The Peril of Tiny Pollutants: A Comprehensive Review of Micro-Plastic Toxicity

Devyani Gautam1, Ayushi Sood2, Puneet3, Harpreet Kaur4.

1
Research Intern, Rapture Biotech Pvt. Ltd., Mohali, Punjab.
2
Research Intern, Rapture Biotech Pvt. Ltd., Mohali, Punjab.
3
*Senior Scientist, Rapture Biotech Pvt. Ltd., Mohali, Punjab.
4
Centre Director, Rapture Biotech Pvt. Ltd., Mohali, Punjab.
*Corresponding author: [email protected].

Abstract
Micro-plastics are plastic particles less than 5 millimetres in size, have become a widespread
environmental concern due to the massive use of plastics and poor waste management. This review
explores how micro-plastics have made their way into our drinking water and the potential health
risks they pose. By examining studies from different countries, we found that the levels of micro-
plastics in bottled and tap water can vary significantly. The size and chemical makeup of these
particles affect how toxic they are, with smaller particles more likely to penetrate and harm human
bodies. Exposure to micro-plastics may cause oxidative stress, inflammation, and damage to cells,
possibly leading to hormone imbalances and a higher risk of chronic diseases. We also looked into
the effects on marine life, showing how micro-plastics can accumulate in organisms and move up
the food chain, eventually reaching humans. Detecting and measuring these particles accurately
remains a challenge, and current regulations are still catching up with this growing problem. Our
review highlights the urgent need for consistent methods to monitor micro-plastics and better
guidelines to reduce their impact on our health. Ultimately, reducing plastic pollution is crucial to
safeguarding both human and environmental well-being.
Keywords: Micro-plastics, Toxicity, sources,

INTRODUCTION

Over the past fifty years, the most striking and visible changes to the surface of earth has been the
accumulation of plastic debris. Like many human-induced effects on natural systems, it continues to
grow despite widespread awareness of the issue. Even if all plastic production were halted today, its
impacts would persist for centuries [4]. Micro-plastics are plastic particles smaller than 5 mm,
found in waters and soils, and can lead to physical damages, decreased nutritional value, and
exposure to pathogens [1]
 .

MEGA-PLASTICS
GREATER THAN 1
METRE

MESO-PLASTICS
GREATER THAN 2.5 CM

MACRO-PLASTIC
<2.5 CM

MICRO-PLASTICS
<5MM

Fig. 1. Different types of plastics on the basis of Size

Depending on age and sex, the US consumes between 39000 and 52000 micro-plastic particles
annually; when inhaled, the figure rises to 74000 and 121000 particles. [2]. Due to their high level
of environmental persistence, plastics degrade slowly and accumulate quickly in ecosystems [3].
Projections indicate that, without intervention, the amount of plastic debris in landfills and natural
environments may surpass 12 billion metric tons, by 2050. This represents a significant increase
compared to the 4.9 billion metrictons—equivalent to 60% of all plastic ever produced—that was
already present by 2015 [5]. MPs can be of different type such as Polyethene, Polysterene (PS),
Polyvinylcarbon (PVC), Polypropylene (PP), Polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Microplastic
particles (MPs) smaller than 130 μm in diameter have been shown to infiltrate human tissues,
potentially inducing localized immune responses and releasing monomers and toxic additives
incorporated during plastic manufacturing. Notably, MPs as small as 70 μm have been reported to
cause intestinal damage and oxidative stress in model organisms such as zebrafish and nematodes,
with their toxicity primarily influenced by particle size rather than chemical composition [6][8]
whereas, Micro-plastics in water and aquatic systems disrupt ecosystems, accumulating harmful
pollutants and leaching chemicals, affecting biogenic flora and fauna[7] while studying the
ingestion of micro-plastics by flora and fauna, four major factors must be taken under
consideration: Concentration, size, shape and type of polymer resulting in a further increase in
waste generation. India's urban population is projected to reach 600 million in the coming years,
generating 165 million tons of solid waste (5-6% of which is plastic) by 2030 [Economic forum].
Data from UNEP indicates a significant and rapid increase in global annual plastic production, even
the increasing publication dynamics of the topic “TOXIC EFFECTS OF MICRO-PLASTIC.” And
“MICRO-PLASTICS” proves the same.

