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Low Level Measurements
Handbook - 7th Edition
Precision DC Current, Voltage,
and Resistance Measurements
 Low Level
Measurements
Handbook
Precision DC Current, Voltage,
and Resistance Measurements

SEVENTH EDITION
 Contents
SECTION 1 Low Level DC Measuring Instruments
1.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 1-3
1.2 Theoretical Measurement Limits........................................................... 1-3
1.3 Instrument Definitions............................................................................. 1-5
1.3.1 The Electrometer.......................................................... 1-5
1.3.2 The DMM.......................................................................1-7
1.3.3 The Nanovoltmeter........................................................1-7
1.3.4 The Picoammeter.......................................................... 1-8
1.3.5 The Source Measure Unit Instrument.......................... 1-8
1.3.6 The Low Current Preamp............................................. 1-9
1.3.7 The Micro-ohmmeter.................................................... 1-9
1.3.8 The Low Current Source.............................................. 1-9
1.4 Understanding Instrument Specifications........................................ 1-10
1.4.1 Definition of Accuracy Terms......................................1-10
1.4.2 Accuracy.......................................................................1-11
1.4.3 Deratings......................................................................1-15
1.4.4 Noise and Noise Rejection...........................................1-15
1.4.5 Speed...........................................................................1-17
1.5 Circuit Design Basics.............................................................................. 1-17
1.5.1 Voltmeter Circuits........................................................1-17
1.5.2 Ammeter Circuits.........................................................1-19
1.5.3 Coulombmeter Circuit.................................................1-23
1.5.4 High Resistance Ohmmeter Circuits...........................1-24
1.5.5 Low Resistance Ohmmeter Circuits............................1-26
1.5.6 Complete Instruments................................................ 1-28

SECTION 2 Measurements from High Resistance Sources

2.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 2-2
2.2 Voltage Measurements from High Resistance Sources.................... 2-2
2.2.1 Loading Errors and Guarding....................................... 2-3
2.2.2 Insulation Resistance of the Test Circuit.....................2-11
2.3 Low Current Measurements................................................................. 2-15
2.3.1 Leakage Currents and Guarding.................................2-15
2.3.2 Noise and Source Impedance......................................2-21
2.3.3 Zero Drift.................................................................... 2-23
2.3.4 Generated Currents.................................................... 2-23
2.3.5 Voltage Burden............................................................2-31

Low Level Measurements Handbook iii

 2.3.6 Overload Protection.................................................... 2-33
2.3.7 AC Interference and Damping.................................... 2-34
2.3.8 Using a Coulombmeter to Measure Low Current...... 2-35
2.4 High Resistance Measurements.......................................................... 2-39
2.4.1 Constant-Voltage Method............................................ 2-40
2.4.2 Constant-Current Method.......................................... 2-41
2.5 Charge Measurements.......................................................................... 2-46
2.5.1 Error Sources.............................................................. 2-47
2.5.2 Zero Check.................................................................. 2-48
2.5.3 Extending the Charge Measurement Range
of the Electrometer..................................................... 2-48
2.6 General Electrometer Considerations............................................... 2-49
2.6.1 Making Connections................................................... 2-50
2.6.2 Electrostatic Interference and Shielding.....................2-51
2.6.3 Environmental Factors................................................ 2-55
2.6.4 Speed Considerations................................................. 2-56
2.6.5 Johnson Noise............................................................. 2-62
2.6.6 Device Connections.................................................... 2-66
2.6.7 Analog Outputs........................................................... 2-69
2.6.8 Floating Input Signals..................................................2-70
2.7 High Impedance Measurement Optimization Summary............... 2-71

SECTION 3 Measurements from Low Resistance Sources

3.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 3-2

3.2 Low Voltage Measurements.................................................................... 3-2

3.2.1 Effects of Error Sources on Voltage Measurements..... 3-2
3.2.2 Thermoelectric EMFs.................................................... 3-3
3.2.3 Internal Offsets............................................................. 3-7
3.2.4 Zero Drift...................................................................... 3-7
3.2.5 RFI/EMI......................................................................... 3-9
3.2.6 Johnson Noise..............................................................3-10
3.2.7 1/f Noise.......................................................................3-11
3.2.8 Line Cycle Interference and Line Cycle Integration... 3-12
3.2.9 Magnetic Fields........................................................... 3-13
3.2.10 Ground Loops..............................................................3-14
3.2.11 Ways to Reduce Noise..................................................3-16
3.2.12 Common-Mode Current and Reversal Errors.............3-17

iv
3.3 Low Resistance Measurements........................................................... 3-18
3.3.1 Lead Resistance and Four-Wire Method..................... 3-18
3.3.2 Thermoelectric EMFs and
Offset Compensation Methods................................... 3-20
3.3.3 Non-Ohmic Contacts.................................................. 3-25
3.3.4 Device Heating............................................................ 3-26
3.3.5 Dry Circuit Testing...................................................... 3-27
3.3.6 Testing Inductive Devices........................................... 3-28
3.4 Measurement Optimization Summary for
Low Impedance Measurements.......................................................... 3-29

SECTION 4 Applications
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 4-2

4.2 Applications for Measuring Voltage from

High Resistance Sources ......................................................................... 4-2
4.2.1 Capacitor Dielectric Absorption .................................. 4-2
4.2.2 Electrochemical Measurements ................................... 4-6
4.3 Low Current Measurement Applications ............................................ 4-9
4.3.1 Capacitor Leakage Measurements ............................... 4-9
4.3.2 Low Current Diode Measurements ........................... 4-13
4.3.3 Low Current Measurements of MOSFETs....................4-16
4.3.4 Light Measurements with Photomultiplier Tubes ...... 4-18
4.3.5 Ion Beam Measurements ........................................... 4-21
4.3.6 Photoconductive Current of PIN Photodiode ............ 4-23
4.3.7 Avalanche Photodiode Reverse Bias Current
Measurements............................................................. 4-24
4.3.8 Current-Voltage Characterization of
Carbon Nanotube (CNT) FETs................................... 4-26
4.4 High Resistance Measurement Applications................................... 4-28
4.4.1 Surface Insulation Resistance Testing of
Printed Circuit Boards ............................................... 4-28
4.4.2 Resistivity Measurements of Insulating Materials ..... 4-30
4.4.3 Resistivity Measurements of Semiconductors ........... 4-34
4.4.4 Voltage Coefficient Testing of High Ohmic
Value Resistors ........................................................... 4-44
4.5 Charge Measurement Applications ................................................... 4-45
4.5.1 Capacitance Measurements ....................................... 4-45

Low Level Measurements Handbook v

 4.5.2 Using a Faraday Cup to Measure Static Charge
on Objects .................................................................. 4-46
4.6 Low Voltage Measurement Applications ......................................... 4-48
4.6.1 Standard Cell Comparisons ....................................... 4-48
4.6.2 High Resolution Temperature Measurements
and Microcalorimetry ................................................ 4-50
4.6.3 Hall Voltage and Resistivity Measurements
of a Six-Terminal Bridge Sample................................. 4-53
4.7 Low Resistance Measurement Applications ................................... 4-54
4.7.1 Contact Resistance ..................................................... 4-54
4.7.2 Superconductor Resistance Measurements ............... 4-57
4.7.3 Resistivity Measurements of Conductive Materials ... 4-59

SECTION 5 Low Level Instrument Selection Guide

5.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 5-2
5.2 Instrument and Accessory Selector Guides........................................ 5-2

APPENDIX A Cable and Connector Assembly

APPENDIX B Glossary

APPENDIX C Safety Considerations

Test System Safety.................................................................................... C-2
General Safety Considerations.............................................................. C-2

INDEX

vi
SECTION 1

Low Level DC
Measuring
Instruments
 FIGURE 1-1: Standard Symbols Used in this Text

Prefixes
Symbol Prefix Exponent
y yocto- 10–24
z zepto- 10–21
a atto- 10–18
f femto- 10–15
p pico- 10–12
n nano- 10–9
µ micro- 10–6
m milli- 10–3
(none) (none) 100
k kilo- 103
M mega- 106
G giga- 109
T tera- 1012
P peta- 1015
E exa- 1018
Z zetta- 1021
Y yotta- 1024

Quantities
Symbol Unit Quantity
V volts EMF
A amperes current
Ω ohms resistance
C coulombs charge
s seconds time
W watts power
F farads capacitance
Hz cycles/s frequency
K Kelvin temperature

1-2 SECTION 1
1.1 Introduction
DC voltage, DC current, and resistance are measured most often with
digital multimeters (DMMs). Generally, these instruments are adequate for
meas­urements at signal levels greater than 1µV or 1µA, or less than 1GW.
(See Figure 1-1 for standard symbols used in this text.) However, they
don’t approach the theoretical limits of sensitivity. For low level signals,
more sensitive instruments such as electrometers, picoammeters, and
nanovoltmeters must be used.
Section 1 offers an overview of the theoretical limits of DC measure-
ments and the instruments used to make them. It includes instrument
descriptions and basic instrument circuit designs. For easier reference, this
information is organized into a number of subsections:
1.2 Theoretical Measurement Limits: A discussion of both the theoretical
measurement limitations and instrument limitations for low level
meas­urements.
1.3 Instrument Definitions: Descriptions of electrometers, DMMs, nano-
voltmeters, picoammeters, source measure unit (SMU) instruments,
SourceMeter® Source Measure Unit (SMU) Instruments, low current
preamps, and micro-ohm­meters.
1.4 Understanding Instrument Specifications: A review of the terminology
used in instrument specifications, such as accuracy (resolution, sensi-
tivity, transfer s­ tability), deratings (temperature coefficient, time drift),
noise (NMRR and CMRR), and speed.
1.5 Circuit Design Basics: Describes basic circuit design for voltmeter
circuits, ammeter circuits, coulombmeter circuit, high resistance
ohmmeter circuits, low resistance ohmmeter circuits, and complete
instrument block diagrams.

