For Rufus (ˈruːfəs) my little ‘red head’.

Contents

Preface

Colour & Light

Addition & Subtraction: Material & Immaterial Colour
Colour & Visual Perception
Colour Theory
The Colour Wheel
Colour Proportions
Colour & Material
Psychology of Colour
Key Names in Colour Psychology
Colour Systems
Glossary

The Colours
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Pink & Purple
White & Pale
Grey & Black
Brown
Select Bibliography
Picture Credits
Acknowledgements
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Preface

Colour is intrinsic to the human experience. It guides us with subconscious

visual cues throughout our lives. Get it right in your design or art and you
can enhance mood and atmosphere, and create a desired psychological or
even physiological effect. Finding success in colour requires a level of
nuance in approach, context, form and use, and that’s where dedicated study
of colour comes into play.
The Colour Bible is a contemporary handbook for navigating the
fascinating world of colour. Inside you will find 100 significant colours and
explore their importance or role in the world around us, from milestone
industrial processes to social media sensations. Every colour profile starts
from the colour’s origin then tracks its evolution, historical use and where it
lands today – the then and the now. Each entry finishes with a suggestion for
the modern utility of the colour. It is vital that we look to the present: as
contemporary designers and arbiters of choice, style and ethical practice, we
each have a role to play in selecting colour that has real value and meaning
behind it, with the wellbeing of humans and of the planet at the forefront of
our minds.
This edit includes only a fraction of the colours we see and experience,
and the selection is based on my own research, associations and informed
preferences. The shades were chosen by observing the physical materials
used in art and design as well as the resulting outcomes. Each chapter also
reveals much about my own background and working methods as a design
trend forecaster. I’m naturally drawn to sourcing visual cues, ordering and
connecting ideas, and that is reflected in these pages. Colour has many
facets, and this isn’t a list of colours from a paint chart; colours represent
much more than physical pigment – they are digital, material and even little
pieces of cultural narrative.
 This book is not just about singular colours; it’s also about how to create
successful palettes, and that is where context and colour relationships come
into play, as the context reveals other supportive tones and hues in which
successful palettes can be observed and then formed. Colour choice can be
daunting, but with practice anyone can learn to create colour combinations
by eye in an instinctual way by exploring simple principles such as opposing
cool and warm colours, and learning to recognize harmonious and dynamic
colour pairings.
The book aims to be an inspirational resource for your journey with
colour; to help you make informed decisions in your work and art. Colour is
complex, a sum of many parts and approaches, and it’s critical to understand
the core ideas before searching for new ones. Colour is useful beyond pure
aesthetic appeal: it can aid, guide and connect objects, services, people and
communities. Look to the work of ink-makers, pigment-producers, artists,
designers, architects, manufacturers, scientists and even bioengineers to
unlock this medium’s true potential.

‘Colour choice can be daunting, but with practice

anyone can learn to create colour combinations by
eye in an instinctual way.’
Colour & Light

In the most basic sense, we see different colours because different objects absorb
or reflect different wavelengths of light depending on their physicality or matter.
When the wavelengths they reflect reach our eyes, light receptors transmit
messages to the brain via the optic nerve. The brain then interprets these messages
as colour. Humans are trichromats, meaning that our eyes have three cones that
interpret colour – one for red wavelengths, one for blue and one for green – with
the potential to distinguish a million distinct colours.
The colour spectrum was first identified by Isaac Newton in 1666. By splitting a
ray of white light through a prism, he cast a rainbow on his wall and divided the
spectrum into seven observable zones: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and
violet. We are now able to identify the wavelengths that make up Newton’s
spectrum, which are measured in nanometers, and we know that the visible
section only makes up a part of the broader electromagnetic spectrum of light.
Our eyes find it harder to interpret colours at the edges of the colour spectrum,
namely red and violet, and are more able to read yellow, green and blue tones in
the middle. The fringes of infrared and ultraviolet are in fact invisible to the
human eye. At one end, violet (380–450nm) has the shortest wavelength and
therefore the highest frequency and energy, and at the other, red (620–750nm) has
the longest wavelength and therefore the shortest frequency and lowest energy.

‘Colours and light…stand in the most intimate relation to

each other.’
– Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
These delineated colour zones bleed into one another: greens range from grassy
yellow tones to watery teals as they begin to encroach upon the blues. It’s hard to
say precisely where we can locate the perfect shade of shimmering emerald, but it
sits somewhere just before green tips into the blues. Half the allure of colour is the
hunt for the perfect shade, to reproduce what we’ve witnessed in nature or even to
invent a new hue that might exist only in the mind’s eye, or not at all before its
creation. The advancement of colour has always been a balance between happy
accidents and focused pursuit, but throughout its history, colour has repeatedly
shown its capacity to surprise us, to fascinate us and often to help us in
unexpected ways.
Addition & Subtraction: Material & Immaterial
Colour

The interplay of primary colours is fundamental to how we craft colour for use in
art and design, both in print and on screen, but there are different models of
primaries depending on the nature of our medium. First, it depends on whether
we are working with immaterial colour, or light, which entails an additive system,
or material colour, such as paint and ink, which is known as subtractive.
Artists and designers who work with light as a medium rely on additive colour
theory. Light has three primary colours from which the other spectral colours can
be made: red, green and blue (RGB). An overlap of pure red and green light makes
yellow; green and blue make cyan; and red and blue create magenta. If all three
overlap in one spot, they make white light – hence the term additive, because
adding colour adds light. RGB is the colour system used for digital displays such
as computer and phone screens.
The subtractive colour method that applies to physical colour takes yellow,
cyan and magenta as its primaries (CMY), while red, blue and green are secondary
shades. Colour mixing in this system subtracts the amount of reflective light:
adding more different colours gives a darker result. Fully coalesced, CMY creates a
murky mud colour, hence the need for a pure black to be added to the trio to
complete the CMYK four-colour process that was developed specifically for the
print industry. The unspoken letter in this system would be W for white – the base
colour of the paper that designers learn to work with instinctively.
Subtractive colour also includes the red, yellow and blue primary model (RYB),
developed for painters as a tool to explain colour relationships, and the system
most commonly used in school art classes. In most fields today, this has been
largely replaced by the RGB/CMY models that offer a gamut of colours more
relevant to modern uses.
Colour & Visual Perception

Bias or debate around precise shades is a natural human response. As artist Josef
Albers reflected, ‘If one says “red” – the name of a color – and there are 50 people
listening, it can be expected that there will be 50 reds in their minds.’* One reason
is that reflective light depends on its environment: sunlight in the late afternoon
has a different colour to light at midday or at dusk. The amount of light in a space
makes a difference, as does influence from light reflecting off coloured walls or
other surfaces. The use of LEDs, fluorescent, incandescent and other artificial
lights do no favours for the accurate perception of physical colour if the full gamut
is only visible under white, ‘daylight’ conditions.
Our perceptions of colours and tones are also affected by the shades around
them, a phenomenon known as ‘simultaneous contrast’. Placing a saturated colour
beside more muted tones can make the bright colour appear brighter, for example.
Contrasting tones can produce unexpected effects on each other when closely
placed, for instance what appears a vibrant red in isolation can take on an orange
hue when placed next to blue, as our eyes try to balance the contrast.

‘The sensation of colour is a reverberation of light,

originating on a surface of an object, which then absorbs,
reflects and resonates and finally evolves into a tangible
material phenomenon.’
– Hella Jongerius
We should aim to see these subtle variances, as many artists have done in the
past, as opportunities. Hella Jongerius is a contemporary designer who studies the
evolution of light throughout the day through materials. The textured forms of her
vessels break the changing light into patterns of tone and colour, revealing the
interplay between light, colour and form.
Colour systems tend to be printed on brilliant white paper stock, but the reality
is that very little is genuinely white in the world. The consistency, texture and
tonality of the base material – onto which the colour will be added or which
comprises the colour itself (a pigment, for example) – can drastically affect how
the colour is perceived. (See also Colour & Material.)

Diamond vase, Day and Diamond vase, Night by Hella Jongerius, 2019. Limited Edition Galerie kreo
Colour Theory

You might remember being taught the basics of colour theory at school by mixing
pots of primary red, yellow and blue paints. Basic colour principles can help us use
colour more effectively, and ensure you pick the right type of palette for your
projects. The following timeline highlights ideas that have transformed our
understanding of colour.

A brief history of colour theory

Aristotle (384–322 BCE):

Aristotle developed what is generally thought of as the first linear colour scale,
from white at midday to black at midnight. He also proposed that all hues came
from light/white and black/no light.

Isaac Newton (1642–1727):

Newton’s work established the relationship between colour and wavelengths of
light, identifying seven distinct colours in the visible light spectrum. A new
interest in colour theory took off from this point.

Jacob Christoph le Blon (1667–1741):

Le Blon invented the system of three- and four-colour printing, using an RYB-K
colour model similar to the modern CMYK system. Using the mezzotint method,
he proved you can create a wide range of colours by layering these simple
primaries in different densities.

Moses Harris (1730–1787):

An entomologist and engraver by trade, Harris’s 1766 The Natural System of
Colours presented a comprehensive colour system, with two colour wheels that
broke colours down into 18 ‘prismatic’ hues based on RYB primaries, and 18
compounds based on the ‘mediates’.
Prismatic Color Wheel by Moses Harris, 1766
 Colour experiment No. 10, by Olafur Eliasson, 2010

Michel Eugène Chevreul (1786–1889):

Chevreul’s Laws of Simultaneous Contrast (1839) demonstrates his influential
theory that it is not the material aspect of a colour that is most important but how
it is perceived by the viewer. He coined the idea of ‘contrast’, describing the optical
mixing that happens when colours are affected by those around them.

Albert Munsell (1858–1918):

Munsell created the first functional and universal colour-matching tool, allowing
for the accurate reproduction of colours. Explaining colour through numerical
systems of hue, value and chroma, his work gave birth to a standardization of
colour still widely used by industry today, laying the foundation for ordered
colour libraries such as Pantone, NCS and RAL (see Colour Systems).

The Bauhaus (1919–1933):

The combined teachings of Johannes Itten, Wassily Kandinsky, Paul Klee and Josef
Albers contributed to what we know today as applied colour theory. The
movement developed the idea of colour’s synaesthetic qualities – relating colour to
shape and form, as well as music – and built on Chevreul’s work on simultaneous
contrast to outline key contrast effects and properties. Albers went on to write his
seminal Interaction of Color (1963) that helped train artists and designers to
interpret colour through examples of colour harmony, juxtaposition and
simultaneous contrast.

Olafur Eliasson (1967–):

In an ongoing project that began in 2009, Eliasson worked with a chemist to create
a model representing an exact pigment match for every nanometre of the visible
spectrum. He went on to use this palette to create painted works on circular
canvases, known collectively as the Colour Experiment Paintings. By transforming
what we perceive in light (RGB) into physical pigment, the model represents a
single, cohesive colour theory.

Photonic crystals in the wing scales of some butterfly species enable them to shine

Colour into the 21st Century

Today, leaps in science and technology, and knowledge of the way colour is
embedded in materials, have profoundly changed how we see, feel and relate to
colour. Carriers such as liquid-suspended pigments, glossy plastics, plied weft
fibres and layered computerized dots have indeed led to dimension and nuance.
The Structural Colour Studio, a research platform at Finland’s Aalto University,
has proven that non-pigmented photonic crystals (found in nature), which assume
shades through their contact with light alone, can be engineered to surfaces. The
result is a shimmering polychromic spectrum rather than just one flat hue.
As we continue to develop our understanding of what colour is – and what it
can do – materiality may well be key to the future of colour theory. Almost all the
colour chapters in this book include at least one colour or pigment that pushes the
boundaries of our traditional ideas about colour, from the plant-derived pigments
with extraordinary qualities to the engineered substances with untold possibilities.
The Colour Wheel

First visualized in the 17th century, today, the colour wheel is one of the most
useful tools for understanding colour relationships. Unlike most colour wheels,
which are based on the subtractive RYB model, the wheel opposite is based on the
RGB/additive CMY/subtractive models, whose primary colours form each other’s
secondaries, with tertiaries in between.
Although the wheel neatly divides colour into distinctive colours, the full
spectrum contains a plethora of nuanced shades in between each distinct hue. Its
basic circular form shows us that colour is connected while also allowing us to see
at a glance how distinct primary, secondary and tertiary colours relate to each
other. It also indicates how the spectrum can also be graded into values of
lightness and darkness, helping us to grasp a sense of the full dimension of colour.
Over the follow pages you will find some key colour relationships, and how
they relate to the colour wheel. It will be useful to familiarize yourself with some
of the key terms used to describe colour and colour relationships, which will pop
up throughout this book.
Primary Colours
The main hues that can be mixed to achieve other all other colours. They cannot
be made from any other colours and are therefore considered to be ‘pure’. Primary
colours vary according to different colour models; the one illustrated below is the
familiar model based on RYB primaries.

Secondary Colours
Colours that can be made from mixing two primary colours. For example, in RYB
models, red and yellow create orange. Secondary hues are often easier to look at
and use as pure chromas than primaries.