PUBLICATION DYNAMICS
80000
70000
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
1997-1998

2000-2001

2019-2020

2022-2023
1995-1996
1996-1997

1998-1999
1999-2000

2001-2002
2002-2003
2003-2004
2004-2005
2005-2006
2006-2007
2007-2008
2008-2009
2009-2010
2010-2011
2011-2012
2012-2013
2013-2014
2014-2015
2015-2016
2016-2017
2017-2018
2018-2019

2020-2021
2021-2022

2023-2024
2024-2024
NUMBER OF PUBLICATION ON TOXICITY OF MICROPLASTIC
NUMBER OF PUBLICATIONS WITH KEYWORD MICROPLASTICS

Fig 2: Dynamic of Publication (1995-2024) related to “toxicity of Micro-plastics” and “micro-

plastics” based on data retrieved from Google Scholar

400000000 PLASTIC PRODUCTION (TON)

350000000

300000000

250000000

200000000

150000000

100000000

50000000

0
2005 2007 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Fig. 3. World plastic production in different years according to data available by UNEP
Our review comprehensively explores various aspects of microplastics, including their diverse
sources and types, pathways of exposure, and their potential impacts on human health. It delves into
the mechanisms of microplastic toxicity, focusing on how particle size, composition, and associated
chemical additives contribute to adverse health outcomes. Additionally, the review examines how
humans are exposed to microplastics through environmental, dietary, and occupational pathways.
By synthesizing evidence from recent studies, it highlights the physiological effects of microplastic
exposure, such as oxidative stress, inflammation, and cellular damage, emphasizing the urgent need
for further research to understand their long-term implications on human health.

SOURCES OF MICRO-PLASTIC
Microplastics originate from a wide range of sources, and their distribution, movement, and
persistence in different environments are shaped by natural processes and their physicochemical
properties [10]. Approximately 80% of microplastic pollution in the oceans is estimated to originate
from land-based sources, with rivers serving as a major conduit for transporting microplastics into
marine environments [11]. There are two types of micro-plastics on the basis of sources: Primary
and Secondary.
Micro-beads in cosmetics exfoliants, such as facial scrubs, and cleaning agents, fiber fragments
from washing clothes, and broken down plastic litter and debris. Cosmetic are a potentially
important primary source of micro-plastic contamination in the marine environment [12-13].
Larger plastic particles known as secondary micro-plastics are produced when larger plastic
materials break apart due to oxidative, chemical, and physical processes while moving from rivers
to seas or oceans and wind up in bodies of water [14-16]. They are also contributed by personal
care products such as liquid soaps, exfoliating scrubs, and cleaning agents.

Terrestrial Sources of Micro-plastics

There are multiple terrestrial sources of micro-plastic. MPs were found in 70–99% of recovered
sewage sludge during the water treatment process (domestic, hospital, and industrial discharge),
with concentrations reaching 103–105 items/kg [17]. Plastic mulching in agriculture is a major
source of micro-plastics in soils, with residues increasing over time in fields with continuous
mulching [18]. Micro-plastics can alter soil properties, affect nutrient cycling, and interact with soil
organisms, potentially disrupting essential ecosystem services [19-21].

Table 1. Abundance of Micro plastics at various locations.

LOCATION ABUNDANCE[Mean] REFERENCES
Estuary of the Cha river bed, 26410 particles/Kg [22]
Yunnan, China
Dunshang, Yunnan, China 27,310 particles /kg [22]
Anle Yunnan, China 53,090 particles/ kg [22]
Industry areas, Sydney, 4191mg/Kg [23]
Australia
Floodplain soils, Switzerland 5mg/Kg [24]
Coastal plains, Tamil Nadu, 119-439 items/Kg [25]
India
Beach, Odisha, India 258.7 ± 90.0 particles/kg [26]
Coral Island, Maldives 647 ± 720 [56]

Water Sources
Rainfall and storm events play a critical role in the contamination of aquatic systems with
microplastics. Notably, the Ganges River, in conjunction with the Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers,
is estimated to discharge between 1 to 3 billion microplastic particles into the Bay of Bengal daily,
predominantly in the form of fibres [27]. Ganga River being the Holy river of India is consumed by
millions of people as pure. Oral exposure to micro- and nano-plastics inside can lead to potential
toxic consequences, with potential interactions with intestinal and liver cells [28]. Micro-plastics in
river ecosystems can enter food webs through detritivory and filter-feeding, revealing a potential
risk to freshwater ecosystems [31]. Micro-plastics in the Koshi River and The Netravathi River
mainly come from point sources including untreated sewage effluents and solid waste from
households, major settlements, towns, and cities, as well as non-point sources such as agricultural
runoff and atmospheric deposition [29][30]. The micro-plastics can also interact with heavy metals
(Cu,Zn,Ni,Pb,Cr) inside the river system which can be highly toxic to aquatic fauna[32].
In Shanghai's urban rivers, micro-plastics are abundant, with polypropylene being the most
prevalent polymer. Micro-plastic abundance at different location is below:

Table 2. Mean Abundance of micro-plastics in different water systems

Location Abundance References
Rhine and Meuse rivers. 1400-4900kg-1 dry weight [33]
Pearl River, China(urban) 19,860 items/m3 [34]
Pearl River, China(estuary) 8902 items/m3 [34]
St. Lawrence River, Canada 13 832 ± 13 677 [53]
Lake Superior, USA 5391 ± 4552 [54]
Lake Garda, Italy 1,108 ± 983 [55]
Antu River, Portugal 5 to 8.3mgm-3 [35]
Brisbane River, Australia 0.18 to 129.20 mg kg-1, [36]
Netravathi River, Karnataka 288 pieces/m3 [37]
Southwest coast of India. 1.25 ± 0.88 particles/m3 [38]
Vembanad Lake, India 96-496 particles m-2 [39]
Central-Western Mediterranean 0.15 x10-3 particles/L [40]
Sea

Fig. 3. Micro-plastic contaimination in different countries across globe.

The OECD reports that plastics are utilized in a wide range of products, contributing to a steady
increase in consumption over the years. Hence, increase in accumulation in various sources.
Fig 4. According to OECD, Plastic consumption by world from 1990-2019 per million ton

TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MICRO-PLASTICS

Micro-plastic toxicity is size-dependent, with smaller micro-beads are more toxic [41]. There are
different types of Micro-plastics based on its chemical structure, size, and shape. Chemically micro-
plastics can be Polyvinyl chloride which is used in making Pipes, window frames etc., negatively
affected vital organs and induced stress in gilthead sea-bream, in the study conducted by Espinosa
et al. (2017) [42].
The production and use of PVC result in incomplete utilization, prolonged biodegradation periods,
and adverse effects on living organisms. These factors contribute to the accumulation of
microplastics in the environment, posing significant threats to ecosystems [43]. PET is used in
Packaging and Electronics etc .Polythene is a widely used polymer, increased use of which leads to
increased pollution levels, affecting both terrestrial and aquatic biomes [44]. Other type of plastics
also causes harmful effects different type of plastics on the basis of chemical structure is discussed
in Table 3. Plastics can be fibrils, flakes, pallets, and fragments depending on their shape, which
increases the likelihood that they will enter the bodies of humans and other organisms.