1.2 Theoretical Measurement Limits

The theoretical limit of sensitivity in any measurement is determined by
the noise generated by the resistances present in the circuit. As discussed
in Sections 2.6.5 and 3.2.6, voltage noise is proportional to the square root
of the resistance, bandwidth, and absolute temperature. Figure 1-2 shows
theoretical voltage measurement limits at room temperature (300K) with
a response time of 0.1 second to ten seconds. Note that high source resist­
ance limits the theoretical sensitivity of the voltage measurement. Although
it’s certainly possible to measure a 1µV signal that has a 1W source resist-
ance, it’s not possible to measure that same 1µV signal level from a 1TW
source. Even with a much lower 1MW source resistance, a 1µV measure-
ment is near theoretical limits, so it would be very difficult to make using
an ordinary DMM.
In addition to having insufficient voltage or current sensitivity (most
DMMs are no more sensitive than 1µV or 1nA per digit), DMMs have high

Low Level DC Measuring Instruments 1-3

 FIGURE 1-2: Theoretical Limits of Voltage Measurements

1kV 103

Within theoretical limits

Noise 1V 100
Voltage
1mV 10—3
ts
llimi
ica 10—6
1µV
eoret
a r th
Ne 10—9
1nV Prohibited
by noise
1pV 10—12

100 103 106 109 1012

1Ω 1kΩ 1MΩ 1GΩ 1TΩ
Source Resistance

input bias current1 when measuring voltage and lower input resistance
compared to more sensitive instruments intended for low level DC meas­
urements. These characteristics cause errors in the measurement; refer to
Sections 2 and 3 for further discussion of them.
Given these DMM characteristics, it’s not possible to use a DMM to
meas­ure signals at levels close to theoretical measurement limits, as shown
in Figure 1-3. However, if the source resistance is 1MW or less, or if the
desired resolution is no better than 0.1µV (with low source resistance),
the signal level isn’t “near theoretical limits,” a DMM is adequate. If better
voltage sensitivity is desired, and the source resistance is low (as it must
be because of theoretical limitations), a nanovoltmeter provides a means of
measuring at levels much closer to the theoretical limits of meas­ure­ment.
With very high source resistance values (for example, 1TW), a DMM isn’t a
suitable voltmeter. DMM input resistance ranges from 10MW to 10GW—
several orders of magnitude less than a 1TW source resistance, resulting in
severe input loading errors. Also, input currents are typically many pico-
amps, creating large voltage offsets. However, because of its much higher
input resistance, an electrometer or high impedance SMU instrument can
make voltage measurements at levels that approach theoretical limits. A
similar situation exists for low level current measurements; DMMs gener-
1 Input current flows in the input lead of an active device or instrument. With voltage meas­ure­ments,
the input current is ideally zero; thus, any input current represents an error. With ­current measure-
ments, the signal current becomes the input current of the measuring instrument. However, some
background current is always present when no signal current is applied to the instrument input. This
unwanted current is the input bias current (often called just the ­offset current) of the instrument.
The source and test connections can also generate unwanted offset currents and offset voltages.
A leakage current is another unwanted error current resulting from voltage across an undesired
resist­ance path (called leakage resistance). This current, combined with the offset current, is the total
error current.

1-4 SECTION 1
 FIGURE 1-3: Typical Digital Multimeter (DMM), Nanovoltmeter (nVM), and
Electrometer Limits of Measurement at Various Source Resistances

1V 100

Noise
Voltage 1mV 10–3

Electrometer 1μV 10–6

DMM

nVM 10–9
1nV

1pV 10–12
10–3 100 103 106 109 1012 1015
1mΩ 1Ω 1kΩ 1MΩ 1GΩ 1TΩ 1PΩ

Source Resistance

ally have a high input voltage drop (input b­ urden), which affects low level
current measurements, and DMM resolution is generally no better than
1nA. Thus, an electrometer or picoammeter with its much lower input
burden and better sensitivity will operate at levels much closer to the the-
oretical (and practical) limits of low current meas­urements.

1.3 Instrument Definitions

A number of different types of instruments are available to make DC meas­
urements, including electrometers, DMMs, nanovoltmeters, picoammeters,
source measure unit (SMU) instruments, low current preamps, micro-ohm-
meters, and low current sources. The following paragraphs discuss and
compare the important characteristics of these instruments.

1.3.1 The Electrometer

An electrometer is a highly refined DC multimeter. As such, it can be used
for many measurements performed by a conventional DC multimeter.
Additionally, an electrometer’s special input characteristics and high sen-
sitivity allow it to make voltage, current, resistance, and charge measure-
ments far beyond the capabilities of a conventional DMM.
An electrometer must be used when any of the following condi-
tions exist:
1. The task requires an extended measurement range unavailable with
conventional instruments, such as for detecting or measuring:
• Currents less than 10nA (10 –8A).
• Resistances greater than 1GW (109W).

Low Level DC Measuring Instruments 1-5

 2. Circuit loading must be minimized, such as when:
• Measuring voltage from a source resistance of 100MW or higher.
• Measuring current when input voltage drop (burden) of less than a
few hundred millivolts is required (when measuring currents from
sources of a few volts or less).
3. Charge measurement is required.
4. Measuring signals at or near Johnson noise limitations (as indicated in
Figure 1-2).
Electrometers have four functions: voltmeter, ammeter, ohmmeter, and
coulombmeter.
Voltmeter Function
The input resistance of an electrometer voltmeter is extremely high, typ-
ically greater than 100TW (1014W). Furthermore, the input bias current is
less than 3fA (3×10 –15A). These characteristics describe a device that can
measure voltage with a very small amount of circuit loading.
Because of the high input resistance and low input bias current, the
electrometer voltmeter has minimal effect on the circuit being measured.
As a result, the electrometer can be used to measure voltage in situations
where an ordinary multimeter would be unusable. For example, the elec-
trometer can measure the voltage on a 500pF capacitor without significant-
ly discharging the device; it can also measure the potential of piezoelectric
crystals and high impedance pH electrodes. Electrometer voltmeters are
also used to measure the resistivity of high resistance semiconductor
materials.
Ammeter Function
As an ammeter, the electrometer is capable of measuring extremely low
currents, limited only by theoretical limits or by the instrument’s input bias
current. It also has a much lower voltage burden than conventional DMMs.
With its extremely low input bias current and minimal input voltage
burden, it can detect currents as low as 1fA (10 –15A). Because of this high
sensitivity, it’s suitable for measuring ion beam current, dark current of
photodiodes, gate leakage current, and current output of mass spectrom-
eters and other devices.
Ohmmeter Function
An electrometer may measure resistance by using either a constant-current
or a constant-voltage method. If using the constant-current method, the
electrometer’s high input resistance and low offset current enables meas­
urements up to 200GW. When using the constant-voltage method, the
electrometer applies a constant voltage to the unknown resistance, meas­
ures the current, and then calculates the resistance. This is the preferred
method because it allows the unknown resistor to be tested at a known
voltage. An electrometer can measure resistances up to 10PW (1016W) using

1-6 SECTION 1
 this method. The constant-voltage method is used to measure the resistivity
of insulators and the insulation resistance of devices such as cables, con-
nectors, and printed circuit boards.
Coulombmeter Function
Current integration and measurement of charge are electrometer coulomb-
meter capabilities not found in multimeters. The electrometer coulombme-
ter can detect charge as low as 10fC (10 –14C). It’s equivalent to an active
integrator and, therefore, has low voltage burden, typically less than 100µV.
The coulombmeter function can measure lower currents than the
ammeter function can because no noise is contributed by internal resistors.
Currents as low as 1fA (10 –15A) may be detected using this function. See
Section 2.3.8 for further details. The coulombmeter function can be used
with a Faraday cage to measure charge on objects or can be used to meas-
ure capacitance using a DC voltage.
1.3.2 The DMM
Digital multimeters vary widely in performance, from low cost handheld
31⁄2 -digit units to 81⁄2 -digit high precision system DMMs. Although there
are many models available from a wide variety of manufacturers, none
approaches the theoretical limits of measurement discussed previously.
These limitations don’t imply that DMMs are inadequate instruments; they
simply point out the fact that the vast majority of measurements are made
at levels far from theoretical limits, and DMMs are designed to meet these
more conventional meas­urement needs.
Although low level measurements are by definition those that are close
to theoretical limits, and are thus outside the range of DMMs, advances in
technology are narrowing the gap between DMMs and dedicated low level
instruments. For example, the most sensitive DMMs can detect DC voltages
as low as 10nV, resolve DC currents down to 10pA, and measure resistances
as low as 100µW and as high as 1GW. Although these characteristics still fall
far short of the corresponding capabilities of more sensitive instruments
like the electrometer described previously, all the measurement theory and
accuracy considerations in this book apply to DMM measurements, as well
as to nanovoltmeter, picoammeter, electrometer, or SMU instrument meas-
urements. The difference is only a matter of degree; when making meas-
urements close to theoretical limits, all measurement considerations are
vitally important. When measuring at levels far from theoretical limits, only
a few basic considerations (accuracy, loading, etc.) are generally of concern.
1.3.3 The Nanovoltmeter
A nanovoltmeter is a very sensitive voltage meter. As shown in Figure 1-3,
this type of instrument is optimized to provide voltage measurements
near the theoretical limits from low source resistances, in contrast to the
electrometer, which is optimized for use with high source resistances.
Compared to an electrometer, the voltage noise and drift are much lower,

Low Level DC Measuring Instruments 1-7

 and the current noise and drift are much higher. Input resist­ance is usually
similar to that of a DMM and is much lower than that of an ­electrometer.
As is the case with electrometers, nanovoltmeters are just as easy
to operate as DMMs. Their distinguishing characteristic is their voltage
sensitivity, which can be as good as 1nV down to a few picovolts. Most
nanovolt­meters aren’t multifunction instruments and are correspondingly
less complex than ­electrometers.

1.3.4 The Picoammeter

A picoammeter is an ammeter built along the lines of the ammeter function
of an electrometer. When compared with an electrometer, a picoammeter
has a similar low voltage burden, similar or faster speed, less sensitivity,
and a lower price. It may also have special characteristics, such as high
speed logarithmic response or a built-in voltage source.

1.3.5 The Source Measure Unit Instrument

Source measure unit (SMU) instruments, including Keithley’s SourceMeter®
SMU instruments, combine measuring and sourcing capabilities and can
provide four basic functions: measure voltage, measure current, source
voltage, and source current. These functions can be used separately or
together in the following combinations: simultaneously source voltage and
measure current or simultaneously source current and measure voltage.
The addition of four-quadrant sourcing functions makes these instruments
more convenient and versatile than using separate instruments for appli-
cations such as generating I-V curves of semiconductors and other types
of devices.
Some SMU instruments may have a number of electrometer-like
characteristics that make them suitable for low level measurements. For
example, they provide very high input resistance (typically 100TΩ or
more), minimizing circuit loading when making voltage measurements
from high impedance sources. Their current measurement sensitivity is
also similar to that of the electrometer picoammeter—typically as low as
10fA. Instruments with triax connectors also allow making extremely low
noise measurements; banana jacks are usually available for more general-­
purpose or high throughput production test measurements.
Sweep capabilities are another important advantage that many of these
instruments offer. Either voltage or current can be swept across the desired
range at specified increments, and the resulting current or voltage can be
measured at each step. Built-in source-delay-measure cycles allow optimiz-
ing measurement speed while ensuring sufficient circuit settling time to
maintain measurement integrity.
SMU instruments can display resistance measurements directly, as well
as voltage and current. Unlike a digital multimeter (DMM), which can make
a measurement at only one point, an SMU instrument can generate a family
of I-V curves, because it has a built-in source. This is especially useful when

1-8 SECTION 1
 studying semiconductor devices and making materials measurements.
When used as a current source, an SMU instrument can be used in conjunc-
tion with a nanovoltmeter to measure very low resistances by automatically
reversing the polarity of the source to correct for offsets.

1.3.6 The Low Current Preamp

Some SMU instruments, including SourceMeter SMU instruments, may
have a remote low current preamp. With this design, the sensitive ampli-
fier circuitry is separate from the SMU instrument. This makes it possible
to place the most sensitive part of the instrument very close to the device
being tested, thereby eliminating a major source of error, the noise and
leakage from the cables themselves.