Tertiary Colours
Intermediate colours on the colour wheel, made from mixing one primary and
one secondary colour; for example, blue and green make blue-green (teal).
Tertiary colours can also be created by mixing two secondaries – for example,
green-orange (citron) – and in theory, the more you mix, the more nuanced the
colour becomes: mix citron with russet (an orange-purple) and you’ll get shades of
buff or taupe.

Monochromatic
A colour scheme based on one hue that may be varied with tones or tints. The
visual effect is simple and sophisticated, streamlining forms and minimizing
distractions. Example approaches appear in Carmine, Indigo, Violet, and Charcoal.
Analogous
Colours that are neighbours on the colour wheel, such as green-yellow, yellow and
yellow-orange. Analogous designs are harmonious by nature and can be used to
evoke specific moods such as tranquility or warmth. See Madder, Yellow-Red and
Bottle Green.

Complementary
Opposites attract, and it’s no different with colours directly opposite each other on
the colour wheel, such as blue and orange. Used together, these pairings create
visual energy and interest. You can play with proportions to create different
effects, and you can create calmer combinations by making one colour lighter and
the opposite darker. See Tangerine, High-Vis Orange, Glaucous and Teal.

Split Complementary/Compound
A three-colour palette based on complementary principles, but it uses the two
colours on either side of a colour’s opposite number rather than the opposite itself.
Split-complementary designs still have strong contrast but feel a bit more balanced
than straightforward complementary pairs. See Emerald Green, Pale Pink and
Burnt Sienna.

Dyad
Two colours that are two spaces apart on the colour wheel, such as blue-violet and
blue-green. The closeness of the colours lends a dyadic pair natural harmony while
the degree of separation creates visual interest. This approach can include lighter
tints as well as darker tonal combinations. See Faded Sunflower and Prussian Blue.

Triad
Three colours evenly spaced on the colour wheel e.g., violet, orange and green.
This is a vibrant combination that often works best with one dominant colour and
two accent colours within a palette. See Blood Red, Coral and Heliotrope.

Tetrad
Four colours spaced evenly on the wheel – or two sets of complementary
opposites. A trick often used in fashion, tetradic groupings result in bold designs
that offer both contrast and harmony, with the success of a combination highly
dependent on the proportions used. See Lemon Yellow and Wheat.
Cool & Warm Colours
Colours associated with heat and fire (yellows, oranges and reds) are considered to
be warm in temperature; colours we associate with cool things such as ice and
water (mainly blues) are cool in temperature. Greens and purples have qualities of
both. Temperature is relevant to all hue families – a yellow may be cooler than
another if it has more green present, for instance. See Electric Lime.
Colour Proportions

Knowledge of colour behaviours and attributes in different combinations and

contexts is essential to achieving good colour proportions. The total number of
colours chosen for a palette affects the outcome, as does the quantities in which
they are used, and many other factors besides. Josef Albers’ Homage to the Square
series is a 26-year experiment in which everything in the composition of the
paintings stays the same except the palette, allowing the artist to explore the effects
of colour interactions. The possible combinations are infinite, so the below just
offers a starting point; in addition to the contrasts outlined here, the colour
relationships described over the previous pages will always factor in.

Contrast of Quantity:
Using two or three colours in different quantities forms a simple dynamic between
the dominant and supporting colours.

Contrast of Saturation:
Combinations of pure, chromatic colours with more muted or low-chroma tints or
tones from the same hue range can draw the eye to critical details and create
supportive backgrounds.

Contrast of Value:
Tonal contrasts can influence mood and atmosphere. Strong tonal contrasts across
a large space can be dramatic and energizing or provide structure. Try framing a
light area between two areas of darkness to create a strong visual focus – a
technique known as chiaroscuro in painting. Schemes with little tonal contrast can
offer a soothing environment.
Josef Albers, Interaction of Colour, Plate IV-1b, 1973
Contrasts of Quantity (Bottle Green)

Contrasts of Saturation (Indigo)

Contrasts of Value (Van Dyke Brown)

Contrasts of Chroma (Factory Yellow)

Contrasts of Neutral & Chroma (Vital Green)

Contrasts of Temperature (Scarlet)

Contrasts of Chroma:
Combinations of hues with chromas that are the same level of intensity can create
a vibrant, cohesive harmony. If you want to create impact, try out three or four
matching high-chroma colours together, but be mindful that they must really
match: if they are only similar, they will cause visual tension.

Contrasts of Neutral & Chroma:

A slice of a saturated hue among a predominantly neutral scheme can enliven the
more subtle shades and will immediately draw the eye to a key function or detail.
Conversely, achromatic black and white can be used to temper or frame strong
chroma hues.

Contrasts of Temperature:
A simple yet key combination of the fundamental complementary shades, warm
and cool. Place warm oranges on a background of blues and your eye will be
immediately drawn through the composition to the warmth. Also useful with low-
chroma combinations to encourage engagement without tiring out the eyes.

‘[C]olor, as the most relative medium in art, has

innumerable faces or appearances. To study them in
their respective interactions, in their interdependence,
will enrich our “seeing,” our world – and ourselves.’
– Josef Albers
Colour & Material

From the precious stones used to make pigments that captured many artists’
imaginations to the rise of material literacy in art and design in the later part of
the 20th century and into the 21st – understanding material is the key to
understanding the genesis and history of colour.
The first pigments were made by hand. Until the 20th century, washing,
thinning, smelting, crushing, grinding and mixing with chalk, oils, animal fats or
egg to give different effects was still common practice. Plants provided deep
yellows; reds such as scarlet came from insects; prized purples came from sea
snails. Shades were often available only to the regions where the base materials
could be found or the techniques for their production known. When it comes to
creating new colours, science, technology, art and design have played equal and
symbiotic roles. The modern dye industry was devised and cultivated by the
demand for colour: Van Dyke’s quest for all-encompassing shadows saw him
devise a pigment from soil, while Yves Klein applied chemistry to create a new
vibrant and arresting blue.

Raw Material
In some cases, a material’s inherent colour has been celebrated and exploited to
create tone and shade. Many modern artists such as Max Lamb and Donald Judd
have worked with raw materials as a primal aesthetic expression, either leaving
them unprocessed or enhancing their surfaces with heat and chemicals, creating
serendipitous outcomes. See Copper, Smalt, Silver and Aluminium.
 Blocks of indigo pigment

Light as a Medium
Shimmering light always catches the human eye. Artists such as Jan van Eyck
mastered the replication of light in paint form by using gems and jewels in his
pigment concoctions. Contemporary artists have even used coloured light instead
of pigment; for example, James Turrell’s incandescent art mimics the changing
conditions of night and day. New disciplines such as 3D visualization and digital
arts are changing our perception of colour all over again. See Reactive Red, Vital
Green, Neon Pink and Lunar White.

Scientific Colour
Modern science links colour to material and performance to take colour beyond
aesthetics. The photosynthetic qualities of natural pigments such as chlorophyll
can be harnessed to generate energy, while the blackest nanotubes repel detection.
Meanwhile, new colour technology can limit production waste, with colour
biofabricated directly into material surfaces. See Chlorophyll, YInMn Blue, Living
Lilac and Vantablack.

Waste Colour
Colour derived from post-consumer, industrial or agricultural waste is being
harnessed by designers in order to curb landfill, resulting in recycled hues that are
unusual and diverse. Common examples include vegetable dyes derived from
agricultural waste and metal-tinted glazes from post-industrial waste. See Red
Ochre, Beetroot and Slag.

Base Material
Material is also important insofar as it refers to the base that a pigment is applied
to. Generally, the colour of a base material will contribute some of its colour to the
mixture of pigments applied; for example, a silvery aluminium plate will never
render a true neutral black as there is too much yellow in the substrate. If a piece
of fabric is already blue, it will never turn yellow with transparent dyes alone.
There are some industry tricks to get around this, however: in CMYK printing,
it is possible to print a spot white before the colour goes on top, to eliminate any
colour contamination. But these controlled approaches are not necessarily
appropriate in every situation. In a world choked by wastegenerating processes, it
might be worth abiding or even celebrating the unexpected effects we get when
our material’s inherent colour speaks for itself.

‘When it comes to creating new colours, science,

technology, art and design have played equal and
symbiotic roles.’
Psychology of Colour

Colour psychology is a relatively new area of research that works on the principle
that the impact colours have on us goes beyond aesthetics. Psychologist Angela
Wright highlights the effect colours can have on our mood when she describes the
way coloured light wavelengths are transmitted via the eyes to the brain and
‘eventually to the hypothalamus, which governs the endocrine glands, which in
turn produce and secrete our hormones. In simple terms, each colour
(wavelength) focuses on a particular part of the body, evoking a specific
physiological response, which in turn produces a psychological reaction.’*

‘Soon it got dusk, a grapy dusk, a purple dusk over

tangerine groves and long melon fields; the sun the
colour of pressed grapes, slashed with burgundy red, the
fields the colour of love and Spanish mysteries.’
– Jack Kerouac, On the Road
Colour psychology proposes that different colours have distinct effects that
influence sensory, emotional and physical responses. Colours like Reactive Red
can produce a physiological effect, increasing our heart rates as our brain
interprets danger, while other colours, such as a Baker-Miller Pink, have been
developed specifically to soothe. The term ‘sensorial association’ is used to
describe the mental connection we might have with a particular shade. It can be
personal and meaningful for individuals or collectively applied to certain brands
or experiences. Colour perception is also affected by cultural associations; deeply
embedded connotations often linked to religion, tradition and even propaganda.
Specific colours may have coded symbolism in certain cultures, such as white,
which signifies purity and death in China, or marigold yellow, which signals
rebirth in Mexico. Finally, our associations are affected by the contemporary
zeitgeist: how we feel about ourselves in our individual tribes and as part of a
wider culture; how we see colour used in different contexts; the myriad ideas and
influences we are exposed to in our daily lives that directly or indirectly alter our
perceptions.
Overleaf you will find some of the psychological effects or associations we
might expect certain shades to produce. Different times, cultures and contexts all
interpret colours differently, so this should be seen as a jumping-off point for
initial inspiration and perhaps further research.

Passionate, Adored, Powerful

The hottest and most dynamic primary hue, red, is activating,
stimulating and expanding. In full saturation, it draws attention and
excites.

Energizing, Responsive, Vital

Gentler than red and yellow, orange is friendly, warming and genuine. A
flexible secondary hue, it’s perfect for communicating vital information.

Happy, Hopeful, Utopic

If optimism were a hue, it would be yellow. Visually stimulating and
refreshing to contemplate, it combines with other colours to create a
variety of moods.

Fresh, Abundant, Soothing

Calming, balancing and rejuvenating, green is the most restful colour to
look at. Pale shades pacify while darker shades create a contemplative
mood.
Calm, Divine, Meditative
Deeply connected with the natural world, blue is easy on the eye and mind.
Lighter tints are expansive and serene while darker shades are perceived as
reliable and trustworthy.

Royal, Creative, Spiritual

A shade associated with spiritual connection, purple speaks of awareness
and reflection. Light colours evoke play and creativity while deeper shades
have a distinctive, mysterious allure.

Calm, Youthful, Modern

A soft and appealing shade with a powerful, rebellious side. Low chroma
pinks express empathy and lower heart rates, while powerful magentas
burst with energy.

Human, Elegant, Gentle

The family of pales ranges the whole gamut of subtle hues. Softened and
muted, pale neutrals invite us to perceive the nuances, encouraging calm
and mindful attitudes.

Pure, Clean, Minimal

Pure white is often a starting point. We perceive it to be clean, but when
used in too great a proportion it can be sterile and off-putting.
Moody, Conservative, Universal
Although perhaps dull and conservative at first glance, greys communicate
serene neutrality and appear tranquil to our eyes. Less intense than darker
neutrals, they have become a modern default in an often complicated
world.

Mysterious, Elegant, Innovative

Night-dark shades can seem as deep and full as brilliant whites appear
stark and empty. Physiologically, they offer a safe place to hide or be
concealed, and they can be deeply meditative.

Natural, Wholesome, Regenerative

The colour of the earth, shades of brown represent nature and its cyclicity.
Dependable and grounding, humble brown can help us feel calm and
secure.
Key Names in Colour Psychology

Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749–1832):

The German author and polymath devised principles using experiments to
demonstrate not only the optical effects of colours but also their emotional effects.
His subjective colour system was theoretically woolly but highly influential for
later artists and thinkers.

Carl Jung (1857–1961):

The Swiss psychoanalyst defined the link between colour perception and
association. His idea of ‘individual preference’ – that we are personally influenced
by learned, suppressed and inherited experience – is integral to colour perception.

Johannes Itten (1888–1967):

The artist and Bauhaus teacher aimed to free colour from its shackling
associations with form by devising a subjective system based on psychoanalysis
and analogous associations. His gridded visual experiments reference nature and
the seasons to explore theories of colour harmony.

Angela Wright (1934–):

Wright’s Colour Affects System applied scientific methodology to the
psychological effects of colour for the first time. Her findings established that
different personality types can be linked with specific colour groups, and that each
hue produces particular psychological responses.

