same wavelength travel
together along a string that is stretched along an x axis.
Their resultant wave is shown twice in Fig., as valley A
travels in the negative direction of the x axis by distance
𝑑 = 56.0 𝑐𝑚 in 8.0 𝑚𝑠. The tick marks along the axis are
separated by 10 𝑐𝑚, and height 𝐻 is 8.0 𝑚𝑚. Let the
equation for one wave be of the form 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) =
𝑦𝑚 sin(𝑘𝑥 ± 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙1 ), where 𝜙1 = 0 and you must
choose the correct sign in front of 𝜔. For the equation for
the other wave, what are (a) 𝑦𝑚 , (b) 𝑘, (c) 𝜔, (d) 𝜙2 , and
(e) the sign in front of 𝜔?

9
 PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

STANDING WAVES AND RESONANCE

Standing waves are a unique type of wave pattern that occurs when two waves of the same frequency
and amplitude traveling in opposite directions interfere with each other. Unlike traveling waves that
propagate through space, standing waves appear to be stationary and oscillate in place.
- Standing waves form when a wave is reflected back upon itself, causing interference.
- This phenomenon is commonly observed on a string, like a guitar string, fixed at both ends.
- Fixed ends act as points of reflection, causing the incident wave and the reflected wave to interfere.

The interference of the incident and reflected waves results, in certain points along the string, "nodes"
and "antinodes”.
- Nodes are points of no displacement, where the string remains stationary.
- Antinodes are points of maximum displacement, where string oscillates with highest amplitude.
The basic characteristics of standing waves on a string can be summarized as follows:
- Nodes and Antinodes: The string has fixed nodes at its ends due to being anchored. Between the
nodes, there are locations of maximum displacement called antinodes.
- Harmonic Modes: The standing wave pattern can consist of multiple harmonics, also known as
modes. The fundamental mode (first harmonic) has a single node in the center and two antinodes
on either side. Higher harmonics have additional nodes and antinodes.
- Frequencies and Wavelengths: Each harmonic mode corresponds to a specific frequency and
wavelength. The fundamental mode has the longest wavelength and the lowest frequency, while
higher harmonics have shorter wavelengths and higher frequencies.
- Amplitude: Amplitude of a standing wave remains constant at all points and time. In a traveling
sinusoidal wave, the amplitude of the wave is the same for all string elements. However, for a
standing wave, in which the amplitude varies with position.

Equation of Standing Wave:

Let us consider, two waves with the equations,
𝑦1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝑦2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 sin(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡)
The principle of superposition gives, for the combined wave,
𝑦 ′ (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦1 (𝑥, 𝑡) + 𝑦2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) + 𝑦𝑚 sin(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡)
1 1
We know that, sin 𝛼 + sin 𝛽 = 2 sin (𝛼 + 𝛽) cos (𝛼 − 𝛽).
2 2

Therefore,
𝑦 ′ (𝑥, 𝑡) = [2𝑦𝑚 sin 𝑘𝑥] cos 𝜔𝑡
This equation describes a standing wave. The quantity 2𝑦𝑚 sin 𝑘𝑥 in the brackets of equation can be
viewed as the amplitude of oscillation of the string element that is located at position 𝑥. However,
since an amplitude is always positive and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 can be negative, therefore, the absolute value of the
quantity 2𝑦𝑚 sin 𝑘𝑥 is taken as the amplitude at 𝑥.

10
 PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

Fig. (a) Five snapshots of a wave traveling to the left, at the times 𝑡 indicated below part (c) (𝑇 is the period of oscillation).
(b) Five snapshots of a wave identical to that in (a) but traveling to the right, at the same times 𝑡. (c) Corresponding
1
snapshots for the superposition of the two waves on the same string. At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑇, and 𝑇, fully constructive interference
2
1 3
occurs because of the alignment of peaks with peaks and valleys with valleys. At 𝑡 = 𝑇 and 𝑇, fully destructive
4 4
interference occurs because of the alignment of peaks with valleys. Some points (the nodes, marked with dots) never
oscillate; some points (the antinodes) oscillate the most.