1.3.7 The Micro-ohmmeter

A micro-ohmmeter is a special type of ohmmeter designed especially for
making low level resistance measurements. Although the techniques used
for making resistance meas­urements are similar to those used in a DMM,
micro-ohmmeter circuits are optimized for making low level measure-
ments. The typical micro-ohmmeter can resolve resistances as low as 10µW.
Measurements made using the micro-ohmmeter are always performed
using the four-wire technique in order to minimize errors caused by test
leads and connections. The typical micro-ohmmeter also has additional
features such as offset compensation and dry circuit testing to optimize
low resistance measurements. Offset compensation is performed by puls-
ing the test current to cancel offsets from thermoelectric EMFs. The dry
circuit test mode limits the voltage across the unknown resistance to a very
small value (typically <20mV) to avoid puncturing oxides when testing
such devices as relay contacts, connectors, and switches.

1.3.8 The Low Current Source

Low current sourcing is important in a wide range of applications from
R&D to production, including semiconductor, electrochemistry, nanotech-
nology, and superconductor tests. Low current sources are designed to
output a specified current through the DUT and apply whatever voltage is
required to force that current.
Key considerations for using a low current source include the maxi-
mum current, minimum current and step resolution, output settling time
required, and the level of voltage compliance needed. It must also have a
level of noise acceptable for the application and sufficiently high output
impedance. If the source’s output impedance is only 100× higher than
the resistance of the DUT, then the actual current through the DUT will
be off by 1%.
Although it’s possible to create a current source from a voltage source
and series resistor, such “homemade” solutions have several drawbacks,
including no voltage compliance and unpredictable output.

Low Level DC Measuring Instruments 1-9

1.4 Understanding Instrument Specifications
Knowing how to interpret instrument specifications properly is an import-
ant aspect of making good low level measurements. Although instrument
accuracy is probably the most important of these specifications, there are
several other factors to consider when reviewing specifications, including
noise, deratings, and speed.

1.4.1 Definition of Accuracy Terms

This section defines a number of terms related to instrument accuracy.
Some of these terms are further discussed in subsequent paragraphs. Table
1-1 summarizes conversion factors for various unit specifications associat-
ed with instruments.

TABLE 1-1: Specification Conversion Factors

Number of time
Portion constants to settle
Percent PPM Digits Bits dB of 10V to rated accuracy
10% 100000 1 3.3 –20 1 V 2.3
1% 10000 2 6.6 –40 100 mV 4.6
0.1% 1000 3 10 –60 10 mV 6.9
0.01% 100 4 13.3 –80 1 mV 9.2
0.001% 10 5 16.6 –100 100 μV 11.5
0.0001% 1 6 19.9 –120 10 μV 13.8
0.00001% 0.1 7 23.3 –140 1 μV 16.1
0.000001% 0.01 8 26.6 –160 100 nV 18.4
0.000001% 0.001 9 29.9 –180 10 nV 20.7

SENSITIVITY - the smallest change in the signal that can be detected.

RESOLUTION - the smallest portion of the signal that can be observed.
REPEATABILITY - the closeness of agreement between successive measure-
ments ­carried out under the same conditions.
REPRODUCIBILITY - the closeness of agreement between measurements
of the same quantity carried out with a stated change in conditions.
ABSOLUTE ACCURACY - the closeness of agreement between the result of
a meas­urement and its true value or accepted standard value, taking
into account the uncertainty of the standard value.
RELATIVE ACCURACY - the closeness of agreement between the result of a
measurement and its true value or accepted standard value but with-
out taking the uncertainty of the standard value into account.
ERROR - the deviation (difference or ratio) of a measurement from its true
value. Note that true values are by their nature indeterminate.

1-10 SECTION 1
 RANDOM ERROR - the mean of a large number of measurements influ-
enced by random error matches the true value.
SYSTEMATIC ERROR - the mean of a large number of measurements influ-
enced by systematic error deviates from the true value.
UNCERTAINTY - an estimate of the bounded interval around the measured
value, which is likely to contain the true value.
“Precision” is a more qualitative term than many of those defined here.
It is often applied in the context of repeatability or reproducibility, but it
shouldn’t be used in place of “accuracy.”

1.4.2 Accuracy
One of the most important considerations in any measurement situation is
reading accuracy. For any given test setup, a number of factors can affect
accuracy. The most important factor is the accuracy of the instrument itself,
which may be specified in several ways, including a percentage of full scale,
a percentage of reading, or a c­ ombination of both. Instrument accuracy
aspects are covered in the following ­paragraphs.
Other factors such as input loading, leakage resistance, electrostatic
interference, and thermoelectric EMFs may also have a serious impact on
overall accuracy. These and many other important measurement consider-
ations are discussed in detail in Sections 2 and 3.

Measurement Instrument Specifications

A typical expression of accuracy is ±(gain error + offset error). However,
manufacturers can use different formats to express accuracy, so it can be
difficult to compare instruments. Gain and offset errors are sometimes
combined into a specification that expresses accuracy in terms of a percent-
age and counts or parts per million.
The graph in Figure 1-4 shows the relationship of the offset and gain
errors over a measurement range. Note that the offset error is constant over
a particular range. When the reading is at a lower percentage of full scale of
range, the offset error is the dominant term. When a reading is taken near
the full-scale value of a selected range, the gain error becomes significant.
Instrument accuracy is often specified as a percentage of reading,
plus a percentage of range (or a number of counts of the least significant
digit). For example, a typical DMM accuracy specification may be stated
as: ±(0.005% of reading + 0.002% of range). The percentage of reading
term represents the gain error and the percentage of range term is the
offset term.
Accuracy may also be specified in ppm (parts per million). Typically,
this accuracy specification is given as ±(ppm of reading + ppm of range).
For example, the DC voltage accuracy of a higher resolution DMM might be
specified as ±(25ppm of reading + 5ppm of range).

Low Level DC Measuring Instruments 1-11

 FIGURE 1-4: Relationship Between Offset and Gain Errors

Error vs. Percentage of Measurement Range

Max.
Gain Error
Offset
Error
Max.
Gain Error

0% 50% 100%

Reading as a % of Full Scale

Resolution
The resolution of a digital instrument is determined by the number of
counts that can be displayed, which depends on the number of digits. A
typical digital electrometer might have 51⁄2 digits, meaning five whole digits
(each with possible values between 0 and 9) plus a leading half digit that
can take on the values 0 or ±1. Thus, a 51⁄2 -digit display can show 0 to
199,999, a total of 200,000 counts. The resolution of the display is the ratio
of the smallest count to the maximum count (1/200,000 or 0.0005% for a
51⁄2 -digit display).
For example, the specification of ±(0.05% + 1 count) on a 41⁄2 -digit
meter reading 10.000 volts corresponds to a total error of ±(5mV + 1mV)
or ±6mV out of 10V, or ±(0.05% of reading + 0.01% of range), totaling
±0.06%. Generally, the higher the resolution, the better the accuracy.
Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a measurement is the smallest change of the measured
signal that can be detected. For example, voltage sensitivity may be 1µV,
which simply means that any change in input signal less than 1µV won’t
show up in the reading. Similarly, a current sensitivity of 10fA implies that
only changes in current greater than that value will be detected.
The ultimate sensitivity of a measuring instrument depends on both its
resolution and the lowest measurement range. For example, the sensitivity
of a 51⁄2 -digit DMM with a 200mV measurement range is 1µV.
Absolute and Relative Accuracy
The absolute accuracy is the measure of instrument accuracy that is direct-
ly traceable to the International System of Units (SI) through the primary
standards at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) or

1-12 SECTION 1
other National Metrology Institute (NMI). Absolute accuracy may be spec-
ified as ±(% of reading + counts), or it can be stated as ±(ppm of reading
+ ppm of range), where ppm signifies parts per ­million of error.
Relative accuracy specifies instrument accuracy without taking the
uncertainty of the standard into account. As with absolute accuracy, rel-
ative accuracy can be specified as ±(% of reading + counts) or it may be
stated as ±(ppm of reading + ppm of range).

Transfer Stability
A special case of relative accuracy is the transfer stability, which defines rel-
ative instrument accuracy over a very short time span and narrow ambient
temperature range (typically within five minutes and ±1°C). The transfer
stability specification is useful in situations where an instrument is used in
conjunction with a more accurate standard to transfer a quantity value to
a third device.

Calculating Uncertainties from Instrument Accuracy Specifications

Instrument accuracy specifications can be expressed in a variety of ways.
To illustrate how to calculate measurement uncertainty from instrument
specifications, here are three examples of calculations – one measuring
voltage and two measuring resistance.
Example #1: DC Voltmeter Accuracy Calculation
Input Signal = 1.5V
Voltage Range = 2V
Accuracy Specification = ±(25ppm of reading + 5ppm of range)
The potential error contribution based on the specifications is calcu­lated as:
Error = ±[1.5V(25 × 10 –6) + 2V(5 × 10 –6)]
= ±[(37.5V × 10 –6) + (10V × 10 –6)]
= ±47.5V × 10 –6
= ±47.5µV
Thus, the reading in this example could fall anywhere within the range
of 1.5V ± 47.5µV, an uncertainty of ±0.003%.
Example #2: Calculate the Accuracy of a Resistance Measurement
Made Using a DC Voltmeter and a Current Source
This example shows how to calculate the accuracy of a resistance
measurement that is made using two separate instruments, a voltmeter
and a current source. First, the accuracy of each instrument is found
separately. Then, the expected resistance accuracy is calculated using
the root-sum-square (RSS) method.
Device to be measured = 20Ω resistor using 100mA test current

Low Level DC Measuring Instruments 1-13

 Current Source Accuracy:
Current Output = 100mA on 100mA range
Accuracy Specification = ±(0.066% of output + 20µA)
Error (∆I)= ±[(100mA × 0.00066) + 20µA]
= ±(66µA + 20µA)
= ±86µA
Voltage Measure Accuracy:
Input Signal = (20W × 100mA) = 2V
Accuracy Specification of 2V Range = ±(0.012% of reading + 300µV)
Error (∆V) = ±[(2V × 0.00012) + 300µV]
= ±(240µV + 300µV)
= ±540µV
Because R = V/I, the error of the resistance can be calculated using the
following root-sum-square equation:
∆R = ∆I 2 + ∆V 2
R I V
Substituting the calculated ∆I and ∆V values into the equation:
Total resistance uncertainty = 86µA 2 + 540µV 2 = 9.01 × 10 –4 or ±0.0901%
100mA 2V
Example #3: Calculate the Accuracy of a Resistance Measurement
Made Using an SMU Instrument
For calculating the resistance accuracy for an SMU instrument, use the
summation method. With this method, the accuracy of the source and
measurements are found separately and then added together. For higher
accuracy measurements, use the Source Readback function of the SMU
instrument to measure the source output. In this case, both the current
and voltage measurement accuracy specifications are used in the uncer-
tainty calculation of a 20Ω resistor with 100mA test current:
Current Measure Accuracy (Source Readback enabled):
Input Signal = 100 mA on 100mA range (this is the current output)
Accuracy Specification = ±(0.055% of reading + 6µA)
Error% = ±0.061%
Voltage Measure Accuracy:
Input Signal = (20Ω × 100 mA) = 2 V
Accuracy Specification of 2V Range = ±(0.012% of reading + 300µV)
Error% = ±0.027%
Total resistance uncertainty using Source Readback = ±(0.061% + 0.027%)
= ±0.088%
The preceding examples are simplified to demonstrate calculating
uncertainties from product specifications and combining them when using
multiple instruments. In formal practice, the calculation involves reducing
the system uncertainties to a single standard deviation, combining these
uncertainties, then expanding the final system uncertainty to describe the