Karen Haller (1961–):

Working with applied psychology in a commercial, industrial context, Haller’s
practice is rooted in the belief that colour selection can influence consumer/user
behaviour across all design fields.

Bevil Conway (1974–):

Neuroaesthetics is a new and burgeoning field of study mixing psychological and
neural research with aesthetics. By mapping the brain, Conway has been able to
show in studies how individual colours elicit unique patterns of emotion. Brands
including Google and IKEA are starting to use these techniques to track consumer
preferences.

‘He who wishes to become a master of colour must see,

feel and experience each individual colour in its endless
combinations with all other colours.’
– Johannes Itten
Colour Systems

Finding the best or most useful arrangement of the colour spectrum is a task that
has preoccupied thinkers since Aristotle first presented it as a day-to-night
continuum in the 4th century BCE. More modern systems have aimed to develop
a common language of colour: entomologist Moses Harris developed his colour
system to fulfil the need for accurate and consistent identification or description of
colours seen in nature; Charles Darwin took a copy of Werner’s Nomenclature of
Colours – a 19th-century catalogue of colours with their flora, fauna and mineral
equivalents – on his voyage on the Beagle for the same reason; and it is no
different today. One Pantone 7652 C will be the same as another Pantone 7652 C,
no matter where you are in the world.
Today, we live with colour system idioms such as ‘hex code’ and ‘CMYK’ in our
everyday lives. Trending colours like ‘Living Coral 16-1546’ and ‘Cool Gray 9’
have been celebrated on mugs and T-shirts. By learning how to read these codes
like geographic coordinates, we can learn to identify and use colours up and down
the chromatic spectrum. The colours included in this book come with their own
set of references to various colour systems including CMYK and RGB.

Munsell Colour System

In 1905, Albert Munsell developed the first truly threedimensional system of
colour. In his model, or ‘colour space’, which is still used by some industries today,
Munsell arranged colour by three criteria: hue, value and chroma.
 The Munsell Colour System

Pantone Colour System®

Pantone’s colour chips are recognized worldwide and an industry standard in
many high-end productions. Established in 1963, the numerical colour-matching
system originated in graphics and print but has since expanded to a plethora of
materials and formats such as textiles and plastic to allow perfect colour matching
across a variety of media.
→ www.pantone.com

NCS (Natural Colour System)

The NCS is a perception-based colour system widely used in architecture and
interior design to align colour between designers and manufacturers. The three-
dimensional system comprises a spectrum based around the four ‘pure’ or
‘elemental’ colours (red, green, blue and yellow), lightening to white at one pole
and black at the other. Each hue can be pulled out in a triangle section.
For a code such as ‘3055-B10G’ (Teal), the blackness is set at 30% and
chromaticness at 55%; the higher the second number, the more intense the colour
will be. B10G refers to the hue: the 10 indicates that it is closer to blue than green,
whereas ‘B90G’ would appear green to most eyes.
→ www.ncscolour.com

Dulux/ICI
The monarch of interior paint charts, Dulux (or ICI) is a colour notation system
used for interior decoration. Their codes begin with the chroma, based around
four pure colours and four secondaries, each with a scale of 00 to 99, with 50 being
the purest version of each family. In the case of ‘60YY-73/497’ (Lemon Yellow), the
hue is indicated to be an almost pure yellow. The second part of the code is a
twodigit number between 00 and 99 used to describe the value of the colour: 73
shows that lemon yellow is relatively light. The remaining digits relate to chroma
measured from neutral (000) to the most intense (999). The measure ‘497’ shows
that Lemon Yellow is a moderate chroma shade.
→ www.icipaints.co.uk/colours/duluxtrade/palette/notation.jsp

Hex (hexadecimal) Codes

This digital coding system defines web-safe colour and has gained popularity due
to growth in digital design areas such as web and UX/UI app design. Colours may
be specified as an RGB triplet or in hexadecimal format (a hex triplet). There are
lots of useful hex tools; here is just one: → www.colorhexa.com

RAL Colour
RAL is a colour system used to standardize colour reference across industrial
coatings, such as powdercoated colours. → www.ralcolorchart.com
A Pantone® fan deck, representing a fraction of the full colour system
Glossary

Achromatic
Hues that are considered colourless, i.e. only using only blacks, whites and greys.
Achromatic colours have no chroma and are only in neutral hue.

Biological Dye
A living substance from a biosource, such as bacteria or algae, which imparts its
pigment colour onto a material. See Living Lilac.

Chroma
Chroma is the purity of a colour. Chroma shades are pure and have no grey. They
can be fully saturated or light but are always pure and clear.

Chromatic Dark
Made famous by the impressionist art movement, chromatic darks are colours
mixed to be dark using many different hues instead of pure black. For example, a
chromatic dark such as obsidian is composed from the dark shades of red, blue
and green.

Contrast
A visual clash or vibration between two colours, normally generated by hues that
are direct opposites on the colour wheel or the maximum distance apart. However,
the more/less colour space separating two colours, the greater/lesser the contrast.

Desaturation
A descriptor used by artists to articulate the dullness of a hue.

Duotone
A palette of only two shades of the same colour. Originating from printed
duotypes or duographs.

Dye
A soluble molecule of colour that absorbs into the material it is applied to.
Earth Colours
Colours derived from naturally occurring clays or soils within the earth, often
including iron oxide. See Red Ochre and Burnt Sienna.

Fastness
Fastness indicates how well-bonded a dye pigment is to the material, to withstand
fading and running.

Fugative
Fugitive pigments lack permanence, altering over time, due to exposure to various
environmental factors or their chemical composition. The effect can be seen in
historical artworks (see Faded Sunflower).

Glaze
A ceramic medium that is used to modify how a colour is presented through a
transparent or a thin, semi-transparent layer. See Tenmoku.

Greyscale
A limited scale of shade from black to white.

Harmony
Defines colours that fit together well or create a serene visual aesthetic. Normally
they are close together on the colour wheel in hue or shade or are chromatically
similar. Analogous and split-complementary groupings make successful
harmonies.

Hiding Power
Indicates a colour or pigment’s opacity – how well it hides the surfaces it covers.
(See also Opacity.)

Hue
A term to also define a colour family; e.g. blue, yellow and green are all hues.
Often compounded or connected adjectives to further define a nuance; e.g.
‘yellow-green’, ‘soft yellow’ and ‘acid yellow’.

Ink
A coloured solution comprised of particles and molecules suspended in liquid,
mainly used for writing and printing.

Inorganic Pigment
An insoluble pigment that comes from a mineral or metal-based source.

Iridescence
A natural effect caused by differential light diffraction on surfaces such as certain
feathers, pearls and oils. (See also Structural Colour.)

Lake Pigment
A pigment created through combining organic dye with a mordant (an inert,
usually metal, compound).

Lightness
Relates to how much light is reflected into our eyes. A pale colour will reflect more
light and appear lighter. The less pigment in a physical colour, the lighter the
colour will appear.

Luminescence
An effect caused by a colour’s molecular ability to reflect back more light than it
absorbs.

Metallic Colour
A coating that has a shine or lustre created by the electron configuration of metals
and their interaction with light.

Monochromatic
Colour combinations that feature exclusively the same hue but may vary other
colour qualities, such as tint and shade.

Muted or Greyed-off
A colour with some level of grey added.

Nuance
A slight or delicate variation in tone, colour or sense.

Opacity
A descriptor for how solid a colour or material is. An opaque coating would cover
a surface completely and not allow colour or light through.

Organic Pigment
An insoluble pigment from a vegetable, plant or animal source, or from a natural
carbon-based compound.

Pale
Hues that are mostly composed of white with little saturation.

Pigment
A small particle of insoluble coloured material. Mixed with a carrier, such as oil, it
sits on top of the surface it’s applied too.

Polychromic
A surface showing a variety or a change of colours, also known as multicoloured.
It can also refer to a surface that has more than one wavelength of light.

Richness
Describes a colour that is both intense but also dark and deep in shade. A
chromatic dark brown, for example, would be classed as a rich colour.

Saturation
The highest possible brilliance or intensity of a hue.

Shade
A mixture of a colour with black or its complementary opposite on the colour
wheel, which increases darkness. Often used interchangeably with Hue.

Structural Colour
Colour that’s created through light interacting with nanostructures. These
structures originate in nature, such as in feathers and insect wings, and can be
replicated through biomimicry. See Pearl.

Substrate
A surface of a material in which a pigment or dye is received and deposited.

Synthetic
A medium fabricated from two or more chemicals or biochemicals. Synthetic
colour can also refer to tones that have an artificial appearance.

Tint
A mixture of a colour with white, which decreases darkness.

Tone
A mixture of a colour with grey, making a muted nuance.

Translucency
A descriptor for how semi-opaque a colour or material is. A translucent material
would be cloudy but also could have a colour tint.

Transparency
A descriptor for how see-through a colour or material is. A transparent coating
would be completely clear but could have a colour tint.

Undertone
A hue quality that is present but not clear or obvious; for example, a dark botanic
green looks cold when opaque, but when diluted reveals a warmer yellow
undertone.

Value
The relative lightness or darkness of a colour.

Waste Colour
Colour created from substances considered ‘waste’ or a redundant byproduct, such
as industrial waste and food waste. See Slag and Red Ochre.
___________
* Albers, Josef The Interaction of Color, 50th Anniversary Edition, New Haven and London: Yale University
Press, 2013
* Sevenic, Kurt and Kelechi Kingsley, Osueke, ‘The Effects of Color on the Moods of College Students’, Sage
Journals, 2014 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2158244014525423
The Colours
Red

Humanity has a long history with red. Easily accessible as a pigment, it was
the first true colour to be adopted into our palettes alongside black and white
when we began daubing cave walls with the figures of animals and humans.
Red has remained important to us ever since and has garnered so many
associations it’s become almost cliché: blood, passion, danger, anger, love,
sanctity, war… the list goes on.
Opposite on the colour wheel to soothing green, red is an ‘active’ colour: it
grabs the eye, demanding attention, popping out at us where other colours
recede and making hearts race – perhaps even literally. It has been
hypothesized that sports teams and competitors who wear red have an
advantage; a 2013 study showed that the colour was ‘associated with higher
heart rate and strength’.* Since the predominant colour in nature is green,
reds in nature have often evolved either to warn potential predators of foul
taste or toxins, or to attract mates or pollinators, so it is no wonder this
colour stands out to us.
While red may most immediately be pictured as a bombastic shade we
should not overlook its subtler side: earthy clay tones and the deep, dusky
hues of some tree barks such as rosewood, for example. Cherry hues and
earthy reds have had symbolic significance for many Asian cultures since
ancient times. In Japan, deep reds were derived from plants such as Rubia
akane (Asian madder) and minerals such as cinnabar, which had deep
mystical importance in connection with the fiery life force of the world, being
formed from volcanic activity. Red pigments have been used in clothing and
makeup, and as lacquer for earthenware and jewellery since the earliest days.
Today, drapes of cinnabar red still protect the gates of Shinto shrines.
In Christian times, red came to symbolize the blood of Christ; from the
13th century, cardinals in the Catholic church wore a red hat to denote their
holy status. The tide turned against the shade during the Protestant
Reformation, however, when it came to be seen as the colour of sin, in
particular that of lust, and was connected with promiscuity.
 Nevertheless, bright reds have remained in vogue, worn by emperors and
royalty, and more recently seen on the carpets walked by stars, as well as on
the underside of the seductive Louboutin shoes that often tread them.
Traditional earthy reds, meanwhile, should not be overlooked. Stabilizing
and grounded, these tones remain vital and bring a balanced energy to
today’s palettes.

Colours in this chapter:

Red Ochre

Safflower

Scarlet

Carmine

Vermillion

Iro-Urushi

Madder

Blood Red

Hot Tomato

Rosewood

Reactive Red

Radiant Red
 Red Ochre

Colour Values
Hex code: #963522
RGB: 59, 21, 13
CMYK: 0, 65, 77, 41
HSL: 10, 77%, 59%

Also Known As
• Red Earth
• Red Oxide
• Red Soil

Common Connotations
• Primal
• Natural
• Grounded

Red Ochre in Art, Design & Culture

• Exposed Painting Paynes Grey/Yellow Oxide/Red Oxide on White by Callum Innes, painting, 1999
• ‘Tessera Earthscape’ collection by Forbo Flooring, flooring, 2019
• ‘Red Mud’ project by Studio ThusThat, ceramics, 2020

Then
A pigment used by humans since the dawn of civilization, red ochre is derived
from iron oxide formations. In prehistoric times, we used it to decorate burial
sites, tan hides and make cave paintings. These Late Stone Age paintings are found
all over the world; a testament to the universal instinct to colour – and the stability
of this ancient pigment.
Red ochre enjoyed a long life in the hands of artists. A chalk form was used by
Michelangelo and Rembrandt and it was popular until the 19th century, when
synthetic colours began to be produced. As the consistency of natural earth
pigments varies from one location to another and according to methods of
production, synthetic versions offered more vibrant and repeatable shades.
Synthetic iron oxide pigments were manufactured in shades that are still available
today, including Mars red, Indian red and Venetian and English reds.