Position of Nodes in Stationary Wave:

In the standing wave, the amplitude of the nodes is zero. Therefore, we can write,
2𝑦𝑚 sin 𝑘𝑥 = 0 ⇒ sin 𝑘𝑥 = 0
For nodes the values of 𝑘𝑥 is such that we get 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 = 0. Thus,
𝑘𝑥 = 0 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, …
2𝜋
We know, 𝑘 = . So, we get,
𝜆
2𝜋 𝜆
) 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋
( ⇒𝑥=𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, . . . (𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠)
𝜆 2
Therefore, the nodes having zero amplitude for the standing wave will be obtained for the positions
𝜆
𝑥 = 𝑛 (for 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, . ..). And adjacent nodes are separated by 𝜆/2, that is half a wavelength.
2

Position of Anti-nodes in Stationary Wave:

The amplitude of the anti-nodes of the standing wave has a maximum value of 2𝑦𝑚 . Therefore, we
can write,
2𝑦𝑚 sin 𝑘𝑥 = 2𝑦𝑚 ⇒ sin 𝑘𝑥 = 1
For anti-nodes the values of 𝑘𝑥 is such that we get 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 = 1. Thus,
1 3 5 1
𝑘𝑥 = 𝜋, 𝜋, 𝜋, … … … = (𝑛 + ) 𝜋, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, . ..
2 2 2 2
2𝜋
As we know, 𝑘 = . We get
𝜆
2𝜋 1 1 𝜆
( ) 𝑥 = (𝑛 + ) 𝜋 ⇒ 𝑥 = (𝑛 + ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, . . . (𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖 − 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠)
𝜆 2 2 2

11
 PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

Therefore, the anti-nodes having maximum amplitude for the standing wave will be obtained for the
1 𝜆
positions 𝑥 = (𝑛 + ) (for 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, . ..). And adjacent anti-nodes are also separated by 𝜆/2, that
2 2
is half a wavelength.

CHECKPOINT: Two waves with the same amplitude and wavelength interfere in three different
situations to produce resultant waves with the following equations:
(1) 𝑦′(𝑥, 𝑡) = 4 sin(5𝑥 − 4𝑡)
(2) 𝑦 ′ (𝑥, 𝑡) = 4 sin(5𝑥) cos(4𝑡)
(3) 𝑦′(𝑥, 𝑡) = 4 sin(5𝑥 + 4𝑡)
In which situation are the two combining waves traveling (a) toward positive x, (b) toward negative
x, and (c) in opposite directions?
ANSWER: (𝒂) 1; (𝒃) 3; (𝒄) 2

RESONANCE: Resonance is a phenomenon that occurs when an external force or wave is applied to
a system at its natural frequency or a multiple of it. When the frequency of the external force
matches the natural frequency of the system, resonance amplifies the system's response.
Applications of Resonance:
1. Musical Instruments: Resonance is essential in musical instruments. When a musician plays
a note on a guitar string or blows air into a flute, the instrument resonates at specific
frequencies, producing the desired musical tones.
2. Bridges and Buildings: Engineers consider resonance when designing structures like
bridges and buildings to avoid potential damage caused by excessive vibrations. By
understanding the natural frequencies of the structure, they can minimize the risk of
resonance and ensure structural stability.
3. Electronics and Circuits: Resonant circuits are used in electronics for various purposes,
such as filtering signals, tuning radio receivers, and generating oscillations in radio
transmitters. Resonant circuits can selectively amplify or attenuate specific frequencies.

STANDING WAVES AND RESONANCE

Standing waves and resonance are phenomena that occur when waves interact with boundaries or
other waves in a confined space. Both resonance and standing waves are closely related phenomena.
- Standing waves are a result of interference between waves, whereas resonance is the response of
a system to a specific frequency or a multiple of it.
- In some cases, resonance can lead to the formation of standing waves, particularly when waves
reflect back and forth between boundaries.