1-14 SECTION 1
 relationship of the reported value to the true value based on a probability
distribution. For details, please refer to the ISO Guide to the Expression of
Uncertainty in Measurement.
1.4.3 Deratings
Accuracy specifications are subject to deratings for temperature and time
drift, as discussed in the following paragraphs.
Temperature Coefficient
The temperature of the operating environment can affect accuracy. For
this reason, instrument specifications are usually given over a defined tem-
perature range. Keithley accuracy specifications on newer electrometers,
nanovoltmeters, DMMs, and SMU instruments are usually given over the
range of 18°C to 28°C. For temperatures outside of this range, a tempera-
ture coefficient such as ±(0.005 % + 0.1 count)/°C or ±(5ppm of reading
+ 1ppm of range)/°C is specified. As with the accuracy specification, this
value is given as a percentage of reading plus a number of counts of the
least significant digit (or as a ppm of reading plus ppm of range) for digital
instruments. If the instrument is operated outside the 18°C to 28°C tem-
perature range, this figure must be taken into account, and errors can be
calculated in the manner described previously for every degree less than
18°C or greater than 28°C.
Time Drift
Most electronic instruments, including electrometers, picoammeters,
nanovoltmeters, DMMs, and SMU instruments, are subject to changes in
accuracy and other parameters over a long period of time, whether or not
the equipment is operating. Because of these changes, instrument specifi-
cations usually include a time period beyond which the instrument’s accu-
racy cannot be guaranteed. The time period is stated in the specifications,
and is typically over specific increments such as 90 days or one year. As
noted previously, transfer stability specifications are defined for a much
shorter period of time—typically five or 10 minutes.
1.4.4 Noise and Noise Rejection
Noise is often a consideration when making virtually any type of electronic
measurement, but noise problems can be particularly severe when mak-
ing low level meas­ure­ments. Thus, it’s important that noise specifications
and terms are well understood when evaluating the performance of an
instrument.
Normal Mode Rejection Ratio
Normal mode rejection ratio (NMRR) defines how well the instrument
rejects or attenuates noise that appears between the HI and LO input
terminals. Noise rejection is accomplished by using the integrating A/D
converter to attenuate noise at specific frequencies (usually 50 and 60Hz)
while passing low frequency or DC normal mode signals. As shown in
Figure 1-5, normal mode noise is an error signal that adds to the desired

Low Level DC Measuring Instruments 1-15

 input ­signal. Normal mode noise is detected as a peak noise or deviation
in a DC signal. The ratio is calculated as:

NMRR = 20 log [ peak normal mode noise

_______________________________
peak measurement deviation ]
FIGURE 1-5: Normal Mode Noise

Noise
Measuring
Instrument
HI
Signal
LO

Normal mode noise can seriously affect measurements unless steps are
taken to minimize the amount added to the desired signal. Careful shield-
ing will usually attenuate normal mode noise, and many instruments have
internal filtering to reduce the effects of such noise even further.

Common Mode Rejection Ratio

Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) specifies how well an instrument
rejects noise signals that appear between both input high and input low
and chassis ground, as shown in Figure 1-6. CMRR is usually measured
with a 1kW resistor imbalance in one of the input leads.

FIGURE 1-6: Common Mode Noise

Measuring
Instrument
HI
Signal
LO Rimbalance

(usually 1kΩ)
Noise

Although the effects of common mode noise are usually less severe
than normal mode noise, this type of noise can still be a factor in sensi-
tive measurement situations. To minimize common mode noise, connect
shields only to a single point in the test system.

1-16 SECTION 1
 Noise Specifications
Both NMRR and CMRR are generally specified in dB at 50 and 60Hz, which
are the interference frequencies of greatest interest. (CMRR is often spec-
ified at DC as well.) Typical values for NMRR and CMRR are >80dB and
>120dB respectively.
Each 20dB increase in noise rejection ratio reduces noise voltage or
current by a factor of 10. For example, a rejection ratio of 80dB indicates
noise reduction by a factor of 104, but a ratio of 120dB shows that the
common mode noise would be reduced by a factor of 106. Thus, a 1V noise
signal would be reduced to 100µV with an 80dB rejection ratio and down
to 1µV with a 120dB rejection ratio.

1.4.5 Speed
Instrument measurement speed is often important in many test situations.
When specified, measurement speed is usually stated as a specific number
of readings per second for given instrument operating conditions. Certain
factors such as integration period and the amount of filtering may affect
overall instrument measurement speed. However, changing these oper-
ating modes may also alter resolution and accuracy, so there is often a
tradeoff between measurement speed and accuracy.
Instrument speed is most often a consideration when making low
impedance measurements. At higher impedance levels, circuit settling
times become more important and are usually the overriding factor in
determining overall measurement speed. Section 2.6.4 discusses circuit
settling time considerations in more detail.

1.5 Circuit Design Basics

Circuits used in the design of many low level measuring instruments,
whether a voltmeter, ammeter, ohmmeter, or coulombmeter, generally use
circuits that can be understood as operational amplifiers. Figure 1-7 shows
a basic operational ampli­fier. The output voltage is given by:
VO = A (V1 – V2)
The gain (A) of the amplifier is very large, a minimum of 104 to 105,
and often 106. The amplifier has a power supply (not shown) referenced
to the common lead.
Current into the op amp inputs is ideally zero. The effect of feedback
properly applied is to reduce the input voltage difference (V1 – V2) to zero.

1.5.1 Voltmeter Circuits

Electrometer Voltmeter
The operational amplifier becomes a voltage amplifier when connected as
shown in Figure 1-8. The input bias current is low, so the current flowing

Low Level DC Measuring Instruments 1-17

 FIGURE 1-7: Basic Operational Amplifier

+
A
–
V1
VO
V2
COMMON

VO = A (V1 – V2)

through R A and R B is the same. Assuming the gain (A) is very high, the
voltage gain of the circuit is defined as:

VO = V2 (1 + RA/RB)

Thus, the output voltage (VO) is determined both by the input voltage
(V2), and amplifier gain set by resistors R A and R B. Given that V2 is applied
to the amplifier input lead, the high input resistance of the operational
amplifier is the only load on V2, and the only current drawn from the
source is the very low input bias current of the operational amplifier. In
many electrometer voltmeters, R A is shorted and R B is open, resulting in
unity gain.

FIGURE 1-8: Voltage Amplifier

+
A
–
RA

V2
VO

V1 RB

VO = V2 (1 + RA/RB)

1-18 SECTION 1
 Nanovoltmeter Preamplifier
The same basic circuit configuration shown in Figure 1-8 can be used as
an input preamplifier for a nanovoltmeter. Much higher voltage gain is
required, so the values of R A and R B are set accordingly; a typical voltage
gain for a nanovoltmeter preamplifier is 103.
Electrometer and nanovoltmeter characteristics differ, so the opera-
tional amplifier requirements for these two types of instruments are also
somewhat different. Although the most important characteristics of the
electrometer voltmeter operational amplifier are low input bias current
and high input impedance, the most important requirement for the nano-
voltmeter input preamplifier is low input noise voltage.

1.5.2 Ammeter Circuits

There are two basic circuits used for making current measurements: these
are the shunt ammeter and the feedback ammeter circuits. DMMs and older
electrometers use the shunt method, but picoammeters, SMU instruments,
and the ammeter function of electrometers use the feedback ammeter
configuration only.
Shunt Ammeter
Shunting the input of a voltmeter with a resistor forms a shunt ammeter,
as shown in Figure 1-9. The input current (IIN) flows through the shunt
resistor (R S). The output voltage is defined as:
VO = IIN RS (1 + RA/RB)
For several reasons, it’s generally advantageous to use the smallest
possible value for R S.
First, low value resistors have better accuracy, time and temperature
stability, and voltage coefficient than high value resistors. Second, lower
FIGURE 1-9: Shunt Ammeter

+
IIN A
—
RA

RS V2
VO

V1 RB

VO = IIN RS (1 + RA/RB )

Low Level DC Measuring Instruments 1-19

 resistor values reduce the input time constant and result in faster instrument
response time. To minimize circuit loading, the input resistance (RS) of an
ammeter should be small, thus reducing the voltage burden (V2). However,
note that reducing the shunt resistance will degrade the signal-to-noise ratio.

Feedback Ammeter
In this configuration, shown in Figure 1-10, the input current (IIN) flows
through the feedback resistor (RF). The low input bias current of the amplifier
(A) changes the current (IIN) by a negligible amount. The amplifier output
voltage is calculated as:
VO = –IINRF
Thus, the output voltage is proportional to the input current, and over-
all sensitivity is determined by the feedback resistor (R F). The low voltage
burden (V1) and corresponding fast rise time are achieved by the high gain
op amp, which forces V1 to be nearly zero.

FIGURE 1-10: Feedback Ammeter

RF

IIN

–
A
Input V1 +
VO Output

VO = –IINRF

Picoammeter amplifier gain can be changed as in the voltmeter circuit

by using the combination shown in Figure 1-11. Here, the addition of R A
and R B forms a ­“multiplier,” and the output voltage is defined as:
VO = –IINRF (1 + RA/RB)

High Speed Picoammeter

The rise time of a feedback picoammeter is normally limited by the time
constant of the feedback resistor (R F) and any shunting capacitance (CF). A
basic approach to high speed measurements is to minimize stray shunting
capacitance through careful mechanical design of the picoammeter.
Remaining shunt capacitance can be effectively neutralized by a slight
modification of the feedback loop, as shown in Figure 1-12. If the time
constant R1C1 is made equal to the time constant R FCF, the shaded area of
the circuit behaves exactly as a resistance R F with zero CF. The matching

1-20 SECTION 1
FIGURE 1-11: Feedback Ammeter with Selectable Voltage Gain

RF

I IN

–
A
+
RA

V1
VO

RB

VO = – IIN RF (1 + RA/RB )

FIGURE 1-12: Neutralizing Shunt Capacitance

CF

RF R1

C1

–
A
IIN +
VO

of time constants in this case is fairly straightforward, because the capaci-

tances involved are all constant and aren’t affected by input capacitances.