Now
This deep red is enjoying a revival, becoming popular in contemporary interiors
and architecture due to its primal associations with the land. In 2016, architects
Ateliers O-S selected rusted steel and shuttered concrete dyed with local iron
oxide for a new educational building in Lugrin, France, creating a material
dialogue with the village’s roofs in red and brown hues.
Iron oxide pigments are also frequently created as a byproduct in the
aluminium-making process, left unused in waste pits, from where they filter into
streams. By making clay bodies, slips and glazes out of this waste, designer Agnė
Kučerenkaitė unearths the value of secondary materials in a world of finite
resources.

Use
Explore the beauty and variation of this earthy red. Combine a balanced palette of
warm tones, including soft honey, bronze and roasted rust shades; ideal for
interiors or objects where a sense of grounded comfort is essential.
Ignorance is Bliss by Agnė Kučerenkaitė, 2016
‘This deep red is enjoying a revival, becoming popular in
contemporary interiors and architecture due to its primal
associations with the land.’

Lugrin School, Lake Geneva, by Ateliers O-S, 2016

 Safflower

Colour Values
Hex code: #b7454d
RGB: 72, 27, 30
CMYK: 0, 63, 57, 28
HSL: 356, 62%, 72%

Also Known As
• Carthamin Red
• Cherry Red
• Beni Red
• Geisha Red

Common Connotations
• Beauty
• Passion
• Ceremony

Safflower in Art, Design & Culture

• Maple Leaves from the series Flowers of Edo by Kitagawa Utamaro, print, c.1803
• A Japanese Woman Józef Pankiewicz, painting, 1908
• Job Parilux: Skin by Li Edelkoort & Anthon Beeke, book, 1997

Then
Safflower is an ancient plant. It was cultivated in Mesopotamia as long ago as 2500
BCE, and in ancient Egypt, where the red and yellow dyes its petals produced were
used to colour textiles: 4,000-year-old mummies have been found with garlands of
safflower. As safflower made its way into Asia and eventually Europe via the Silk
Road, the cherry-red carthamin pigment found wider use, including in cosmetics,
carpet weaving and as a food dye.
Known in Japan as beni, safflower pigment was used in the iconic red lip paint
worn by geishas. The best beni cosmetics had a natural green iridescence until
dissolved in water, at which point they turned vivid red, and when applied to the
lips, the hue could vary from orange to pink depending on the wearer.

Now
Like many plant-based dyes, carthamin red is not lightfast, and it fell out of
widespread use in the 19th century with the advent of synthetic pigments such as
magenta. However, it has made something of a comeback with the contemporary
resurgence of natural dyes. Sachio Yoshioka was the fifth-generation head of the
Somenotsukasa Yoshioka dye workshop in Fushimi, Kyoto, whose work celebrated
the beauty of plant-based dyes and traditional pigments, including beni red.
While traditional beni cosmetics have all but died out – they continue to be
produced in Japan’s single remaining beni shop, Isehan Honten, first established in
1825 – the concept of colour-changing lipstick has lived on. Charlotte Tilbury’s
limited edition Glowgasm lipsticks come in two personalized shades that alter
according to the wearer’s natural complexion, as well as warmth, moisture and pH
level.

Use
Borrow from history and use this alluring red as an eye-catching accent to bring
warmth and energy to contrast cooler-toned backdrops. Consider adopting
several different tints of the shade to honour its colourshifting properties and pay
homage to the historical Japanese fashion of layering colours.

Enjoying a Garden of Peonies by Utagawa Kunisada, 1849–52

 Scarlet

Colour Values
Hex code: #d62220
RGB: 231, 20, 39
CMYK: 0, 97, 85, 0
HSL: 355, 91%, 91%

Also Known As
• Crimson

Common Connotations
• Power
• Confidence
• Desire

Scarlet in Art, Design & Culture

• Red Canna by Georgia O’Keeffe, painting, 1924
• Dior Cosmetics campaign by Guy Bourdin, photography/design, 1972
• The ‘Mini-Crini’ collection by Vivienne Westwood, fashion, S/S 1985

Then
A bombastic flame-red, scarlet arrives with a host of associations – most of them
attached to female sexual activity. But throughout its history, including today,
scarlet has been a much sought-after shade that speaks most strongly of power and
strength.
‘Scarlet’ is a relatively new term for a very old colour. As first used in the 13th
century, the term did not even refer to a colour, but to expensive, brightly
coloured fabric in general. The older name is crimson, deriving like the colour
itself from Kermes, a genus of scale insects. Pigment made from the dried bodies
of female Kermes was known to ancient Mesopotamians, and prized by Ancient
Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, remaining the known world’s number-one red
right up until the 16th century with the discovery of the New World (see
Carmine).
Although scarlet pigments were used in painting, the shade was not lightfast,
so the bright hues originally seen in paintings by the likes of J.W.M. Turner and
Pierre-Auguste Renoir have faded.
Now
In the 19th century, synthetic pigments such as alizarin crimson were invented
and eagerly pounced upon by artists. By the turn of the 20th century, artificial
dyes had also replaced expensive cochineal production. But the shade itself lived
on, perhaps peaking in modern expression in the 1980s with the iconic flame-red
Ferrari and Guy Bourdin’s provocative advertising campaigns for Dior.
As the world has changed, so has the way this powerful shade has been
deployed: in Shepard Fairey’s Hope poster to support Barack Obama’s 2008
election campaign, scarlet underscores the optimistic message. Back on the
catwalks, designers such as Vivienne Westwood, Chanel and newcomers Chromat
have used the tone to signal female empowerment. Chromat’s brightest moments
of their S/S 2020 collection used scarlet as an energizing tour de force.

Use
Liberate the heritage of dress codes by pairing this hot tone with cool slices of sky
blue for a more multicoloured and sensational pairing that oozes modernity.

‘As the world has changed, so has the way this powerful
shade has been deployed.’
Portrait of Elizabeth I by Steven van der Meulen, 1563
Hope by Shepard Fairey, 2008
 Carmine

Colour Values
Hex code: #841422
RGB: 132, 20, 34
CMYK: 30, 100, 79, 37
HSL: 353, 85%, 52%

Also Known As
• Cochineal
• Crimson Lake

Common Connotations
• Prestige
• Abundance
• Natural

Carmine in Art, Design & Culture

• The Incredulity of Saint Thomas by Caravaggio, painting, c.1601–2
• Ready-to-Wear collection by Clover Canyon, fashion, A/W 2016
• Untitled by Julie Lænkholm, textile artwork, 2018

Then
In Europe, the most vibrant red pigments were rare and expensive to obtain, but
in the Americas, a scale insect called cochineal, similar to the European Kermes,
had been cultivated by Mesoamerican cultures since at least the 3rd century BCE
to make vivid red dyes, which were liberally used. When the Spanish
conquistadors arrived in the 16th century, they were amazed by the Aztecs’ scarlet,
and after their conquest of the new territory, they began shipping the insects back
to Europe.
Cochineal red was cheaper to produce than Kermes (though it still required
70,000 insects to make a pound of dye), more dazzling in intensity and more
versatile in hue, as well as being lightfast. The brilliant new pigment was an instant
hit, worn by royalty, the noble elite and officers of the British Empire.

Now
Largely replaced by modern chemical colourants, today cochineal red is known as
carmine and mainly used as a food colouring. However, the hue has attained a
new relevance in a world where environmentalism is on the agenda and
traditional dyes like carmine are celebrated for their natural qualities. Danish
artist Julie Lænkholm highlights the value of organic colours, using historical
methods to treat materials such as wool and silk with natural dyes, including
carmine.

Use
Cochineal dye was originally celebrated for the scarlet reds it produced, but it was
capable of creating a much wider range of reddish hues. Try out a monochromatic
palette to explore the tonal depth that natural reds can provide, along with a
gentler quality not always associated with the colour group.
Textile fragment, Recuay culture, Peru, 4th–6th century CE
 Vermillion

Colour Values
Hex code: #d6441b
RGB: 214, 68, 27
CMYK: 10, 84, 97, 2
HSL: 13, 87%, 84%

Also Known As
• Sindoor
• Cinnabar
• Chinese Red

Common Connotations
• Strength
• Devotion
• Luxury

Vermillion in Art, Design & Culture

• Battre les Blancs avec le Coin Rouge by El Lissitzky, lithograph, 1919
• Graphics Standards Manual by New York City Transit Authority, book/graphic design, 1970
• My Moon II by Hayoon Jay Lee, mixed-media artwork, 2016

Then
A bright red derived from the oxidized mercury ore cinnabar, vermillion has had
strong symbolic associations in many cultures throughout its long and widespread
use. In ancient Rome, vermillion was associated with blood and war – victorious
generals painted their faces with it for triumphal processions – but it was used in
many other forms of decoration, including frescos and cosmetics. The name
comes from the Latin vermis, meaning ‘worm’, linking it with the reds made from
insects such as the Kermes that yielded scarlet.
In China, the readily available pigment was celebrated in a variety of forms
including calligraphic ink and cosmetics, but most notably in the lacquer known
as Chinese red used on beautifully detailed boxes and other objects. In ancient
Indian practice, a husband would mark his new wife’s forehead with a spot of the
vermillion dye, called sindoor, on their wedding day as a sign of her devotion to
him. Still in use today, though now made from less harmful ingredients, the dye
has become increasingly linked with misogyny and patriarchal control.
Now
One of the first pigments to be synthesized when ancient China learned how to
make it from mercury and sulphur, today vermillion has been replaced by modern
synthetic pigments such as cadmium red (see Vermillion). Even so, the colour is
still making history, thanks to Christian Louboutin’s legal battle to trademark the
Chinese red soles of its shoes. The colour (Pantone 18-1663TP), inspired by the
distinctive Chinese lacquerware, joins a handful of others – including Tiffany’s
blue and UPS’s brown – to gain this protected status.

Use
Ideal for striking graphics and wayfinding signage. Used with black and white,
vermillion still has a place in the modern world in creating striking high-contrast
combinations.
Composition No. III; Composition with Red, Yellow and Blue by Piet Mondrian, 1927
 Iro-Urushi

Colour Values
Hex code: #330909
RGB: 20, 4, 4
CMYK: 0, 82, 82, 80
HSL: 0, 82%, 20%

Common Connotations
• Depth
• Timeless
• Quality

Iro-Urushi in Art, Design & Culture

• Two red lacquer Mingei-style bowls by Kado Isaburo, lacquerware, 1989
• Screen by Anish Kapoor, sculpture, 2008

Then
Iro-urushi is a type of art lacquer used for millennia in Japan, China, Korea and
other South Asian countries. By carefully processing the sap of Toxicodendron
vernicifluum – commonly known as the Chinese lacquer tree, or urushi in Japan –
and adding pigments, a limited palette was created. While not a colour in itself
(iro-urushi simply means ‘colour lacquer’), the most significant shades were red
and black, which could be used in combination to striking effect.
Japanese artisans layered black and red-tinged, semi-transparent lacquers,
sometimes up to 60 coats, each one meticulously dried and polished before the
next was begun. The effect is not only decorative but has preservative properties as
well: 9,000-year-old objects have been found with evidence of the lacquer still
present.

Now
The long history of lacquer and the skilful coatings of iro-urushi have been crucial
to developments in materials and design. The process laid the foundations for the
development of enamelling and lacquering processes that are still used today to
create lustrous colours. Contemporary urushi artist Genta Ishizuka explores the
technique’s surface qualities and mesmerizing depth effects in his totemic moiré
redto-black sculptures.

Use
Layer semi-transparent dark red shades with glossy, textured black accents to
evoke a traditional aesthetic that speaks of an age-old quality. Ideal for timeless
branding and lithography techniques.

Surface Tactility #12 by Genta Ishizuka, 2019

 Madder

Colour Values
Hex code: #a34836
RGB: 64, 28, 21
CMYK: 0, 56, 67, 36
HSL: 10, 67%, 64%

Also Known As
• Turkish/Turkey Red
• Rose Madder
• Purpurin
• Alizarin

Common Connotations
• Humble
• Traditional
• Ecological

Madder in Art, Design & Culture

• Casa Della Venere, Pompeii, fresco, c. 79 CE
• ‘Woman in a sari with peacock and floral border’ by Archibald Orr Ewing and Co. blockprinted textile,
c.1870s
• ‘Strawberry Thief ’ by William Morris for Morris & Co. printed furnishing textile, 1883

Then
The climbing herb known as the madder plant was first encountered by early
civilizations in Asia and the Middle East. More than 3,500 years ago, people were
boiling the ruddy madder roots to extract purpurin and alizarin, natural plant
dyes used to colour fabrics, paint walls and make art.
From the 13th century, madder was cultivated for use in dyes in Europe, but
the often-muddy reds that faded in light were less revered than expensive
alternatives such as the scarlet produced from the Kermes insect. When a new
madder dye known as Turkish red – confusingly, it was originally developed in
India – began to be imported from the Ottoman Empire in the 18th century,
European dyers were desperate to reproduce the rich colour, but they were never
able to discover the secrets of its production.
Now
The synthetization of the colour was driven by the vast quantity of roots required
to produce the colour, as demand increased along with population and wealth.
The chemical form, still available today, is known as alizarin crimson. Recently
however, a growing awareness of environmental issues within the dye industry,
such as water pollution and the finitude of resources, have led to sustainable
methods of dyeing and colouring being widely investigated again. The result is a
revival in the use of many traditional, plant-based dyes including madder.