Table 3. Classification of Micro-plastic on the basis of chemical structure

NAME CHEMICAL NAME STRUCTURE
PVC Polyvinyl chloride

PET Polyethylene
tetraphthalate

PP Polypropylene

PU Polyurethane

PE Polyethene

PS Polystyrene

Toxicity of micro-plastic
Exposure to microplastics may induce toxicity by triggering oxidative stress, inflammatory
responses, and enhanced absorption or translocation, which can result in metabolic disruptions,
neurotoxicity, and a heightened risk of cancer [63-64].
Inhaled micro-plastics can induce lesions in the respiratory system, leading to dyspnea and
inflammatory responses depending on individual susceptibility and particle properties [65]. Micro-
plastics in human can enter through various pathways such as inhalation and ingestion.
Exposure of Micro Plastics through Ingestion
Oral intake is the primary source of microplastics. On a global scale, humans are estimated to ingest
between 0.1 and 5 grams of microplastics per week through diverse exposure routes [67].
Americans are estimated to consume between 39,000 and 52,000 microplastic particles annually,
with variations based on age and sex. This consumption increases to between 74,000 and 121,000
particles when inhalation exposure is included [66]. Unintentional ingestion of microplastics and
nano-plastics through drinking water, beverages, and food sources poses emerging health concerns
[68 Research indicates that traditional drinking water treatment methods can effectively remove
particles larger than 50 μm from raw water, with removal efficiencies ranging from 25% to 90%,
depending on the specific treatment techniques used locally [69]. Generally, contaminated
freshwater sources, including lakes, rivers, canals, and groundwater, are the source of MPs in
drinking water [70]. Micro-plastics and nano-plastics are emerging contaminants in food, with
current analysis methods having problems such as time consumption and poor accuracy [45, 46].
Micro-plastic accumulation has been reported in beaches, oceans, and freshwater sources which
reach humans through ingesting contaminated animals, especially fish [49]. Microplastics present in
the gastrointestinal tract of fish do not pose a direct risk of human exposure, as this organ is
generally not consumed. However, following the ingestion of microplastics, there is a potential for
associated chemical pollutants to leach and accumulate in edible tissues. Humans may be directly
exposed to microplastics by consuming fish skin or gill tissue [6]. Microplastics can be found in
foods like seafood, drinking water, salts, honey, sugar, milk, fruit, and meat, posing potential health
risks through ingestion and dermal contact impacting the human immune system [51-52]. Micro-
plastics have stronger sorption ability than mesoplastics [48]. It can also enter by the degradation
process of food packaging waste [50] Take-out containers, especially those made from rough-
surfaced polystyrene, are known to contain significant amounts of microplastics. Individuals who
order take-out 4 to 7 times a week could potentially ingest up to 12,203 microplastic particles from
these containers [47]. A high abundance of microplastics in food items can certainly affect human
health. Contamination of microplastics in a few food items across the world is shown below in the
table:
Table 4. Micro-plastics in drinking water in different countries

Sample/ location Size (μm) M.P. conc. Reference

Bottled Water 0−5 2.6 × 103 items/L(PET [71]
Germany bottle)
0−5 4.9 × 103 (reusable
PET bottle)
0−10 6.3 × 103items/L (glass
bottle)
Tap Water, 100− 5000 4.0 (0−9.0) items/L(tap [72]
Ecuador water)
Bottled water, Italy 0−10 5.4 × 107items/L [73]
Bottled water, Germany 5−100 11 items/L (beverage [74]
carton)
118 items/L (returnable
plastic bottle)
14 items/L (single-use
plastic bottle)
50 items/L (glass
bottle)
India (bottled water) 6.5− 5000 0−39 items/L [75]
Kenya (bottled water) 6.5− 5000 74.6 items/L [75]
Indonesia (bottled 6.5− 5000 (0.4−7.1)×102 items/L [75]
water)
Mexico (bottled water) 6.5− 5000 (0.2−6.9)×102 items/L [75]
U.S.A. (bottled water) 6.5− 5000 58−1.4 × 103 items/L [75]
Lebanon (bottled water) 6.5− 5000 49.3 items/L [75]
China (bottled water) 6.5− 5000 (0.7−1.6)×102 items/L [75]

Thailand (bottled 6.5− 5000 4.7 × 102 items/L [75]

water)
Mineral water, 5-50 118 ± 88 MP/L [77]
returnable
bottles (n =
12 bottles)
Mineral water, ≤1.5 μm->10 μm 2649 ± 2857 MP/ [71]
single use PET bottles L
(n = 10)

Table 5. Abundance of micro-plastics in food items extracted data from various sources.
Food item Abundance Reference
Oyster (C. gigas) 0.00-0.17particle/Kg [57]
Skimmed milk 16-53 particle/Kg [58]
Sea salt from India 56(±49)–103(±39) particle/Kg [59]
China sea salt (5.5−6.8)×102 items/kg [77]
China lake salt 43−364 items/kg

China rock salt 7−204 [77]

Indonesia sea salt 1.4 × 104 [60]
Pakistan 120 [60]
Hungary rock salt 12 [60]
Lake salt from China and 28–462 particle/Kg [60]
Senegal
Blue mussel (M. edulis) 3.69–9.16 particle/g [61]
Pacific oysters [Crassostrea 0.02 ± 0.03 [78]
gigas] (n = 21 sampling sites) MPs/g of
dry tissue
weight
Green tiger prawn 0.36 [80]
muscle [Penaeus items/g
semisulcatus] (n = 33 muscle
prawns)
Mussels [Mytilus edulis] 0.36 ± 0.07 [79]
(n = 1 mussel farm) MPs/g of
wet weight
Clam [Amiantis 1.6 ± 0.6 [81]
umbonella] (n = 3) MPs/g of
wet weight
Beer, Germany 16–254 particles/L [62]