12
 PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

Fig. A string, stretched between two clamps, is made to oscillate in standing wave patterns. (a) The simplest possible
pattern consists of one loop, which refers to the composite shape formed by the string in its extreme displacements (the
solid and dashed lines). (b) The next simplest pattern has two loops. (c) The next has three loops.

Let us consider, a string under tension oscillates an adjustable frequency f. The string has a constant
linear density (mass per length) 𝜇 and the speed at which a wave travels down the string equals, 𝑣 =
𝐹 𝑚𝑔
√ 𝜇𝑇 = √ 𝜇
. The symmetrical boundary conditions (a node at each end) dictate the possible
frequencies that can excite standing waves. Starting from a frequency of zero and slowly increasing
the frequency, the first mode 𝑛 = 1 appears as shown in Figure. The first mode, also called the
fundamental mode or the first harmonic, shows half of a wavelength has formed, so the wavelength
is equal to twice the length between the nodes 𝜆1 = 2𝐿. The fundamental frequency, or first
harmonic frequency, that drives this mode is,
𝑣 𝑣
𝑓1 = =
𝜆1 2𝐿
𝐹
where the speed of the wave is 𝑣 = √ 𝑇. Keeping the tension constant and increasing the frequency
𝜇
leads to the second harmonic or the 𝑛 = 2 mode. This mode is a full wavelength 𝜆2 = 𝐿 and the
frequency is twice the fundamental frequency,
𝑣 𝑣
𝑓2 = = = 2𝑓1
𝜆2 𝐿
2 2
The next two modes, or the third and fourth harmonics, have wavelengths of 𝜆3 = 𝐿 and 𝜆4 = 𝐿,
3 4
𝑣 𝑣
driven by frequencies of 𝑓3 = 3 = 3𝑓1 and 𝑓4 = 4 = 4𝑓1 . All frequencies above the frequency
2𝐿 2𝐿
𝑓1 are known as the overtones. The equations for the wavelength and the frequency can be
summarized as,
2
𝜆𝑛 = 𝐿, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, . ..
𝑛
𝑣
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓1 = 𝑛, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, . ..
2𝐿
Here 𝑣 is the speed of traveling waves on the string.

13
PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

PROBLEM 16-40: Two sinusoidal waves with identical wavelengths and amplitudes travel in
opposite directions along a string with a speed of 10 𝑐𝑚/𝑠. If the time interval between instants
when the string is flat is 0.50 𝑠, what is the wavelength of the waves?

PROBLEM 16-42: A string under tension 𝜏𝑖 oscillates in the third harmonic at frequency 𝑓3 , and
the waves on the string have wavelength 𝜆3 . If the tension is increased to 𝜏𝑓 = 4𝜏𝑖 and the string is
again made to oscillate in the third harmonic, what then are (a) the frequency of oscillation in terms
of 𝑓3 and (b) the wavelength of the waves in terms of 𝜆3 ?

PROBLEM 16-43: What are (a) the lowest frequency, (b) the second lowest frequency, and (c)
the third lowest frequency for standing waves on a wire that is 10.0 𝑚 long, has a mass of 100 𝑔,
and is stretched under a tension of 250 𝑁?

PROBLEM 16-44: A 125 𝑐𝑚 length of string has mass 2.00 𝑔 and tension 7.00 𝑁. (a) What is
the wave speed for this string? (b) What is the lowest resonant frequency of this string?

PROBLEM 16-46: String 𝐴 is stretched between two clamps separated by distance 𝐿. String 𝐵,
with the same linear density and under the same tension as string 𝐴, is stretched between two clamps
separated by distance 4𝐿. Consider the first eight harmonics of string 𝐵. For which of these eight
harmonics of 𝐵 (if any) does the frequency match the frequency of (a) 𝐴’𝑠 first harmonic, (b) 𝐴’𝑠
second harmonic, and (c) 𝐴’𝑠 third harmonic?

14