Use
Dip into the colour’s natural variations towards orange and rose, or pair with an
energizing accent of yolk yellow as a vibrant signal of innovation.

Pharoah Ramses I with the god Anubis, Valley of the Kings, Luxor, Egypt, 19th dynasty
 Blood Red

Colour Values
Hex code: #78001b
RGB: 120, 0, 27
CMYK: 31, 100, 79, 45
HSL: 347, 100%, 47%

Also Known As
• Dragons Blood

Common Connotations
• Sacrifice
• Passion
• Mortality

Blood Red in Art, Design & Culture

• The Last Judgement by Hieronymus Bosch, painting, c.1482
• Hermès flagship store, London, UK by Studio Toogood, interior design, 2013
• Womenswear collection by Antonio Berardi, fashion, S/S 2015

Then
Sacrifice, violence, courage, pain: blood red’s history is a visceral and symbolic
one. Animal blood was even occasionally used as an actual source of colour in
medieval European art. Symbolic blood reds – those used for colouring the fires of
hell, the Devil’s sanguine form and the coats or feathers of infernal creatures –
were more often than not painted with the same pigment commonly called
‘dragon’s blood’, which was brought to Europe via the Incense Route in ancient
times.
In the Middle Ages, the colour was sometimes believed to come from actual
dragons – or at least elephants. The red pigment of cinnabar was also occasionally
referred to as ‘dragon’s blood’ on account of its volcanic origins. But ‘true’ dragon’s
blood is extracted from the resin of trees of the Dracaena genus, native to Africa
and southern Asia.

Now
Scientific research has shown that red speeds up our heart rate, blood flow and
body temperature; no wonder it’s closely associated with passionate forms of
expression. Mexican artist Frida Kahlo was preoccupied with the symbolic
properties of colour. Blood red frequently punctuates her paintings, from the
embroidery on her blouse to the gushing of blood from the veins of her severed
heart in Self-Portrait; Memory AKA the Heart, a pictorial expression of the anguish
felt after learning that her husband had had an affair.

Use
Create a symbolic palette with blood red by pairing it with other essential life-
affirming shades such as sea green and grass green in a split-complementary
palette.

Self-Portrait; Memory AKA the Heart by Frida Kahlo, 1937

 Hot Tomato

Colour Values
Hex code: #ff6844
RGB: 255, 104, 68
CMYK: 0, 70, 71, 0
HSL: 12, 73%, 100%

Also Known As
• Tomato Red
• Cadmium Red

Common Connotations
• Confidence
• Celebratory
• Playful

Hot Tomato in Art, Design & Culture

• Mexico City 1968 Olympics design concept by Lance Wyman, graphic design, 1968
• Untitled (Cadmium) Jean-Michel Basquiat, painting, 1984
• Carnival by Bridget Riley, painting, 2000
• Halo chair by Michael Sodeau, furniture, 2014

Then
The quest to produce the colour of choice – whether a bright, lasting red or a
mesmerizing sky blue – has driven chemists to invent an ever-widening palette of
pigments. In the 18th century a glut of synthetic pigments was produced,
including the cadmium family, which created a warm family of shades from
yellow through to red. Cadmium red was produced commercially from 1919 –
replacing the older, toxic vermillion – and enjoyed by artists for its opacity,
brightness and lightfast nature.
The vibrant tone was used by designers of the 1960s and ’70s to add impact and
a sensational ‘hot’ appeal; orange-red pigment became a playmate of epoxy resin
and polyurethane. Italian manufacturers such as Vitra, B&B Italia and Kartell
brought the shade to mainstream highend interiors, and as advances in plastic
moulding took off, industrial designer Joe Colombo took tomato red to new levels
in modern lighting and seating designs. Graphic designer Lance Wyman deployed
a celebratory palette of hot tomato, lavender and grass green for his Mexico City
1968 Olympic logo and brand designs.

Now
The enormous applications in industrial processes are particularly significant for
cadmium red. The colour was one of the first mass-manufactured and accepted
consumer colours, perhaps an early indicator of the coming world of ‘fast-moving
consumer goods’ (FMCG). This modern hue is now well-established on the
palettes of artists. Bridget Riley’s dazzling colour works frequently involve the use
of contrasting tones to induce movement and playful shifts, with hot colours like
tomato red taking an active role.

Use
Tomato is at home among other joyful colours. Take cues from Wyman’s bright
palette to create appealing, almost mouth-watering prints and graphics.
 Model 4801 armchair, lacquered and bent plywood, by Joe Colombo for Kartell, 1964

‘When I eat a tomato, I look at it the way anyone else

would. But when I paint a tomato, then I see it differently.’
– Henri Matisse
 Rosewood

Colour Values
Hex code: #b83a3e
RGB: 184, 58, 62
CMYK: 20, 87, 70, 11
HSL: 358, 69%, 72%

Common Connotations
• Luxury
• Status
• Competence

Rosewood in Art, Design & Culture

• Lounge Chair and Ottoman by Charles Eames, furniture, 1956
• Rosewood Cabinet series for Herman Miller by George Nelson, furniture, 1956
• The Nest, Warsaw by Beza Projekt, interior design, 2018

Then
The use of the ruddy hardwoods collectively known as rosewood can be traced
back to the elaborately grainmatched cabinet pieces from the Ming period in
China, but it was its common use in the mid-century modern design palette that
ensures its relevance in interior design today.
Mid-century designers such as Knoll and Herman Miller incorporated
luxurious, attractive materials such as marble, thick glass, teak and rosewood to
underscore status in office design. The wood-clad lounge chair and ottoman
designed by Charles Eames in the late 1950s became a standout symbol of
achievement, especially in the ambitious offices of corporate America.

Now
Unfortunately, the popularity of rosewood has led to disastrous logging in the
forests of Madagascar and Brazil. According to the United Nations Office on
Drugs and Crime, rosewood, now a protected species, is currently the most
trafficked form of flora or fauna in the world. Alternatives are available by treating
ethically sourced wood with plant-based stains such as that from alkanet, whose
red roots produce a vibrant hue.
 Inspired by the diverse patterns and structures that can be found in the timber
from a single tree, Dutch craftsman Ward Wijnant combines different grains with
colour to create new products that are mindful of wasting this precious resource.

Use
A modern palette of rosewood stain, dove grey and cream will bring a sense of
warmth and accomplishment to professional spaces.

From the BLEND project by Ward Wijnant, 2018

 Reactive Red

Colour Values
Hex code: #ff323b
RGB: 255, 50, 59
CMYK: 0, 88, 69, 0
HSL: 357, 80%, 100%

Also Known As
• Signal Red

Common Connotations
• Danger
• Warning
• Urgency

Reactive Red in Art, Design & Culture

• Exit by Doug Aitken, artwork, 2014
• React Element 55 by Nike, footwear, 2018

Then
Red gives a strong signal, creating a reaction in both the natural and human
world: a fully saturated red commands us to pay attention and watch out.
Biological theory suggests red has evolved as nature’s warning in plants and
animals because it stands out most vividly against green foliage.
In 20th-century America, the increased production of personal automobiles
demanded increased safety measures, so in 1913, engineer James Hoge tapped
into the electricity that ran through the trolley lines of streetcars and rigged up
bright red stoplights, with an opposite green light for ‘go’. Since then, these
colourful cues have become ubiquitous symbols. In branding and advertising, red
ink was initially adopted for emphasis or the easy identification of information,
and science backs the logic up: the receptors for red colours in human eyes are
clustered near the centre, where the sharpest images are formed.

Now
Artist, singer and environmentalist Beatie Wolfe’s recent work From Green to Red
is a protest piece created for the 2020 London Biennale (rescheduled to 2021 due
to Covid-19). Harnessing 800,000 years’ worth of data, gathered by NASA, the
audio-visual installation tracks human impact on the planet through time by
visualizing CO2 concentrations. As visitors approach, the visual timeline evolves
from living green to vivid red.

Use
Use graded intensities of this searing hue to indicate the level of urgency or
significance of critical information.
From Green to Red by Beatie Wolfe, 2018
 Radiant Red

Colour Values
Hex code: #ff3403
RGB: 255, 52, 3
CMYK: 0, 86, 93, 0
HSL: 12, 99%, 100%

Also Known As
• Red Light
• LED Red

Common Connotations
• Warmth
• Healing
• Relaxation

Radiant Red in Art, Design & Culture

• Living Colours by Philips, lighting design, 1990s

Then
It is known that blue light – emitted from devices like mobile phones – can disrupt
our sleep cycles, but can red light help us get a better night’s sleep? Recent studies
suggest that exposing ourselves to red LED light before bedtime may help us wake
up feeling more refreshed.
In 1876, Augustus Pleasonton published The Influence of the Blue Ray of the
Sunlight and of the Blue Colour of the Sky. The idea of using coloured light to treat
physiological conditions dates back thousands of years. In Ayurvedic practice,
colours are linked to the seven sacred chakras which, when they become
unbalanced, are believed to cause bodily disfunction. His work on coloured light
led to modern day ‘chromotherapy’ – dismissed by most as a pseudoscience. In
1893, however, Danish scientist Niels Finsen devoted himself to photobiology,
studying how coloured light could be used to treat skin diseases. In 1903, he was
awarded a Nobel Prize for his work.

Now
In 1993, Quantum Devices, inc. developed a light-emitting diode (LED) for
NASA. The project demonstrated that red LED wavelengths could boost plant
growth, but it was noted that scientists’ skin lesions began to heal faster as well.
NASA subsequently began to study the use of LEDs to increase the metabolism of
human cells and stem the loss of bone and muscle in astronauts.
In the design world, red light is being harnessed in more evocative ways. In
2019, Mandalaki Design Studio produced a stunning circular projection in a
sunset-red colour, cutting out white light wavelengths to produce extraordinarily
saturated colours.

Use
Explore radiant red’s warmth and intensity by combining it with an equally
vibrant yellow; beneficial for environments where people need an energizing
pause.

Halo Edition by Mandalaki Studio. Model: Halo ONE

___________
* Dreiskemper et al, 2013, quoted in ‘Seeing Red at the Olympics’, Oxford Psychology Team, 1 September 2016
Orange

A secondary colour that sits between high-energy red and cheerful yellow,
orange is the ultimate warm colour with no cool undertones, making it a
fantastic counterbalance shade for colour harmonies and contrast alike. From
emotive peach to activating tangerine and iconic copper, orange has a truly
diverse modern appeal.
The colour orange had no specific name in English until the 16th century.
There is evidence of the use of geoluhread (yellow-red) in Old English, and
early medieval records reference the sun, marigold and the colour of King
Herod’s hair. Orange dyes were for centuries extremely difficult to produce, as
a 17th-century account suggests: ‘Take two ounces of orleans yellow, put it
overnight in water together with one ounce of post ashes: boil it up, add to it,
after it has boil’d half an hour, one ounce of powdered cuccumi, stir it with a
stick.’* In Europe, orange only really began to take off as a separate colour
family after the introduction of the eponymous exotic fruits, which were
brought to European shores by early traders in the 16th century. These first
oranges weren’t always edible and were used as medicinal cleaners, fashion
statements and even invisible ink.
The colour really came into its own with the invention of stable and
synthesized orange pigments such as cadmium and chrome orange. Its high
visibility makes it a popular choice in the modern world for lifeboats and
safety equipment, and it is also widely worn by cyclists, road workers and
even crew members of the International Space Station.
Scientific studies have shown that exposure to bright orange light can
improve cognition and alertness, positively influencing the human circadian
rhythm. Exposure to a less chromatic amber light in the evenings can trigger
melatonin production to encourage relaxation.
Orange is also responsible for one of the most potent contrasts in the
colour spectrum: without orange, there would be no counter to blue. From
impressionism to abstraction, artists have played with this vibrating colour
combination to frame compositions and trigger an immediate response.
Contemporary filmmakers regularly tint frames in orange or peach to spark
emotional reactions in audiences, and the ubiquitous blue/orange contrast is
a design trope that can be seen on film posters from Avatar to Dunkirk.