Influence of micro-plastics when exposed through oral intake

Once ingested by humans, microplastics reach the gastrointestinal system, where they may be either
engulfed by M-cells or directly adhere to the gastrointestinal mucus. The majority of micro- and
nano-plastics are though eliminated in the feces (>90%). The intestinal epithelium can absorb
microplastics up to a size of 150 µm, and studies on mammals have shown the presence of
microplastics of this size in lymph. The smallest microplastics, those less than 1.5 µm, are capable
of penetrating deeply into organs. Exposure to these minuscule particles can lead to systemic
exposure [97].
Bigger micro-plastics can have impacts on the immune system (such as intestinal inflammation).
Liangtao Zhao et al. investigated the impact of microplastics on mouse models and found that
prolonged oral exposure to microplastics induces inflammation in liver tissues, primarily through
macrophage polarization and increased infiltration of natural killer cells [98].
Polyethylene micro-plastics can reduce body weight gain in mice and increase neutrophils in the
blood stream, potentially harming reproduction and development [99]. Exposure to polyethylene
microplastics reduces colon mucin secretion and enhances amino acid metabolism by altering the
composition of colon microflora in mice [100].
Exposure by inhalation
Inhaled or ingested micro-plastics may accumulate and exert localized particle toxicity by inducing
or enhancing an immune response, it may also have negative, yet unclear long-term consequences
on human health [82]. Microplastics in the atmosphere have the potential to act as carriers for
harmful substances, including organic compounds and heavy metals. The biological effects of
inhaled microplastics may be amplified or mitigated by these toxic risks, as well as by the synthetic
and natural additives present in plastics (such as stabilizers, plasticizers, flame retardants, and
antimicrobial agents), leading to complex chemical interactions. Recent studies suggest that
microplastics in aquatic environments often form an eco-corona by binding biomolecules and
microbes to their surfaces, which has been shown to enhance their internalization, facilitating the
introduction of microplastics into living organisms, including cells [83]. Unspecified airway and
interstitial lung disorders are commonly observed in workers within the synthetic textile, flock, and
VC or PVC industries. This is likely due to the irritant and persistent nature of plastic particles [84]
occupational exposure even to chronic low concentrations via inhalation may induce gene mutation
and result in cancer [85]. In vitro studies on rat lung cells have shown that PVC particles containing
additives exhibit a higher inflammatory potential compared to additive-free PVC particles. These
effects are similar to those caused by pure additives themselves [86]. Abundance of micro-plastics
in air samples collected from different sources are:

Table 6. Microplastics found in air samples collected from various regions around the world,
Location Sample type Size(μm) Abundance References
2
France (Paris) Outdoor 100-5000 1.2 × 10 items [88]
m−2 day−1
China (Dongguan) Outdoor 0−5000 36 items m−2 day−1 [89]
Indonesia Outdoor 0-5000 (1.3−1.8)×104 [92]
-3
(Surabaya) items.m
Turkey (Sakarya) Outdoor 50-500 0.3−12.9 items.m-3 [93]
Nepal outdoor dust 100-5000 12.5 ± 10.1 [90]
-2
items.m
Vietnam outdoor dust 100-5000 19.7 ± 13.7 [90]
-2
items.m
Japan outdoor dust 100-5000 2.0 ± 1.6 items.m-2 [90]
Denmark (Aarhus) Indoor 11−105 14.0 ± 2.2 [91]
-3
items.m
Denmark (Aarhus) Indoor 11−105 10.6 ± 5.9 2 [91]
items.m-3
Denmark (Aarhus) Indoor 11-105 3.4 ± 2.62 [91]
-3
items.m
Effect of micro-plastics after inhalation
Prata (2018) showed occupational workers are more susceptible to toxicity caused by different
types of aerosols micro-plastics causing multiple diseases such as fever cough wheezing pulmonary
dysfunction, Lung cancer, colon cancer, Dypnesia etc [65].
A recent study investigated the impact of micro-plastic (MP) exposure on mucus production and
airway hyperresponsiveness, as well as its potential synergistic effects with allergic asthma. The
findings revealed that asthmatic mice treated with saline exhibited significantly higher mucus
production compared to normal mice treated with saline (P<0.0001P < 0.0001P<0.0001). While MP
exposure alone did not influence mucus production, its combination with asthma resulted in a
significant increase in mucus secretion compared to asthmatic controls treated with saline
(P=0.0003P = 0.0003P=0.0003). Additionally, airway hyperresponsiveness, assessed through
specific airway resistance (sRaw), was significantly elevated in asthmatic mice compared to normal
controls when stimulated with 50 mg/mL and 100 mg/mL methacholine (P=0.0383P =
0.0383P=0.0383, P=0.0212P = 0.0212P=0.0212, respectively [101].
Exposure to microplastics, especially polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs), has been recognized as a
trigger for oxidative stress, a key pathway that leads to cellular damage and inflammation in the
lungs. Studies suggest that PS-MPs induce cytotoxic effects on lung epithelial cells, potentially
contributing to the development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) [102-103].
Exposure to micro-plastics may also result in particle toxicity, inflammatory damage, and enhanced
cellular uptake or translocation, which could contribute to chronic inflammation and an elevated
risk of neoplasia [64].
Exposure through epithelial barriers
Exposure to skin can occur through the micorbeads in skin care products, which leads to aerosolized
contamination. Studies show that damaged skin by sun exposure or even cuts bruise can let the
micro-plastics to break the dermal barrier and penetrate in the skin [94, 95]
A study assessing cutaneous exposure measured the concentration of microplastic particles (MPs)
on the skin surfaces of the hands and face, scalp hair, and in saliva samples from volunteers over a
24-hour period. The results revealed that hair samples contained the highest concentration of MPs
(>7,000 particles), followed by skin samples from the hands and face (>4,000 particles). Saliva
samples showed the lowest concentration, with approximately 650 particles on average, equating to
0.33 MPs particles per individual, The hair is quite good in catching and holding onto microfibers
of all sizes because of its large surface area, tortuosity, and propensity to absorb electrostatic
charge. Climate may also have an impact on the concentrations of MPs in scalp hair. Specifically,
regions with higher humidity levels may have more particles, which increase MPs [96].
Although, cosmetic industry is getting aware of the toxic effect of micro-plastics and nano-plastics
and started applying zero-plastics policy by replacing the plastic microbeads by less harmful
ingredients.
Effect of micro-plastics after exposure through epithelial barriers
Micro-plastics (MPs) are widespread environmental pollutants. Human exposure occurs through
multiple pathways, including skin contact. While the health impacts of dermal exposure to MPs are
not yet fully understood, emerging research offers preliminary insights into potential risks.
Current studies shows, Micro-plastics can disrupt tight junctions between epithelial cells, enhancing
intestinal permeability and allowing more particles and potentially harmful substances to cross the
intestinal barrier [104]. A study investigating the potential toxicity of polystyrene microplastics
(PS-MPs) of varying sizes on human health utilized spheroid cultures derived from human dermal
fibroblast (HDF) cell lines. These cells, which play a crucial role in the production, maintenance,
and degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM), were selected to model the effects of chronic
exposure, which is hypothesized to occur through the daily use of personal care products and
pharmaceuticals. Experiments using four different sizes of primary polystyrene microplastics (PS-
MPs), including nanoparticles (NPs), demonstrated size-dependent penetration into HDF spheroids,
leading to reduced cell adhesion. Further analysis of gene expression associated with the
extracellular matrix (ECM) and integrin-mediated adhesion revealed the potential toxic effects of
PS-MPs on human skin, underscoring the necessity for in-depth investigation into their biological
impacts [105]. Dermal contact with micro-plastics can also cause oxidative stress and inflammation.

CONCLUSION
A growing environmental and public health concern is the widespread pollution of ecosystems by
micro-plastics and the harmful consequences they have on humans. The various methods of
exposure and the various toxicity mechanisms they use are highlighted in this overview.
It is concluded that micro-plastic exposure through various routes can lead to various health
problems. The body of research emphasizes how urgently mitigation measures are needed to stop
micro-plastic contamination at its source and create thorough frameworks for risk assessment.
Future studies should focus on examining the long-term consequences of micro-plastics on various
trophic levels, how they interact with newly discovered pollutants, and how they affect human
health. Stricter regulations and increased international cooperation are essential to halting the spread
of micro-plastics and preserving the integrity of ecosystems. A multidisciplinary strategy that
bridges research, technology, and policy is required to address this urgent challenge and create
long-term solutions for a world free of plastic.
ABBREVIATION
OECD: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
UNEP: The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
MPs: Micro-plastics
NPs: Nano-plastics
ECM: extracellular matrix
HDF: human dermal cells
PS-MPs: Polystrene micro-plastics

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