Logarithmic Picoammeter
A logarithmic picoammeter can be formed by replacing the feedback resis-
tor in a picoammeter with a diode or transistor exhibiting a logarithmic

Low Level DC Measuring Instruments 1-21

 voltage-current relationship, as shown in Figure 1-13. The output voltage
(and the meter display) is then equal to the logarithm of the input current.
As a result, several decades of current can be read on the meter without
changing the feedback element.
The main advantage of a logarithmic picoammeter is its ability to fol-
low current changes over several decades without range changing.
The big disadvantage is the loss of accuracy and resolution, but some
digital picoammeters combine accuracy and dynamic range by combining
autoranging and digital log conversion.
If two diodes are connected in parallel, back-to-back, this circuit will
function with input signals of either polarity.
FIGURE 1-13: Logarithmic Picoammeter

–
A
IIN +
VO

FIGURE 1-14: Dual Polarity Log Current to Voltage Converter

1000pF

–
A
+
Input
Output

1-22 SECTION 1
 Using a small-signal transistor in place of a diode produces somewhat
better performance. Figure 1-14 shows an NPN transistor and a PNP tran-
sistor in the feedback path to provide dual polarity operation.
Remote Preamp Circuit (Source V, Measure I Mode)
Figure 1-15 illustrates a typical preamp circuit. In the Source V, Measure
I mode, the SMU instrument applies a programmed voltage and measures
the current flowing from the voltage source. The sensitive input is sur-
rounded by a guard, which can be carried right up to the DUT for fully
guarded measurements. The remote preamp amplifies the low current
signal passing through the DUT; therefore, the cable connecting the remote
preamp to the meas­ure­ment mainframe carries only high level signals,
minimizing the impact of cable noise.
FIGURE 1-15: Remote Preamp in Source V, Measure I Mode

AIIN IIN Force

A
HI
To measurement
mainframe of Guard
To DUT
SMU instrument
LO

1.5.3 Coulombmeter Circuit

The coulombmeter measures electrical charge that has been stored in a
capacitor or that might be produced by some charge generating process.
For a charged capacitor, Q = CV, where Q is the charge in coulombs on
the capacitor, C is the capacitance in farads, and V is the potential across
the capacitor in volts. Using this relationship, the basic charge measuring
scheme is to transfer the charge to be measured to a capacitor of known
value and then measure the voltage across the known capacitor; thus,
Q = CV.
The electrometer is ideal for charge measurements because the
low input bias current won’t alter the transferred charge during short
time intervals and the high input resistance won’t allow the charge to
bleed away.
Electrometers use a feedback circuit to measure charge, as shown in
Figure 1-16. The input capacitance of this configuration is ACF. Thus, large
effect­ive values of input capacitance are obtained using reasonably sized
capacitors for CF.

Low Level DC Measuring Instruments 1-23

 FIGURE 1-16: Feedback Coulombmeter

CF

–
A
+
VO

1.5.4 High Resistance Ohmmeter Circuits

Electrometer Picoammeter and Voltage Source
In this configuration (Figure 1-17), a voltage source (VS) is placed in series
with an unknown resistor (R X ) and an electrometer picoammeter. The
voltage drop across the picoammeter is small, so essentially all the voltage
appears across R X, and the unknown resistance can be computed from the
sourced voltage and the measured current (I).
The advantages of this method are that it’s fast and, depending on
the power supply voltage and insulating materials, it allows measuring
extremely high resist­ance. Also, with an adjustable voltage source, the
voltage dependence of the resist­ance under test can be obtained directly.
Usually, this method requires two instruments: a voltage source and
a picoammeter or electrometer. Some electrometers and picoammeters,
however, have a built-in voltage source and are capable of measuring the
resist­ance directly. SMU instruments that measure very small currents (less
than nanoamps) can also be used.

FIGURE 1-17: High Resistance Measurement Using External Voltage Source

VS
RX RX =
I

HI
VS I
LO
Electrometer
Picoammeter

1-24 SECTION 1
Electrometer Ohmmeter Using Built-In Current Source

Figure 1-18 shows the basic configuration of an alternative form of elec-

trometer ohmmeter. A built-in constant-current source, formed by VS and
R, forces a known current (I) through the unknown resistance (R X ). The
resulting voltage drop is proportional to the unknown resistance and is
indicated by the meter as resistance, rather than voltage.

FIGURE 1-18: Electrometer Ohmmeter with Built-In Current Source

Built-In Current Source

VS

VS
I =
R
V1 = I RX R I
V
RX = 1
I –
A
+

VO
RX CS V1

The disadvantage of this method is that the voltage across the

unknown is a function of its resistance, so it cannot be easily controlled.
Very high resistances tend to have large voltage coefficients; therefore,
measurements made with a constant voltage are more meaningful. In addi-
tion, the response speed for resistances greater than 10GW will be rather
slow. This limitation can be partially overcome by guarding.

Electrometer Ohmmeter with Guarded Ohms Mode

Figure 1-19 shows a modification of the circuit in Figure 1-18 in which

the HI input node is surrounded with a guard voltage from the operational
amplifier output. The amplifier has unity gain, so this guard voltage is vir-
tually the same potential as V1 and the capacitance (CS) of the input cable
is largely neutralized, resulting in much faster meas­ure­ments of resistances
greater than 10GW.

The guarded mode also significantly reduces the effect of input cable
leakage resistance, as discussed in Section 2.4.2.

Low Level DC Measuring Instruments 1-25

 FIGURE 1-19: Electrometer Ohmmeter with Guarded Ohms

Built-In Current Source

VS

VS
I =
R
V1 = I RX
R I
V1
RX =
I –
A
+

VO
RX CS Guard V1

Electrometer Voltmeter and External Current Source

In this method, shown in Figure 1-20, a current source generates current
(I), which flows through the unknown resistor (R X ). The resulting voltage
drop (V1) is measured with an electrometer voltmeter, and the value of R X
is calculated from the voltage and current.
If the current source has a buffered ×1 output, a low impedance volt-
meter, such as a DMM, may be used to read the voltage across R X. This
arrangement is shown in Figure 1-21.
DMM Ohmmeter
For high resistance measurements, a DMM may use the ratiometric method
shown in Figure 1-22. This technique is only used on the higher resistance
ranges (10MW and 100MW) to allow the lowest noise performance. Test
current for this method is generated by a built-in voltage source (VSOURCE)
through a reference resistance (R REF) as shown.
Because the DMM voltmeter has very high input impedance (>10GW),
current through the voltmeter branch is insignificant and can be discount-
ed. Therefore, IREF equals the current of the unknown resistance (I X ). The
voltage drop across the unknown resistance (R X ) is measured by the DMM
voltmeter (V M) and the resistance (R X ) is calculated.
1.5.5 Low Resistance Ohmmeter Circuits
Nanovoltmeter and External Current Source
If the electrometer in Figure 1-20 is replaced with a nanovoltmeter, the
circuit can be used to measure very low resistances (less than micro-ohms).
Using a four-wire method eliminates any lead resistance from the measure-

1-26 SECTION 1
FIGURE 1-20: High Resistance Measurement Using External Current Source with
Electrometer Voltmeter

HI
External
Current I RX V1 LO
Source
Electrometer
Voltmeter
V1
RX =
I

FIGURE 1-21: High Resistance Measurement Using a True Current Source

with a DMM

— ×1 Output
A
+

HI

I RX V1 VO

LO DMM

VO ≈ V1 = I RX
Constant-Current Source
with Buffered ×1 Output V
RX = O
I

FIGURE 1-22: Two-Wire Ratiometric Method of DMM to Measure High Resistance

RREF I REF
IREF = IX
I REF
Input HI VSOURCE – VM V
= M
VSOURCE RREF RX

RX IX VM
VM RX = × RREF
VSOURCE – VM
Input LO

Low Level DC Measuring Instruments 1-27

 ment. A current source that can automatically change polarity can be used
to correct for offsets. First, a voltage measurement is taken with positive
test current, then another voltage measurement is taken with negative
test current. Averaging the difference between the two readings cancels
the offsets.
DMM Ohmmeter
For making low resistance measurements, the typical DMM will use a four-
wire constant-current source method as shown in Figure 1-23. Using this
method, the DMM sources a constant current (I) to the device under test
(R X ) and measures the voltage (V M). Resistance is then calculated using the
known current and measured voltage. In the four-wire mode, the voltage is
measured at the DUT so that the voltage drops due to the lead resistances
will not affect the measurement accuracy. A DMM capable of measuring
low resistance usually has a way of compensating for voltage offsets.
The test current sourced to the DUT depends on the selected mea-
surement range. For example, a DMM with a 100W range may have a test
current of 1mA.

FIGURE 1-23: Four-Wire Constant-Current Source Method

Input HI

Sense HI

I VM RX

Sense LO

Input LO

VM
DMM RX =
I

Some DMM ohmmeters may have a dry circuit mode. Dry circuit ohms
uses a constant current source with voltage monitoring that is used to
clamp the current source voltage. The current source will remain constant
as long as the monitoring voltage is <20mV. When voltage exceeds 20mV,
the current source shunts current internal to the DMM until 20mV is main-
tained at the DUT.

1.5.6 Complete Instruments

Digital Electrometers
Figure 1-24 is a block diagram of a typical digital electrometer. The analog
section is similar to the circuitry discussed previously. An electrometer

1-28 SECTION 1
FIGURE 1-24: Typical Digital Electrometer

Function/Range
Micro- Display
processor
Amps

Coulombs Communications
Interface

Volts
A/D
Converter
Ohms

HI
–
A Ranging 2V Analog
Input Amplifier Output
+
Zero
LO Check

Preamp
Output
Guard
Output
Volts, Ohms

Amps, Coulombs

preamplifier is used at the input to increase sensitivity and raise input

resist­ance. The output of the main amplifier is applied to both the analog
output and the A/D converter. Range switching and function switching,
instead of being performed directly, are controlled by the microprocessor.

The microprocessor also controls the A/D converter and supervises

all other operating aspects of the instrument. The input signal to the A/D
converter is ­generally 0–2V DC. After conversion, the digital data is sent to
the display and to the communications interface (IEEE-488, RS-232, USB,
or Ethernet).

Digital Multimeters (DMMs)

Most DMMs include five measurement functions: DC volts, AC volts, ohms,

DC amps, and AC amps. As shown in Figure 1-25, various signal processing
circuits are used to convert the input signal into a DC voltage that can be
converted to digital information by the A/D converter.

The DC and AC attenuator circuits provide ranging for the AC and DC

functions. The AC converter changes AC signals to DC; the ohms converter
provides a DC analog signal for resistance measurements. Precision shunts
are used to convert currents to voltages for the amps functions.