Colours in this chapter:

Yellow-Red

Dutch Orange

Amber

Tangerine

Terracotta

Peach

Copper

Coral

High-Vis Orange
 Yellow-Red

Colour Values
Hex code: #dd5114
RGB: 221, 81, 20
CMYK: 7, 78, 100, 1
HSL: 18, 91%, 87%

Common Connotations
• Enlivening
• Hopeful
• Energizing

Yellow-Red in Art, Design & Culture

• Monhegan, Maine by Nicholas Roerich, painting, 1922
• Sunrise over the Eastern Sea by Fujishima Takeji, painting, 1932
• Landscape 60 by Robert Roth, painting, 2013

Then
Yellow-red is a hue comprising equal measures of its two constituent colours. Until
the 16th century – when the orange fruit started making its way from China into
Europe – this range of colours didn’t have a name in English or any European
language, which all use names derived from the Sanskrit word for ‘orange tree’.
Until the fruit ushered in a new recognition of the colour, ‘yellow-red’, or variants
of geoluhread, was common terminology in languages across Europe. Curiously,
there is still no word in Chinese for the colour.
Conversely, Japanese, which has always had a more nuanced colour vocabulary
than English, often links colour with visual associations and experiences. In
Japanese, many names for orange also reference the fruit, but there is also
akebono-iro, meaning ‘dawn-colour’, used to describe the bright yellow-red shade
of sunlight, just as it emerges from the horizon in the morning.

Now
The transforming nature of the sky at dawn and dusk, and the power of the sun’s
colour, has captivated artists and designers for millennia – and it’s a sight we are
still drawn to. Colour field painter Barnett Newman worked with expanses of
modern yellow-red cadmium pigment, and contemporary American painter
Robert Roth uses the same pigment with bright amber and soft rose in his semi-
abstract horizon canvases. Today, yellow-red’s legacy can still be seen in interior
paint charts, with modern names such as ‘Fiery Sunset’ and ‘Orange Aurora’.

Use
Secondary yellow-red can create a memorable visual statement that is less harsh
than its primary counterparts. Combine saturated yellow-red with pale peach and
soft rose to make a creative combination that’s easy on the eye.

Who’s Afraid of Red, Yellow and Blue III by Barnett Newman, 1967–8
 Dutch Orange

Colour Values
Hex code: #b15519
RGB: 177, 85, 25
CMYK: 23, 72, 99, 14
HSL: 24, 86%, 69%

Common Connotations
• Royalty
• Luxury
• Warmth

Dutch Orange in Art, Design & Culture

• Venus and the Lute Player by Titian, painting, c.1565–70
• Four Generations of the Princes of Orange attributed to Pieter Nason, painting, c.1660–2
• Apollo and Aurora by Gerard de Lairesse, painting, 1671
• Hermès packaging, branding, since 1942

Then
This deep hue has a special place in the national identity of the Netherlands. As
Dutch folklore has it, farmers in the 16th century began to develop and cultivate
orange varieties of carrot, previously purple, as a show of support for William of
Orange, one of the leaders of the revolt against the ruling Habsburgs. While this
national mythology is likely just that, the story shows the strength of the country’s
affinity with the colour. The Dutch royal family still wears it to this day, as does its
national football team, and the national flag even began as orange, white and blue,
and is only thought to have changed to red, white and blue due to a lack of
available stable orange pigments.

Now
Allegedly, the only paperboard available during the Second World War that
French fashion house Hermès could make their boxes from was a faded orange. A
makeshift symbol of elegance, the colour’s links with luxury still stand firm today,
with a more stable shade now firmly embedded as an icon of the brand.

Use
Deeper oranges have an embedded sense of warmth and luxury that offer brands a
distinguishable and memorable colour. Try pairing with the opposite tone, ice
blue, and soft black for a brand identity that communicates tradition and
excellence.

A Vase of Flowers by Willem Van Aelst, 1663

 Amber

Colour Values
Hex code: #c47114
RGB: 196, 113, 20
CMYK: 19, 60, 100, 8
HSL: 32, 90%, 77%

Common Connotations
• Beauty
• Vitality
• Protection

Amber in Art, Design & Culture

• Ruby Conical Intersection with Amber Sphere by Harvey Littleton, sculpture, 1984
• Limited edition PH 3/2 Amber Coloured Glass Floor Lamp by Louis Poulsen, lighting, 2019
• Soda table by Yiannis Ghikas for Miniforms, furniture, 2020

Then
Often found washed up on the Baltic shoreline – the original location of the vast
conifer woodlands that produced the substance – the solidified tree gum known as
amber was first believed to have originated in the sea. In Polish mythology, these
washed-up pieces of amber are said to be remnants of the destroyed underwater
palace of the sea goddess Jurata.
Perhaps the most famous use of the radiant orange material was the Amber
Room, a chamber decorated in exquisite amber panelling, commissioned by
Frederick William I of Prussia in the early 18th century as a gift to Peter the Great
of Russia. The panels were dismantled and removed from Leningrad (now St
Petersburg) by Nazi forces during the Second World War, and were subsequently
lost.

Now
In China, amber’s significance as a good luck charm led to what has been
described as a modern-day gold rush for amber in the early 21st century. In
design, the colour’s rarefied glow and warmth is ideal for lighting and interiors,
and mid-century design classics have long paired the warming shade with brushed
brass details.
Use
Connect with the colour’s symbolic links to the natural world and its ability to
captivate and support. Combine the warm tone with soil browns, deep reds and
comforting cream for an energizing, earthy palette ideal for ambient interior
spaces.

The Amber Room at Tsarskoye Selo, Russia

 Tangerine

Colour Values
Hex code: #ff7e00
RGB: 255, 126, 0
CMYK: 0, 60, 94, 0
HSL: 30, 100%, 100%

Common Connotations
• Refreshing
• Optimistic
• Active

Tangerine in Art, Design & Culture

• ‘Volution’ by Peter Hall for Heals, printed furnishing textile, 1969
• Camaleonda Sofa by Mario Bellini for B&B Italia, furniture, 1972
• Pools – Ritz Carlton Coconut Grove [Miami] by Sarah Morris, painting, 2002

Then
Like a shot of vitamin C, tangerine has a bright and healthy feel about it. The
colour name recalls the etymology of ‘orange’ itself, which came directly from the
fruit tree after it was imported to Europe in the 16th century. Nonetheless,
tangerine is a thoroughly modern colour, with an opaqueness not possible without
high-performance synthetic pigments such as quinacridone orange.
Popular in interiors and product design in the 1960s and ’70s, euphoric
tangerine was part of a chromatic departure from sombre post-war conservatism.
Robin Day’s injection-moulded polypropylene school chairs added freshness to
the classroom and underscored orange as a useful shade in educational
environments. The bright synthetic tone went on to be used by brands such as
Brionvega to replace an austere palette of greys. Furnishing company Heals
created arresting abstract patterns for printed textiles in the colour, and other
relics of the time – lava lamps, platform shoes and bulbous space-age sofas –
became awash with the shade.

Now
Despite its retro design past, tangerine has proven to be a colour with purpose and
staying power in contemporary design. Recent studies suggest exposure to bright
orange light increases mental activity, possibly indicating its true vocation in
human- and learningcentred applications. British artist Sarah Morris uses
chromatic opposites, including saturated cyan and tangerine, to create bombastic,
hyperbolic effects on her canvases.

Use
Tangerine is a flexible and creative shade. Couple with muted oranges and soft
pinks for a serene yet energizing interior design scheme. For contrast and clarity
on digital interfaces, a stimulating union with chromatic cyan on a clean white
background could help vital information stand out.

Foldable transistor radio by Marco Zanuso for Brionvega, 1964

 Terracotta

Colour Values
Hex code: #c36d4c
RGB: 195, 109, 76
CMYK: 19, 63, 70, 8
HSL: 17, 61%, 76%

Common Connotations
• Earthy
• Expressive
• Enduring

Terracotta in Art, Design & Culture

• A River God by Giambologna, sculpture, c.1575
• Fields for the British Isles by Anthony Gormley, installation art, 2019
• Aura Vases in Apricot by Schneid Studio, ceramics, 2020

Then
A brownish-orange shade with a soft pink undertone, this colour is named after
the earthenware clay, the distinct shade of which comes from its iron content
reacting with oxygen when heated. Early terracotta artefacts were left out to be
baked by the sun, while in more modern techniques, the material is fired in kilns
or open pits.
In 1974, a discovery beneath rural rice fields near Xi’an in China became an
extraordinary testament to the material’s ability to transcend time: entombed
underground was an army of terracotta warriors from the 3rd century BCE. The
life-size figures depicted over 8,000 soldiers, along with horses, chariots and non-
military figures. As the ochre paints that originally covered them dried up and
flaked off, the terracotta was returned to its raw state.

Now
Terracotta’s utility means it has never really been out of style. Ornate Victorian-era
facades stand as a monument to bygone craftsmanship. In modern architecture,
it’s still common for elements such as roof tiles and bricks to be left unglazed due
to the material’s natural durability and attractive colour. Today, many
contemporary architects use the material to keep modern buildings cool,
demonstrating that what’s old is new when it comes to creating enduring features.

Use
Earthy terracotta brings natural warmth and comfort to environments and can
enhance even the coolest of rooms or areas. Pair the shade with sandy neutrals
and soft pinks.

Ornate terracotta columns on the exterior of the Henry Cole Wing of the Victoria & Albert Museum, South
Kensington, London, 1871
 Peach

Colour Values
Hex code: #fdd0ae
RGB: 253, 208, 174
CMYK: 0, 24, 33, 0
HSL: 26, 31%, 99%

Common Connotations
• Indulgent
• Nurturing
• Romantic

Peach in Art, Design & Culture

• Boy with a Basket of Fruit by Caravaggio, painting, c.1593
• The Rider (L’Ecuyère) by Richard Ranft, print, 1898
• Gopuram table by Ettore Sottsass, furniture, 1986

Then
A warm, fresh orange-pink, peach – another orange shade to be named after a
fruit – is the ultimate symbol of indulgence and pleasure. Inextricable from its
associations with the sweet and velvety fruit, peach has become linked with the
aesthetics of all things romantic, and particularly with the Art Nouveau movement
at the turn of the 20th century. Czech artist Alphonse Mucha deployed large
expanses of peach, soft red and muted pink in his stylized theatrical posters that
became icons of the movement. In works including Au Quartier Latin, he uses
contrasting accents of subdued eau de Nil green to draw your eye around the
composition and around the graceful detail of the female figure. When
compositions use reduced contrasts, and colour qualities are constrained, our eyes
may be better able to register subtle details in the image.

Now
Today, this colour is still well-employed in film, often playing a supporting role
where saturated colours take the lead in cinematic scenes. In Spike Jonze’s 2013
film Her, the visual backdrops of urban sprawl are purposefully desaturated.
Vibrant pinky-peach and warm red tones are used to draw attention to the main
character, Theodore, and the amorous connection he has with Samantha, the
intelligent computer system.

Use
Nurturing peach has an organic and warm quality, which can be combined with
soft browns to create a harmonious palette for modern products. Emphasis can be
added with saturated rusty orange accents to convey a more human
communicative function or quality.

Au Quartier Latin – Numéro Exceptionnel by Alphonse Mucha, 1897

 Copper

Colour Values
Hex code: #d78152
RGB: 215, 129, 82
CMYK: 13, 56, 70, 3
HSL: 21, 62%, 84%

Common Connotations
• Captivating
• Advancement
• Warmth

Copper in Art, Design & Culture

• ‘Still’ collection by Studio Formafantasma, homeware, 2014
• Chair, from Copper series by Max Lamb, furniture, 2015
• Dans un verre by Marie Lund, sculpture, 2017

Then
A rosy golden hue named after the naturally occurring metal element, copper can
range from reddish to buttery in colour, due to the metal’s reflective qualities.
Copper has been known to and used by humanity since ancient times; it was
employed by the Sumerian and Chaldean civilizations to make artworks, armour
and various useful objects. And copper is an essential component of the harder
alloy, bronze, which gives its name to the era of technological advancement that
began in 3000 BCE.
The history of copper as a modern design feature really begins with the
Industrial Revolution, which brought copper-piped hot water into homes and
premises, and the naturally evolving patinated surface of the pipes from exposure
to steam subsequently became a sought-after industrial aesthetic. Copper
plumbing was itself nothing new, however, since the ancient Egyptians first
created it long ago – some of which is still in good condition today.

Now
Today, copper appears on everything from plant stands to splashbacks. Industrial
designer Tom Dixon exposed the graceful, highly polished and wonderfully
malleable side of the colour, bringing copper’s reflective glow to global interiors. In
2014, the brand’s Design Research Studio kitted out the lobby of London’s
Mondrian hotel (now Sea Containers London) with an all-encompassing copper
design, referencing the hull of a ship.
Ghanaian contemporary artist El Anatsui works primarily with recycled or
found metal to create his ‘assemblages’. In Many Came Back (2005), he wove
copper wire together with flattened bottle tops to create a fabric-like tapestry,
referencing the role of liquor trading in the transatlantic slave trade.

Use
Patinated copper has a wealth of natural warmth and an inherently diverse palette.
Experiment with metallic and non-metallic nuances of warm coppers with rusty
red and charcoal black for an approachable look and feel.