Low Level DC Measuring Instruments 1-29

 FIGURE 1-25: DMM Block Diagram

AC AC Digital
Attenuator Converter Display

AC AC
DC DC DC A/D Communications
HI
Attenuator Converter Interface
Ohms Ohms
Amps
Ohms Precision
Converter Reference
INPUT

Precision
Shunts

LO

Once the input signal is appropriately processed, it’s converted to digi-

tal information by the A/D converter. Digital data is then sent to the display
and to the communications interface (IEEE-488, RS-232, USB, or Ethernet).
Nanovoltmeters
A nanovoltmeter is a sensitive voltmeter optimized to measure very low
voltages. As shown in Figure 1-26, the nanovoltmeter incorporates a low
noise preamplifier, which amplifies the signal to a level suitable for A/D
conversion (typically 2–3V full scale). Specially designed preamplifier
circuits ensure that unwanted noise, thermoelectric EMFs, and offsets are
kept to an absolute minimum.
FIGURE 1-26: Typical Nanovoltmeter

Range
Switching
Low-Noise
Preamplifier
Display
HI A/D
Converter
DCV Input
Communications
Interface
LO

Offset
Compensation

Microprocessor

1-30 SECTION 1
 In order to cancel internal offsets, an offset or drift compensation
circuit allows the preamplifier offset voltage to be measured during
specific phases of the meas­ure­ment cycle. The resulting offset voltage is
subsequently subtracted from the meas­ured signal to maximize measure-
ment accuracy.
Once the preamplifier amplifies the signal, it’s converted to digital
information by the A/D converter. Digital data is then sent to the display
and the communications i­nterface.
Source Measure Unit (SMU) Instruments
Source measure unit (SMU) instruments, which include SourceMeter SMU
instruments, provide four functions in one instrument: source current,
source voltage, measure current, and measure voltage. These instruments
have four-quadrant source functionality, which provides for a sink capabil-
ity, so they can be used as electronic loads. Some also have resistance mea-
surement and pulsing capabilities. Figure 1-27 illustrates the Source I and
Measure V mode of an SMU instrument with a driven guard. In this config-
uration, the instrument functions as a high impedance current source with
voltage and current measurements and voltage limit capability. The driven
guard (×1 Buffer) ensures that the Guard and Force HI terminals are
always at the same potential. Proper use of guarding virtually eliminates
leakage paths in the cable, test fixture, and connectors.

FIGURE 1-27: Source I and Measure V Mode of Source Measure Unit (SMU)
Instruments

×1
Buffer Guard

IM Force HI

Local

Sense HI
Remote

VM

Remote
Sense LO

Local

Force LO

Low Level DC Measuring Instruments 1-31

 Selecting either local or remote sense determines where the voltage
measurements will be made. In local sense, the voltage is measured
between the Force HI and Force LO terminals. In remote sense (Kelvin or
4-wire mode), the voltage is measured at the device under test, between
the Sense HI and Sense LO terminals, eliminating any voltage drops due
to lead resistance.
When configured to Source V and Measure I (as shown in Figure 1-28),
the instrument functions as a low impedance voltage source with current
and voltage measurements and current limit capability. Sense circuitry
monitors the output voltage continuously and adjusts the voltage source
as needed.
FIGURE 1-28: Source V and Measure I Mode of Source Measure Unit (SMU)
Instruments

×1
Buffer Guard

IM Force HI

Local

Sense HI
Remote

VM

Remote
Sense LO

Local

Force LO

1-32 SECTION 1
 SECTION 2

Measurements from
High Resistance
Sources
2.1 Introduction
As described in Section 1 of this handbook, measurements made from high
resistance sources include DC voltage, low DC current, high resistance, and
charge measurements. The in­struments used to make these high impe-
dance measurements include electrometers, picoammeters, and source
measure unit (SMU) instruments. Section 1 described the basic circuits of
these instruments and their measurement functions. Section 2 offers more
detailed information about these functions, various interferences and error
sources, and ways to maximize the accuracy of measurements made from
high resistance sources. For easier reference, the information in Section 2
is organized into these subsections:

2.2 High Impedance Voltage Measurements: A discussion of loading

errors and the use of guarding to minimize these errors, as well as
information on insulating materials used for making high impedance
measurements.

2.3 Low Current Measurements: Information about making successful low

current measurements is described with such topics as leakage current
and guarding, noise and source impedance, zero drift, generated cur-
rents, voltage burden, overload protection, and using a coulombmeter
to measure low current.

2.4 High Resistance Measurements: Describes the constant-voltage and

constant-­current methods for measuring high resistance.

2.5 Charge Measurements: A discussion of the error sources and ways to

minimize them, zero check, and extending the range of the charge
function of an electrometer.

2.6 General Electrometer Considerations: A discussion of techniques and

error sources that affect high impedance measurements in general.
Some of the topics include measurement connections, electrostatic
interference and shielding, environmental factors, speed consider-
ations, etc.

2.7 High Impedance Measurement Optimization Summary

2.2 Voltage Measurements from High Resistance Sources

Measurements from voltage sources with high internal resistance are sub-
ject to a number of errors, such as loading errors from the voltmeter’s input
resistance and input bias current, as well as from external shunt resistance
and capacitance. The following paragraphs discuss these error sources and
ways to minimize their effects. For a discussion of errors due to improper
connections and electrostatic interference, see Section 2.6.

2-2 SECTION 2
2.2.1 Loading Errors and Guarding
Input Resistance Loading
Voltage measurements from high resistance sources are subject to loading
errors from the meter input resistance, as well as the leakage resistance of
the connecting cable. A practical voltmeter may be represented by an ideal
infinite input-resistance voltmeter (V M) in parallel with a resistor equal to
the specified input resistance (R IN), as shown in Figure 2-1. When a source
whose Thevenin equivalent is VS in series with R S is connected to the input,
the voltage (V M) appearing across the meter input terminals is reduced by
the voltage divider action of R S and R IN as follows:

( RIN
VM = VS ––––––––––
RS + RIN )
For example, assume RS = 100kΩ and R IN = 10MΩ. If VS = 5V, the
actual voltage measured by the meter is:

( 107
VM = 5 –––––––––––
10 + 107
5 )
VM = 4.95V
Thus, input resistance loading would result in an error of 1% in
this example.
The meter input resistance should be much higher than the source
resistance. For example, if the desired accuracy is 1%, then the meter

FIGURE 2-1: Effects of Input Resistance Loading on Voltage Measurement Accuracy

HI

RS
RIN
Input VM
Resistance
VS

LO

Voltage Source Voltmeter Measuring VS

Indicating VM
RIN
V M = VS
RIN + RS

Measurements from High Resistance Sources 2-3

 resist­ance must be more than 100 times the source resistance. For higher
accuracy, this ratio must be correspondingly higher.
The connecting cable ordinarily isn’t a factor, but with very high source
resist­ances (>10GΩ) or under extreme environmental conditions, it can
cause significant loading errors. It may be possible to guard the cable and
thus reduce its loading on the measurement. This is discussed in the para-
graphs on Shunt Resistance Loading and Guarding.
Input Bias Current Loading
Another consideration when measuring voltages from high resistance
sources is the input bias current of the voltmeter. The input bias current
flows at the instrument input due to internal instrument circuitry and the
internal bias voltage. As shown in Figure 2-2, the input bias current (IBIAS)
develops an error voltage across the source resistance (RS). Thus, the actual
measured voltage (V M) differs from the source voltage (VS) as follows:
VM = VS ± IBIASRS
For example, assume the following parameters:
IBIAS = 1pA   RS = 10GΩ   VS = 10V
The actual voltage measured by the meter is:
VM = 10 ± (10–12 · 1010)
VM = 10 ± 0.01
VM = 9.99V or 10.01V (depending on the input bias current polarity)

FIGURE 2-2: Effects of Input Bias Current on Voltage Measurement Accuracy

HI

I BIAS
RS Input
Bias
Current VM

VS

LO

Voltage Source Voltmeter Measuring VS

Indicating VM

VM = VS – I BIAS RS

2-4 SECTION 2
 Thus, the error caused by input bias current would be about 0.1% in
this ­example.
DMMs and nanovoltmeters have bias currents from 1pA to 1nA,
al­though DMM bias currents are not always specified. Electrometers are
known for their low input bias current, which is usually a few femtoamps.
The input bias current specification of an electrometer is often listed in
the ammeter section of the specifications even though it affects all of the
instrument’s functions. Picoammeters and SMU instruments also have very
low input bias currents, although usually not as low as an electrometer’s.
Although input bias current is a common source of this type of error,
currents generated by external circuits can also result in errors due to
voltage drops across the source resistance. Typical sources of such offset
currents are insulators and cables.
Shunt Resistance Loading and Guarding
External shunt resistances, such as leaky cables and dirty insulators, may
also cause loading errors.
Any external shunt resistance across the voltage source will attenuate
the meas­ured voltage, as shown in Figure 2-3. As in the case of input
resist­ance voltage loading, the shunt resistance (R SHUNT ) and the source
resist­ance (R S) form a voltage divider that reduces the measured voltage
(V M) as follows:

( RSHUNT
VM = VS ––––––––––––––
RSHUNT + RS )
For example, assume R S = 10GΩ and R SHUNT = 100GΩ. If VS has a
value of 10V, the measured voltage (V M) is:

VM = 10 ( 1011
––––––––––––
10 + 1010
11 )
VM = 9.09V
In this instance, the error due to shunt loading is approximately 9%.
Cable leakage resistance is a common source of shunt resistance load-
ing, as shown in Figure 2-4. In this case, the measured voltage (V M) is
attenuated by the voltage divider formed by RS and the cable resistance (R L):

(RL
VM = VS –––––––––
RS + RL )
To reduce errors due to shunt resistance, use cables, connectors, and
test fixturing with the highest possible insulation resistance. In addition,
the use of guarding will eliminate any residual errors.
The error due to cable leakage can be greatly reduced by the use of
guarding, as shown in Figure 2-5. In the guarded configuration, the cable
shield is now connected to the output of the guard buffer instead of the
voltmeter LO terminal. RG represents the resistance from the cable shield

Measurements from High Resistance Sources 2-5

 FIGURE 2-3: Effects of Shunt Resistance on Voltage Measurement Accuracy

HI

RS
Shunt RSHUNT
Resistance VM

VS

LO

Voltmeter Measuring VS
Indicating VM
Voltage Source
RSHUNT
VM = VS
RS + RSHUNT

FIGURE 2-4: Effect of Cable Leakage Resistance on Voltage Measurement Accuracy

Connecting Cable
HI
Cable
Cable RL Shield
Leakage
RS Resistance
VM

VS

LO

Voltage Source Voltmeter Measuring VS

Indicating VM
RL
V M = VS
RS + R L

to voltmeter LO, and IG is the current through RG as a result of driving

the shield to the same potential as the input HI terminal. This current is
supplied by the guard buffer, not the voltage source. The voltage across
R L is now many decades lower, so the leakage current will be negligible
in most cases.
By definition, a guard is a low impedance point in the circuit that’s at
nearly the same potential as the high impedance input terminal.

2-6 SECTION 2
FIGURE 2-5: Guarded Configuration

Connecting Cable
HI
+
Cable AGUARD
RL Shield –
RS VM

GUARD
VS

RG IG

LO

Voltage Source Voltmeter with Guard Buffer

In modern electrometers, the preamplifier output terminal is such a

point, and can be used to reduce the effect of cable leakage, as shown in
Figure 2-5. An additional benefit is that the effective cable capacitance is
also reduced, making the response speed of the circuit much faster. This
is discussed in detail in the paragraphs on Shunt Capacitance Loading
and Guarding.
The source measure unit (SMU) instrument can also be used to mea-
sure voltages from a high resist­ance source and the Guard terminal will
make a similar improvement.
The circuit of the electrometer when used as a voltmeter is actually as
shown in Figure 2-6. The guard amplifier is a unity-gain amplifier with
very high input impe­dance. The open-loop gain, AGUARD, ranges from 104
to 106. The leakage resistance (R L) is multiplied by this gain and the mea-
sured voltage becomes:

(AGUARDRL
VM = VS –––––––––––––––––
RS + AGUARDRL )
Example: Assume RS has a value of 10GΩ and R L is 100GΩ. If we
assume a mid-range value of 105 for AGUARD and a value of 10V for VS, the
voltage measured by the meter is:

( 1016
VM = 10 ––––––––––––––––––
1.000001 × 1016 )
VM = 9.99999V
Thus, we see the loading error with guarding is less than 0.001%. In
contrast, the unguarded error voltage with this combination of source and
shunt resistances would be about 9%.

Measurements from High Resistance Sources 2-7

Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 The practicability of establishing
telegraphs on the electric principle is no
longer a question. Wheatstone, of London,
and his associates, have been more
fortunate than our American inventor, in
procuring the means to put his ingenious
system into practical use for two or three
hundred miles, in Great Britain; and the
movements of the cars on the Blackwall rail
road are at this time directed with great
economy, and perfect safety to life and
property, by means of his magnetic needle
telegraph. If a system more complicated and
less efficient than the American telegraph is
operated for great distances in England,
with such eminent success and advantage,
there can be no reasonable doubt that, if
the means be furnished for putting in
operation the system of Professor Samuel F.
B. Morse, of New York, the original inventor
of the electro-magnetic telegraph, the same,
if not greater success, will be the result.
Your committee are of opinion that it is but
justice to Professor Morse, who is alike
distinguished for his attainments in science
and excellence in the arts of design, and
who has patiently devoted many years of
unremitting study, and freely spent his
private fortune, in inventing and bringing to
perfection a system of telegraphs which is
calculated to advance the scientific
reputation of the country, and to be
eminently useful, both to the Government
and the people, that he should be furnished
with the means of competing with his
European rivals.
 Professor Morse bases his system upon
the two following facts in science:
First. That a current of electricity will
pass to any distance along a conductor
connecting the two poles of a voltaic battery
or generator of electricity, and produce
visible effects at any desired points on that
conductor.
Second. That magnetism is produced in a
piece of soft iron (around which the
conductor, in its progress, is made to pass)
when the electric current is permitted to
flow, and that the magnetism ceases when
the current of electricity is prevented from
flowing. This current of electricity is
produced and destroyed by breaking and
closing the galvanic circuit at the pleasure of
the operator of the telegraph, who in this
manner directs and controls the operation of
a simple and compact piece of mechanism,
styled the register, which, at the will of the
operator at the point of communication, is
made to record, at the point of reception,
legible characters, on a roll of paper put in
motion at the same time with the writing
instrument. These characters the inventor
has arranged into a conventional alphabet,
and which is capable of being learned and
used with very little practice.
Professor Morse has submitted his
telegraphic plan to the severe scrutiny of
European criticism; and the Academy of
Sciences, of Paris, the highest scientific
tribunal in the world, hailed it with
enthusiasm and approbation, when its
operation was exhibited, and its principles
explained by their distinguished perpetual
secretary, M. Arago.
It appears, from documents produced by
Professor Morse, that the thanks of several
learned bodies in France were voted to him
for his invention, and the large medal of
honor was awarded to him by the Academy
of Industry. It further appears, that several
other systems of telegraphs on the electric
plan (among which were Wheatstone’s, of
London, Steinheil’s, of Munich, and
Masson’s, of Caen) had been submitted at
various times for the consideration of the
French Government, who appointed a
commission to examine and report on them
all, at the head of which commission was
placed the administrator-in-chief of the
telegraphs of France, (M. Foy,) who, to a
note to Professor Morse, thus writes:
“I take a true pleasure in confirming to
you in writing that which I have already had
the honor to say to you viva voce—that I
have prominently presented to Monsieur the
Minister of the Interior your electro magnetic
telegraph, as being the system which
presents the best chance of a practical
application; and I have declared to him that,
if some trials are to be made with electric
telegraphs, I do not hesitate to recommend
that they should be made with your
apparatus.”
 Your committee, in producing further
evidence of the approbation by the scientific
world of the system of Professor Morse,
would cite the letter of Professor Henry, of
Princeton College, well known for his
eminent attainments in electrical science,
(marked 11,) in the appendix of this report.
More recently, a committee, consisting of
some of our most distinguished scientific
citizens, was appointed by the American
Institute of New York, to examine and report
upon this telegraph, who made the report
(12) in the appendix. In compliance with the
recommendation of this report, the Institute
awarded to Professor Morse the gold medal.
Besides the evidence these testimonials
furnish of the excellence of Professor
Morse’s system, your committee, as well as
the greater part of the members of both
Houses of Congress, have had a practical
demonstration of the operation of the
electro magnetic telegraph, and have
witnessed the perfect facility and
extraordinary rapidity with which a message
can be sent by means of it from one
extremity of the capitol to the other. This
rapidity is not confined in its effects to a few
hundred feet, but science makes it certain
that the same effects can be produced, at
any distance on the globe, between any two
given points connected by the conductors.
Your committee have alluded to other
electric telegraphs; for, as is not uncommon
in the birth of great inventions, scientific
minds have, at nearly the same period of
time, in various parts of Europe, conceived
and planned electric telegraphs; but it is a
matter of national pride, that the invention
of the first electro magnetic telegraph, by
Professor Morse, as well as the first
conception of using electricity as the means
of transmitting intelligence, by Doctor
Franklin, is the offspring of American genius.
Your committee beg leave to refer to the
letter of Professor Morse, (marked 13,) in
the appendix, to C. G. Ferris, one of the
committee, giving, at his request a brief
history of the telegraph since it was before
Congress, in 1838, for some interesting
information concerning it, and for Professor
Morse’s estimate of the probable expense of
establishing his system of telegraphs for
thirty or forty miles.
They would also refer to the House
document, No. 15, (December 6, 1837,) and
to House report, No. 753, (April 6, 1838,) for
valuable information on the subject of
telegraphs.
Your committee invite special attention to
that part of Professor Morse’s letter which
details the plan of a revenue which may be
derived from his telegraphic system, when
established to an extent sufficient for the
purposes of commercial and general
intelligence. From these calculations, made
upon safe data, it is probable that an income
would be derived from its use by merchants
and citizens more than sufficient to defray
the interest of the capital expended in its
establishment. So inviting, indeed, are the
prospects of profit to individual enterprise,
that it is a matter of serious consideration,
whether the Government should not, on this
account alone, seize the present opportunity
of securing to itself the regulation of a
system which, if monopolized by a private
company, might be used to the serious
injury of the Post Office Department, and
which could not be prevented without such
an interference with the rights of the
inventor and of the stockholders as could
not be sustained by justice or public opinion.
After the ordeal to which the electro
magnetic telegraph system has been
subjected, both in Europe and in America,
and the voice of the scientific world in its
favor, it is scarcely necessary for your
committee to say that they have the fullest
confidence in Professor Morse’s plan, and
they earnestly recommend the adoption of it
by the Government of the United States.
They deem it most fortunate that no definite
system of telegraphs should hitherto have
been adopted by the Government, since it
enables them to establish this improved
system, which, in the opinion of your
committee, is decidedly superior to any
other now in use, possessing an advantage
over telegraphs depending on vision,
inasmuch as it may be used both by night
and day, in all weathers, and in all seasons
of the year, with equal convenience; and,
also, possessing an advantage over electric
telegraphs heretofore in use, inasmuch as it
records, in permanent legible characters on
paper, any communication which may be
made by it, without the aid of any agent at
the place of recording, except the apparatus
which is put in motion at the point of
communication. Thus, the recording
apparatus, called the register, may be left in
a closed chamber, where it will give notice of
its commencing to write, by a bell, and the
communication may be found, on opening
the apartment. Possessing these great
advantages, and the means of
communication not being liable to
interruption by the ordinary contingencies
which may impede or prevent the successful
action of other telegraphs, the advantages
to be derived from it will soon be apparent
to the community, and it will become the
successful rival of the Post Office, when
celerity of communication is desired, and
create a revenue from which this system of
telegraphs may be extended and ramified
through all parts of the country, without
imposing any burden upon the people or
draughts on the treasury, beyond the outlay
for its first establishment.
As a first step towards the adoption of
this system of telegraphs by the
Government, your committee recommend
the appropriation of thirty thousand dollars
to be expended under the direction of the
Postmaster General, in constructing a line of
electro magnetic telegraphs, under the
superintendence of Professor Sam’l F. B.
Morse, of such length and between such
points as shall fully test its practicability and
utility; and for this purpose they respectfully
submit the following bill:

A bill to test the Practicability of Establishing

a System of Electro Magnetic Telegraphs by
the United States.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House
of Representatives of the United States in
Congress assembled, That the sum of thirty
thousand dollars be, and is hereby,
appropriated, out of any moneys in the
treasury not otherwise appropriated, for
testing the capacity and usefulness of the
system of electro magnetic telegraphs
invented by Samuel F. B. Morse, of New
York, for the use of the Government of the
United States, by constructing a line of said
electro magnetic telegraphs, under the
superintendence of Professor Samuel F. B.
Morse, of such length and between such
points as shall fully test its practicability and
utility; and that the same shall be expended
under the direction of the Postmaster
General, upon the application of said Morse.
Sec. 2. And be it further enacted, That
the Postmaster General be, and he is
hereby, authorized to pay, out of the
aforesaid thirty thousand dollars, to the said
Samuel F. B. Morse, and the persons
employed under him, such sums of money
as he may deem to be a fair compensation
for the services of the said Samuel F. B.
Morse and the persons employed under him,
in constructing and in superintending the
construction of the said line of telegraphs
authorized by this bill.

No. 11.
Letter from Professor Henry to Professor
Morse.

Princeton College, February 24, 1842.

My dear Sir: I am pleased to learn that
you have again petitioned Congress in
reference to your telegraph, and I most
sincerely hope that you will succeed in
convincing our representatives of the
importance of the invention. In this you
may, perhaps, find some difficulty, since, in
the minds of many, the electro magnetic
telegraph is associated with the various
chimerical projects constantly presented to
the public, and particularly with the
schemes, so popular a year or two ago, for
the application of electricity as moving
power in the arts. I have asserted, from the
first, that all attempts of this kind are
premature, and made without a proper
knowledge of scientific principles. The case
is, however, entirely different in regard to
the electro magnetic telegraph. Science is
now fully ripe for this application, and I have
not the least doubt, if proper means be
afforded, of the perfect success of the
invention.
The idea of transmitting intelligence to a
distance by means of electrical action, has
been suggested by various persons, from
the time of Franklin to the present; but until
within the last few years, or since the
principal discoveries in electro magnetism,
all attempts to reduce it to practice were
necessarily unsuccessful. The mere
suggestion, however, of a scheme of this
kind is a matter for which little credit can be
claimed, since it is one which would
naturally arise in the mind of almost any
person familiar with the phenomena of
electricity; but the bringing it forward at the
proper moment when the developments of
science are able to furnish the means of
certain success, and the devising a plan for
carrying it into practical operation, are the
grounds of a just claim to scientific
reputation as well as to public patronage.
About the same time with yourself,
Professor Wheatstone, of London, and Dr.
Steinheil, of Germany, proposed plans of the
electro magnetic telegraph, but these differ
as much from yours as the nature of the
common principle would well permit; and
unless some essential improvements have
lately been made in these European plans, I
should prefer the one invented by yourself.
With my best wishes for your success, I
remain, with much esteem yours, truly,

JOSEPH HENRY.
Professor Morse.
 No. 12.
Report of the American Institute on the
Electro Magnetic Telegraph.