Mondrian Hotel, London, by Design Research Studio, 2014

 Coral

Colour Values
Hex code: #ff8765
RGB: 255, 135, 101
CMYK: 0, 59, 58, 0
HSL: 13, 60%, 100%

Common Connotations
• Wondrous
• Protection
• Approachable

Coral in Art, Design & Culture

• Wristband up24 by Yves Béhar for Jawbone, 2013
• Pantone 16-1546 ‘Living Coral’ Pantone Colour of the Year, design, 2019
• Ready-to-Wear collection by Stella McCartney, fashion, S/S 2021

Then
The name of this mid-tone pinky orange has its origins in the colourful skeletons
formed by reef-dwelling organisms. Early Mesopotamian civilizations are known
to have dived to retrieve the glowing stems for use in jewellery, while ancient
Romans believed that wearing coral gave one the ability to resist evil and
temptation. This association persisted, with Italian masters such as Cecco di Pietro
depicting baby Jesus wearing a coral amulet in the 14th century.
Coral as a material became hugely fashionable in Europe in the 19th century,
coinciding with a period of extended colonial exploration (and exploitation) of
areas of the world where coral was commonly found. By the 1960s and ’70s, coral
had taken a step away from high society to become a serviceable colour of public
toilet tiles and retro cocktail chairs.

Now
In design, the colour can offer a more approachable and versatile functionality
than brighter oranges. Utilized by technology brands such as Google Nest and
Jawbone, coral’s friendly nature helps with the acceptance of digital information
yet is vibrant enough to bring attention to important messages.
Use
The amount of pink in the shade makes it easier on the eye than many other
functional oranges. Used with a palette of complementary deep teal, pale wood
and golden yellow, coral’s natural warmth offers a thoroughly modern approach to
support-focused interior environments or products.

Madonna and Child with Donors, by Cecco di Pietro, detail, 1386

 High-Vis Orange

Colour Values
Hex code: #ff9200
RGB: 255, 146, 0
CMYK: 0, 51, 93, 0
HSL: 34, 100%, 100%

Common Connotations
• Vibrant
• Safety
• Functional

High-Vis Orange in Art, Design & Culture

• Study from The Human Body by Francis Bacon, painting, 1982
• The Last Rainforest by Keith Haring, painting, 1989
• ‘Remade’ collection by Raeburn, fashion, A/W 2018

Then
A chromatic, glowing orange projects urgency and emergency, from lifeboats to
aircraft black boxes (which are orange to increase their visibility after a disaster).
Orange dayglow fabrics invented in the 1940s by the Switzer Brothers have found
a raft of functional applications since Second World War, including high-contrast
life jackets, parachutes and flotation devices.
The invention of intense cadmium, chrome and quinacridone pigments in the
19th century gave high-vis orange the opportunity to create vibrant colour
contrasts with blue. Artist Francis Bacon used the visceral intensity of this contrast
to highlight his figurative human forms, while in the 1980s Keith Haring produced
screen-prints using the incandescent shade to bring public awareness to important
social and public health issues.

Now
High-vis orange’s capacity to draw attention to vital subject matters is still crucial
today. A fashion brand known for its sustainable mindset, Raeburn creates cold-
weather outfitting reusing original high-vis fabrics created during the Second
World War. Glowing and perfectly functional, they highlight the need to reuse
materials and avoid waste.
Use
High-vis orange does precisely what it says on the tin. Straightforward and
powerful, pair with other vibrating opposites such as cyan and neon yellow for an
ad campaign that commands full attention. Alternatively, a serious mood can be
created by pairing the shade with achromatic colours for a timeless feel.

Serigraph Montreux Jazz Festival Poster by Keith Haring, 1983

Christopher Raeburn, Fall/Winter 2018/2019, London
___________
* Smith, Godfrey, The Laboratory; or, School of Arts, printed for Stanley Crowder, No. 12, in Paternoster-Row,
and B. Collins, in Salisbury, 1770
Yellow

Yellow is a feast for the eyes, and many of the shades in the family have a
tactility and sensory appeal beyond their simple pigment. When we think of
yellow, we might think of a freshly cut lemon, the spice and warmth of
turmeric or the oozing yolk of a broken egg. We experience these colours at a
deeper level through their texture and taste.
Pure yellow is a primary shade and a vital part of the CMYK printing
technique. From zesty lemons and factory yellow to more buttery nuances,
brown, green and orange all influence yellow tonality. While lighter shades
tend not to be the most practical for certain material uses, yolky and muted
mustards can take some wear and tear.
There were no completely stable yellow pigments until the 20th century.
Lead, arsenic (orpiment), tree sap (gamboge) and even chemical-based
chrome reacted and browned in the sunlight, and almost all had toxic
sideeffects. This frustration for artists and designers was solved with the
creation of synthetic alizarin and azo pigments at the end of the 19th century,
leading to a plethora of stable, transparent and clean dyes and pigments,
including citrustinged hansa yellow and sunny cobalt yellow.
In the modern world, yellow is the colour of emojis, Post-its, taxi-cabs
and signs that alert us to danger or caution. It’s become industrialized and
can be seen as tacky: too much bright yellow can overwhelm spaces.
Nonetheless, it can still be used to great effect to create vibrant and attention-
grabbing graphics. Inherently invigorating, studies have shown yellow can
make us more alert and energized, boost our memory and encourage
communication, giving it great purpose in learning environments.
Natural plant-based dyes are also back on the table; recipes for natural
hues that have survived millennia offer a renewed sustainable purpose to
waste products. These softer, faded yellows are a signifier of a more conscious
consumerism. In our increasingly complex world, yellow still manages to cut
through the noise, a shining beacon of optimism and play, inclusivity, calm
and wellbeing.
Colours in this chapter:
IndianYellow

Turmeric

LemonYellow

FactoryYellow

Imperial Yellow

Faded Sunflower

Wheat

Gold

Mindaro

Marigold
 Indian Yellow

Colour Values
Hex code: #9c7a21
RGB: 156, 122, 33
CMYK: 31, 42, 95, 24
HSL: 43, 79%, 61%

Also Known As
• Turner’s Yellow

Common Connotations
• Welcoming
• Spiritual
• Uplifting

Indian Yellow in Art, Design & Culture

• Krishna Plays his Enchanting Flute, Lahore, Pakistan, c.1780
• Abergavenny Bridge, Monmouthshire by J.M.W. Turner, painting, 1798
• India Yellow, No.66 by Farrow & Ball, paint, 2020

Then
Throughout history, new colours have been invented by accident or opportunity,
and some have been actively pursued, but there are those whose origins remain
mysterious.
We know that Indian yellow originated in 15th-century India and was
imported to Europe in the 17th century, where the uniquely vibrant and lightfast
yellow was much enjoyed by painters. But scant records from the 19th century
reveal the mystery around the method of its making. Snake blood, camel urine
and ox bile were all were suspected components, but one letter suggests that it
came from cowherds (gwalas) feeding their cows exclusively mango leaves and
collecting their urine. Even more strangely, the colour suddenly disappeared from
the market. It was suspected that production had been banned in India due to
issues of animal cruelty towards the cows – but no proof ever surfaced.
In India, yellow can symbolize spiritual attainment, and it is often used in holy
ceremonies and religious clothing. In 15th-century Ragamala paintings that depict
scenes from Hindu hymns, the striking compositions are dominated by yellow.
When Indian yellow arrived on European shores, the imported (and rather pongy)
dried balls of deep golden yellow were evocative of spices, sunshine, heat, flowers
and dirt. The purified pellets created a beautiful sunny watercolour paint: J.M.W.
Turner’s extensive use of it in his watercolour palette was so influential, the colour
sometimes took his name as ‘Turner’s yellow’.

Now
After the original Indian yellow disappeared, it was synthesized in the 20th
century with a shade mimicking the intense golden yellow of the original. Yellow
is still a popular colour in Indian architecture and design today. In 2020, Sanjay
Puri Architects completed a 100-acre development in Rajasthan with a vibrant
and warm colour palette. The use of this sunny yellow on the exteriors gives the
buildings a welcoming glow.

Use
Indian yellow conjures a rich identity when used as a prominent shade. The
colour’s natural saturation levels make it an energizing choice. Try balancing with
deep, warm oranges and reds to create an inviting cosiness for interior spaces.
‘Vasanti Ragini’; page from a Ragamala Series (Garland of Musical Modes), India, c.1710
 Turmeric

Colour Values
Hex code: #dcab1c
RGB: 220, 171, 28
CMYK: 14, 32, 94, 3
HSL: 45, 87%, 86%

Common Connotations
• Sacred
• Sunny
• Authenticity

Turmeric in Art, Design & Culture

• ‘Kalamkari Hanging with Figures in an Architectural Setting’, attributed to Deccan, India, textiles, c.1640–
50
• Study for Homage to the Square: Departing in Yellow by Josef Albers, painting, 1964
• ‘Khadi Frays’ by Sophie Rowley, woven textiles, 2017

Then
Turmeric (Curcuma longa) is part of the same plant family as ginger, and like
ginger, its rhizomes have been valued in folk medicine and used as a preservative
since ancient times. The rich orange-yellow powder, produced by finely grinding
the rhizomes that have first been boiled and then dried in clay ovens, is a much-
loved spice and an important dye throughout its native India and Southeast Asia,
where it is also used as a body paste and a medicine, and is associated with
religious iconography and literature.
Swaying between yellow and orange, turmeric is typically linked with the
purity and spiritual attainment denoted by yellow as well as with protection and
sunlight, signified by orange. Though not a lightfast dye, it has been used for
centuries to colour the robes of Buddhist monks and women’s saris. The 3,500-
yearold sacred Hindu text, the Rig Veda, describes Lord Vishnu weaving the rays
of the sun to make a garment for himself; he and Krishna can be found dressed in
golden yellow in ancient miniatures and frescos.

Now
Although turmeric isn’t one of the most lightfast dyes, it offers a natural alternative
to chemical yellows, with less impact on the environment. In the work of
contemporary maker Sophie Rowley, 10,000 threads are infused with turmeric to
create graceful montages of frayed lines in the architectural textile pieces ‘Khadi
Frays’. The designer unpicks each thread, unravelling traditional weaving
structures and creating new ones.

Use
Yellow doesn’t have to be eye-catching and bold all the time, and turmeric can give
a muted, natural shade to cotton or linen. Team with soft bone-white and earthy
soil shades for a palette that connects back to the colour’s organic origins.

Fabric dyed by Joanna Fowles, 2018

 Lemon Yellow

Colour Values
Hex code: #ebed6f
RGB: 235, 237, 111
CMYK: 14, 0, 66, 0
HSL: 61, 53%, 93%

Also Known As
Hansa Yellow
Arylide Yellow
Monoazo Yellow

Common Connotations
• Zesty
• Healthy
• Inviting

Lemon Yellow in Art, Design & Culture

• Still Life with a Gilt Cup by Willem Claesz. Heda, painting, 1635
• Breton Woman in Prayer by Paul Gauguin, painting, 1894

Then
Believed to have first been cultivated in India or China as a hybrid of the sour
orange and citron fruit, the lemon was introduced to the Middle East around 600–
400 BCE and was spread over the following centuries by Arab traders into other
parts of Asia and Africa. In the 10th and 11th centuries the Moors occupied parts
of southern Europe, bringing the lemon to places like Sicily and Andalusia, and in
the late 1400s, Christopher Columbus took lemon seeds to the New World.
With the creation of new varieties since its exportation into Europe and the
Americas, the lemon began to be adopted more in culinary use, but in most parts
it remained a rare luxury, chiefly enjoyed for its older uses as a medicinal and
decorative fruit. From the 15th century onwards, lemons became important
symbolically for their vibrant hues, like bringing a ray of sunshine into dimly lit
interiors, and were much depicted in Dutch art.
Despite its significance in painting, a stable lemon-yellow pigment wasn’t
invented until 1911, when German chemists developed the bright lemon yellow
arylide lake pigment we now know as Hansa yellow. Previously artists used a
mixture of plant-based concoctions including daffodils, watered down lead-tin
yellow, to mimic citrus tones.

Now
In the 20th century, Henri Matisse picked up the baton from the Dutch and
regularly featured lemons in his bright compositions. He made the most of their
zesty colour in various colour combinations: with its complementary opposite
lavender or pinks, neighbouring greens and oranges or in bold, primary-colour
compositions. Design has also heeded these artists: a bowl of lemons is a
contemporary kitchen cliché – but one that works, bringing a burst of positive
colour to the environment, as well as being a healthy and delicious addition to
many dishes and drinks.

Use
There is something innately appealing about lemon yellow. Clean and bright, it has
a sharp, sophisticated edge; much like the flavour of the fruit itself. A joyful
tetradic palette using turquoise, lavender, lemon yellow, and tomato red is ideal for
outdoor eating and entertaining spaces.
Woman in a Purple Coat by Henri Matisse, 1937
 Factory Yellow

Colour Values
Hex code: #f9dd00
RGB: 249, 221, 0
CMYK: 6, 8, 93, 0
HSL: 53, 100%, 98%

Also Known As
• Canary Yellow

Common Connotations
• Playful
• Attention-grabbing
• Focusing

Factory Yellow in Art, Design & Culture

• Series 7 chair by Arne Jacobsen in ‘True Yellow’ from the ‘A Sense of Colour’ Series by Fritz Hansen,
furniture, 2020

Then
This bold yellow takes its name from munitions factories. During the First World
War, a group of women working in these factories in the UK obtained the
nickname ‘canary girls’ because of exposure to TNT, which can turn the skin an
orange-yellow colour. The shade was utilized in manufacturing environments to
warn of toxic hazards.
To the human eye, a saturated yellow will always look as if it is slightly glowing,
due to its enhanced ability to reflect light. The eye-catching nature of this synthetic
hue has lent itself to use on enamel safety signs, emergency vehicles, taxis and
powder-coated handrails. The company 3M trademarked the use of this signature
yellow on Post-it Notes, helping them to stand out on creative walls around the
world. A common choice for global brands, this bold hue is used by both IKEA
and McDonald’s, where it sits alongside other bright primaries to create maximum
graphic impact.