New York, September 12, 1842.

The undersigned, the committee of arts
and sciences of the American Institute,
respectfully report:
That, by virtue of the power of adding to
their numbers, they called to their aid the
gentlemen whose names are hereunto
annexed, with those of the original members
of the committee, and proceeded to
examine Professor Morse’s electro magnetic
telegraph.
Having investigated the scientific
principles on which it is founded, inspected
the mechanism by which these principles are
brought into practical operation, and seen
the instruments in use in the transmission
and return of various messages, they have
come to the conclusion that it is admirably
adapted to the purposes for which it is
intended, being capable of forming words,
numbers, and sentences, nearly as fast as
they can be written in ordinary characters,
and of transmitting them to great distances
with a velocity equal to that of light. They,
therefore, beg leave to recommend the
telegraph of Professor Morse for such
testimonials of the approbation of the
American Institute as may in its judgment
be due to a most important practical
application of high science, brought into
successful operation by the exercise of much
mechanical skill and ingenuity.
All which is respectfully submitted.

JAMES RENWICK, LL. D.,

Prof. Chem. and Nat. Phil., Columbia Col.,
N. Y.

JOHN W. DRAPER, M. D.,

Prof. Chem. and Min., University, city of
New York.

WILLIAM H. ELLET, M. D.
Prof. Chem., &c. Col. of Columbia, S. C.

JAMES R. CHILTON, M. D.,

Chem., &c., New York.

G. C. SCHAEFFER,
Associate Prof. Chem., Columbia Col., N. Y.

EDWARD CLARK.
CHARLES A. LEE, M. D.
Extract from the minutes of the Institute:
Resolved, That the report be accepted,
adopted, and referred to the premium
committee, and that the recording secretary
be directed to publish the same, at the
expense of the Institute.

No. 13.
Letter from S. F. B. Morse to the Hon. C. G.
Ferris.
 New York, December 6, 1842.
Dear Sir: In compliance with your
request, I give you a slight history of my
electro magnetic telegraph, since it was
presented for the consideration of Congress,
in the year 1838.
During the session of the 25th Congress,
a report was made by the Committee on
Commerce of the house, which concluded by
unanimously submitting a bill appropriating
$30,000 for the purpose of testing my
system of electro magnetic telegraphs. The
pressure of business at the close of that
session prevented any action being taken
upon it.
Before the session closed, I visited
England and France, for the double purpose
of submitting my invention to the test of
European criticism, and to secure to myself
some remuneration for my large
expenditures of time and money in
elaborating my invention. In France, after a
patent had been secured in that country, my
telegraph first attracted the attention of the
Academy of Sciences, and its operation was
shown, and its principles were explained, by
the celebrated philosopher, Arago, in the
session of that distinguished body of learned
men, on September 10, 1838. Its reception
was of the most enthusiastic character.
Several other societies, among which were
the Academy of Industry and the
Philotechnic Society, appointed committees
to examine and report upon the invention,
from all which I received votes of thanks,
and from the former the large medal of
honour. The French Government at this time
had its attention drawn to the subject of
electric telegraphs, several systems having
been presented for its consideration, from
England, Germany and France. Through the
kind offices of our minister at the French
Court, General Cass, my telegraph was also
submitted; and the Minister of the Interior
(M. Montalivet) appointed a commission, at
the head of which was placed M. Alphonse
Foy, the administrator-in-chief of the
telegraphs of France, with directions to
examine and report upon all the various
systems which had been presented. The
result of this examination (in which the
ingenious systems of Professor Wheatstone,
of London, of Professor Steinheil, of Munich,
and Professor Masson, of Caen, passed in
review) was a report to the Minister in favor
of mine. In a note addressed to me by M.
Foy, who had expressed his warmest
admiration of my telegraph in my presence,
he thus writes:
“I take a true pleasure in confirming to
you in writing that which I have already had
the honor to say to you viva voce, that I
have prominently presented (signalé) to
Monsieur the Minister of the Interior your
electro magnetic telegraph, as being the
system which presents the best chance of a
practical application; and I have stated to
him that if some trials are to be made with
electric telegraphs, I hesitate not to
recommend that they should be made with
your apparatus.”
In England, my application for a patent
for my invention was opposed before the
Attorney General by Professor Wheatstone
and Mr. Davy, each of whom had systems
already patented, essentially like each other,
but very different from mine. A patent was
denied me by the Attorney General, Sir John
Campbell, on a plea which I am confident
will not bear a legal examination. But there
being no appeal from the Attorney General’s
decision, nor remedy, except at enormous
expense, I am deprived of all benefit from
my invention in England. Other causes than
impartial justice evidently operated against
me. An interest for my invention, however,
sprung up voluntarily, and quite
unexpectedly, among the English nobility
and gentry in Paris, and, had I possessed
the requisite funds to prosecute my rights
before the British Parliament, I could
scarcely have failed to secure them, so
powerfully was I supported by this interest
in my favour; and I should be ungrateful did
I not take every opportunity to acknowledge
the kindness of the several noblemen and
gentlemen who volunteered to aid me in
obtaining my rights in England, among the
foremost of whom were the Earl of Lincoln,
the late celebrated Earl of Elgin, and the
Hon. Henry Drummond.
I returned to the United States in the
spring of 1839, under an engagement
entered into in Paris with the Russian
Counsellor of State, the Baron Alexandre de
Meyendorff, to visit St. Petersburg with a
distinguished French savant, M. Amyot, for
the purpose of establishing my telegraphic
system in that country. The contract,
formally entered into, was transmitted to St.
Petersburg, for the signature of the Emperor,
which I was led to believe would be given
without a doubt; and, that no time should
be lost in my preparations, the contract, duly
signed, was to be transmitted to me in in
New York, through the Russian ambassador
in the United States, in four or five weeks, at
farthest, after my arrival home.
After waiting, in anxious suspense, for as
many months, without any intelligence, I
learned indirectly that the Emperor, from
causes not satisfactorily explained, refused
to sign the contract.
These disappointments, (not at all
affecting the scientific or practical character
of my invention,) combined with the
financial depression of the country,
compelled me to rest a while from further
prosecuting my enterprise. For the last two
years, however, under many discouraging
circumstances, from want of the requisite
funds for more thoroughly investigating
some of the principles involved in the
invention, I have, nevertheless, been able to
resolve all the doubts that lingered in my
own mind, in regard to the perfect
practicability of establishing my telegraphic
system to any extent on the globe. I say,
“doubts that lingered in my own mind;” the
principle, and, indeed, the only one of a
scientific character, which at all troubled me,
I will state, and the manner in which it has
been resolved:
At an early stage of my experiments, I
found that the magnetic power produced in
an electro magnet, by a single galvanic pair,
diminished rapidly as the length of the
conductors increased. Ordinary reasoning on
this fact would lead to a conclusion fatal to
the whole invention, since at a great
distance I could not operate at all, or, in
order to operate, I should be compelled to
make use of a battery of such a size as
would render the whole plan in effect
impracticable. I was, indeed, aware, that by
multiplying the pairs in the battery—that is,
increasing the intensity of its propulsive
power, certain effects could be produced at
great distances, such as the decomposition
of water, a visible spark, and the deflection
of the magnetic needle. But as magnetic
effects, except in the latter case, had not, to
my knowledge been made the subject of
careful experiment, and as these various
effects of electrical action seemed, in some
respects, to be obedient to different laws, I
did not feel entirely assured that magnetism
could be produced by a multiplication of
pairs sufficiently powerful at a great distance
to effect my purpose. From a series of
experiments which I made, in conjunction
with Professor Fisher, during the last
summer, upon 33 miles of wire, the
interesting fact so favorable to my
telegraphic system, was fully verified, that
while the distance increased in an
arithmetical ratio, an addition to the series
of galvanic pairs of plates increased the
magnetic power in a geometric ratio. Fifty
pairs of plates were used as a constant
power. Two miles of conductors at a time,
from two to thirty-three, were successively
added to the distance. The weight upheld by
the magnet from the magnetism produced
by 50 pairs, gradually diminished up to the
distance of 10 miles; after which, the
addition of miles of wire up to 33 miles (the
extent to which we were able to try it)
caused no further visible diminution of
power. The weight then sustained was a
constant quantity. The practical deduction
from these experiments is the fact that with
a very small battery all the effects I desire,
and at any distance, can be produced. In
the experiments alluded to, the fifty pairs
did not occupy a space of more than 8 cubic
inches, and they comprised but 50 square
inches of active surface.
The practicability of establishing my
telegraphic system is thus relieved from all
scientific objections.
Let me now turn your attention, sir, one
moment to a consideration of the telegraph
as a source of revenue. The imperfections of
the common systems, particularly their
uselessness, on account of the weather,
three quarters of the time, have concealed
from view so natural a fruit of a perfected
telegraphic system. So uncertain are the
common telegraphs as to time, and so
meager in the quantity of intelligence they
can transmit under the most favorable
circumstances, that the idea of making them
a source of revenue would not be likely to
occur. So far, indeed, from being a source of
revenue, the systems in common use in
Europe are sustained at great expense; an
expense which, imperfect as they are, is
justified, in the view of the Government, by
the great political advantages which they
produce. Telegraphs with them are a
Government monopoly, and used only for
Government purposes. They are in harmony
with the genius of those Governments. The
people have no advantage from them,
except indirectly as the Government is
benefitted. Were our mails used solely for
the purpose of the Government, and private
individuals forbidden to correspond by them,
they would furnish a good illustration of the
operation of the common European
telegraphic systems.
The electro magnetic telegraph, I would
fain think, is more in consonance with the
political institutions under which we live, and
is fitted, like the mail system, to diffuse its
benefits alike to the Government and to the
people at large.
As a source of revenue, then, to the
Government, few, I believe, have seriously
computed the great profits to be derived
from such a system of telegraphs as I
propose; and yet there are sure data already
obtained by which they can be
demonstrated.
The first fact is, that every minute of the
24 hours is available to send intelligence.
The second fact is, that 12 signs, at
least, can be sent in a minute,
instantaneously, as any one may have proof
by actual demonstration of the fact on the
instrument now operating in the capitol.[15]
There can be no doubt that the cases,
where such speedy transmission of
intelligence from one distant city to another
is desirable, are so numerous, that when
once the line is made for such transmission,
it will be in constant use, and a demand
made for a greater number of lines.
The paramount convenience, to
commercial agents and others, of thus
corresponding at a distance, will authorize a
rate of postage proportionate to the
distance, on the principle of rating postage
by the mails.
To illustrate the operation of the
telegraph in increasing the revenue, let us
suppose that but 18 hours of the 24 are
efficiently used for the actual purposes of
revenue; that 6 hours are allowed for
repetitions and other purposes, which is a
large allowance. This would give, upon a
single circuit, 12,960 signs per day, upon
which a rate of postage is to be charged.
Intelligence of great extent may be
comprised in a few signs. Suppose the
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