Now
Inspired by his Nigerian heritage, designer Yinka Ilori used multicoloured batons,
from factory yellow to magenta and sky blue, to create the Colour Palace with
Pricegore architects at London’s Dulwich Pavilion in 2019. In doing so, they
created a piece of temporary architecture that encouraged playful interaction. In
contemporary educational settings, the impact of this bold shade of yellow can be
powerful in creating positive associations with learning. In an optimistic
reinterpretation of the yellow school zone sign, Cottrell and Vermeulen
Architecture used bright yellow to create an immediately recognizable and
colourful identity for a London primary school in 2020.

Use
Thoughtful colour planning can stimulate and help facilitate learning, and yellow
can provoke a feeling of optimism and creativity in educational settings. Apply
this yellow around doorways and seating with natural wood tones to create a light,
airy and inviting space for growing minds.
Bellenden Primary School, Peckham, by Cottrell and Vermeulen Architecture, 2020
‘To the human eye, a saturated yellow will always look as
if it is slightly glowing.’

The Colour Palace for the Dulwich Picture Gallery, London by Yinka Ilori, 2019
 Imperial Yellow

Colour Values
Hex code: # f5cc5e
RGB: 245, 204, 94
CMYK: 0, 18, 70, 5
HSL: 44, 62%, 96%

Common Connotations
• Sophistication
• Distinction
• Heritage

Imperial Yellow in Art, Design & Culture

• Lady in Yellow (Eleanor Reeves) by Susan Watkins, painting, 1902
• Renault Morphoz electric concept car, automotive, 2020

Then
The symbolism of imperial yellow has its origins in the regal robes worn by
Chinese emperors. The earliest record of a certain shade of yellow being reserved
for imperial use was under the rule of Emperor Gaozong of the Tang dynasty
(618–907 CE). Records of palace inventories reveal the particular yellow used to
dye royal robes was harvested from plants including native pagoda buds, and was
then fixed with alum. Yellow, along with azure blue, red, white and blue-black, is
part of the Five Elements Theory, an important concept in Chinese philosophy in
which colour represents an equilibrium of interactions. In Europe, the 18th- and
early-19th-century vogue for chinoiserie resulted in a renewed interest in this
shade of yellow, which became a sophisticated and fashionable symbol of the
upper classes.

Now
In a world where alternative power and energy sources are becoming increasingly
important, this sunny yellow has been used to help support pioneering ideas and
concepts. Automotive manufacturer Renault utilized the majestic shade in the
interior of their all-electric, shapeshifting concept car in 2020. From the outside,
glimpses of yellow helped to generate intrigue in the car’s unique function and
user experience.

Use
Imperial yellow can form an elemental and symbolic colour palette with
ultramarine blue and traditional Chinese red (see Vermillion), suggesting a strong
connection with an aristocratic heritage. Alternatively, a combination of pale gold,
performance black and imperial yellow bestows status on innovative products and
services.

The Qianlong Emperor in Court Dress by Giuseppe Castiglione, 1736

 Faded Sunflower

Colour Values
Hex code: #f8cd76
RGB: 248, 205, 118
CMYK: 3, 21, 62, 0
HSL: 40, 52%, 97%

Common Connotations
• Warm
• Grounded
• Nostalgia

Faded Sunflower in Art, Design & Culture

• Tie-Dye Snack Shirt in Yellow by STORY mfg, fashion, 2020

Then
Evocative of warm days and happiness, sunflower yellow is a saturated hue with a
long-lasting appeal. In 1887–8, sunflowers were the favoured subject matter of
Dutch post-impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh. Having seen the vividly
coloured works of the impressionists in Paris, he used still lifes of flowers to
experiment with colour, often choosing to paint blooms that were already wilting.
In this period, Van Gogh went from a fairly traditional use of colour to
painting dramatic combinations of striking yellows with intense blue
backgrounds. Today, however, these famous canvases have faded to muted yellow-
browns, likely due to the instability of the yellow paint he used: a mixture of
yellow lead chromate and white lead sulphate. Though widely in use at the time,
the colour degraded in sunlight, giving his canvases an aged quality much like his
sunflowers.

Now
The nostalgic quality of this faded colour is key today. Worn, mustardy yellows
speak of well-used colour, like finding a faded pressed flower from summers past
inside the pages of a book. With fast fashion and fashion waste becoming more of
a contemporary concern, a colour palette of well-worn and grounded hues serves
a positive, conscious aesthetic.
Use
Tap into the popularity of baked, earthy tones and faded, muted sky blues – ideal
for a fashion collection developing staple garments that transcend seasonal
purchasing.

Sunflowers by Vincent van Gogh, 1887

 Wheat

Colour Values
Hex code: #e6d29b
RGB: 230, 210, 155
CMYK: 12, 16, 46, 1
HSL: 44, 30%, 90%

Common Connotations
• Authentic
• Idyllic
• Abundance

Wheat in Art, Design & Culture

• Garbes by Josep Benseny Piñol, painting, 1951
• Womenswear collection by Donna Karan, fashion, S/S 2011
• Flourist bakery and flour mill, Vancouver, by Ste Marie, interior design, 2019

Then
Humans have scavenged wild grains and grasses since the Stone Age, but the
ability to domesticate and cultivate crops began only around 12,000 years ago in
the Levant. One of the most important developments in our history, agriculture
took our ancestors beyond a hunter-gatherer subsistence, but it also tied us to the
land in a new way.
Ever since, until very recently, the harvest was a seasonal event that every
member of society had a stake in. A good harvest meant there would be enough
food for all, even surplus, while a bad one meant people would go hungry. Thus,
the colour of golden ripe wheat fields has come to symbolize wealth and
abundance across the Western world. While it’s not a colourant in itself, the hue
was important enough to be distinguished from other shades. In the late 17th
century, ‘wheat’ began to be officially added to early colour naming systems.*

Now
An on-trend colour for interior design and fashion in the latter half of the 20th
century and early 21st, wheat’s soft yellow-brown shade has gained popularity as
an inclusive neutral. In the 1980s, Max Mara’s wheat-coloured trench coats
provided a universally wearable statement piece, while Donna Karan brought a
monotonal aesthetic to her Spring 2011 women’s collection with silky wheat-
colour gowns and down-to-earth jute details. More recently, French fashion
designer Porte Jacquemus’s Spring 2021 collection saw models treading a catwalk
in a literal wheat field, dressed in a palette of hues inspired by the crop.

Use
Wheat is an optimistic modern neutral. A sunny combination with pale blue, sage,
clay and soil brown creates a flattering palette suggestive of a more
straightforward, authentic way of life.
‘L’Amour’ collection by Jacquemus, Paris, Spring/Summer 2021
 Gold

Colour Values
Hex code: #9b7a41
RGB: 155, 122, 65
CMYK: 32, 43, 77, 24
HSL: 38, 58%, 61%

Common Connotations
• Perfection
• Excess
• Value

Gold in Art, Design & Culture

• Ladurée London, Burlington Arcade, decorated by Roxane Rodriguez, interior design, 2006
• iPhone 6S in Gold, product design, 2015
• America by Maurizio Cattelan, sculpture, 2016

Then
Gold fever goes back to ancient times and the brilliant yellow metal seems to have
been almost universally treasured, with beautiful, sometimes holy objects crafted
from it, civilizations destroyed for it, and thousands of myths attached to it. Gold
has long been associated with divinity – Catholic churches and Hindu and
Buddhist temples are known for liberal use of the material – and with royalty. In
18th-century France, Louis XIV, known as the Sun King, employed gilder Pierre
Gouthière to apply a thin layer of gold leaf to every visible surface and object of
his palace in Versailles, attesting to the wealth and power of his country.
In early religious painting of the Byzantine era, thin leaves of gold would be
applied to the halos of saints and other details, and finely worked. In the Baroque
period of the 17th century, however, it became a challenge for artists to prove their
skill by capturing the effect of the metal by mixing other hues, as demonstrated by
works such as Rembrandt’s glowing Belshazzar’s Feast (1636–8).

Now
Since ancient civilizations first connected the glowing metal with the sun, it has
been hard to think of gold without drawing on its cultural and symbolic
associations. But there is another side to gold, if we focus on its natural properties
and practicality. For instance, architects and designers have found uses for its
temperature-regulating properties, creating goldcoated glass windows to reflect
sunlight during the summer and bounce internal heat back into rooms during
winter.
The world has also taken notes from kintsugi, the Japanese art of repairing
ceramics that uses gold to bind a broken vessel, wasting nothing and making the
object more beautiful than before. The principles behind this practice have made
gold an unlikely champion of restrained and appropriate application in a post-
consumerist society.

Use
Gold’s modern association with corrupt leaders and blinged-up celebrities has
transformed it into a sign of excess, cultural domination and even tackiness. Small
accents of the colour add a glint of rarity rather than excess to a palette.

‘The principles behind kintsugi have made gold an

unlikely champion of restrained and appropriate
application in a postconsumerist society.’
Christ Discovered in the Temple by Simone Martini, 1342
Kintsugi beige tea ceremony bowl, restored with gold (undated)
 Mindaro

Colour Values
Hex code: #ddd582
RGB: 221, 213, 130
CMYK: 10, 4, 56, 10
HSL: 55, 41%, 87%

Also Known As
• Chartreuse

Common Connotations
• Authentic
• Independent
• Eccentric

Mindaro in Art, Design & Culture

• Woman Combing Her Hair by Edgar Degas, pastel drawing, c.1888–90
• Ready-to-Wear collection by Jason Wu, fashion, A/W 2009

Then
Thoroughly modern mindaro has its origins in chartreuse, which takes its name
from the French liqueur that was in vogue in the mid-18th century. The original
yellow-green colour was created using Scheele’s green, a warm green pigment
invented in 1775 by German-Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele. Packed with
arsenic, the pigment was highly toxic, yet commercial demand was high, with
applications in paintings, wallpaper, fabric and even toys. By the late 1800s, silk
and velvet fabrics were being produced in the distinctive shade, which became a
quirky fashion choice among European society. Chartreuse-like shades, this time
without the toxic tinge, had a resurgence in popularity in the late 1950s as an
everyday colour choice for ceramics and furniture, and by the 2000s, it was firmly
established on interior paint cards.

Now
The vibrant, tennis-ball-like yellow-green of chartreuse has been brought down a
shade or two in common contemporary usage to a tempered and slightly off-kilter
mellowed mindaro. In fashion, it is still a bold, slightly rebellious and eccentric
colour; however, endorsement from former First Lady Michelle Obama,
frequently seen wearing this shade, has ensured that mindaro carries a positive
message. Packed with personality, in design, it can make an eye-catching
statement or fade back to a forgiving neutral that can provide a break from
homogeneous, unblended colours.

Use
Explore hand-applied colour to bring out mindaro’s authentic nature. Try blending
into rose pink to create sensitive colour gradients, highlighted with deep mustard
or gold; ideal for distinctive one-off design and craft applications.
Table Top Yellow, Studio RENS x Cor Unum Ceramics, 2020
 Marigold

Colour Values
Hex code: #fb9614
RGB: 251, 150, 20
CMYK: 0, 49, 92, 0
HSL: 34, 92%, 98%

Common Connotations
• Traditional
• Youthful
• Aspirational

Marigold in Art, Design & Culture

• Ready-to-Wear collection by Altazurra, fashion, S/S 2021
• Yellow Roseline from the series Between These Folded Walls, Utopia by Cooper & Gorfer, photography, 2020

Then
In Mexican folklore, the souls of the dead follow the scent of marigolds. Deeply
symbolic to the nation, the Aztec marigold has been used for medicinal purposes
and as a bright offering on altars during Day of the Dead celebrations.
Bold and optimistic, marigold has long been used as a colour to make striking
fashion statements. In the 1960s, Jackie Kennedy’s marigold yellow ball skirt was
an iconic part of her brightly coloured wardrobe, itself an era-defining symbol of
aspiration and success. Since then, marigold has remained a faithful fashion
companion, appearing in modern collections from Nina Ricci to Phillip Lim.
Yellow naturally reflects lots of light, so adding a splash of marigold is effortlessly
uplifting and catches attention.

Now
Leaning almost into orange, marigold’s striking saturation cuts through the grey as
a visceral reminder of the natural world around us. In 2016, artistic duo Christo
and Jeanne-Claude employed the shade on colossal walkways they placed across
the contrasting blue-green Lake Iseo, Italy, allowing 1.2 million visitors to walk on
water.

Use
Harness the power of marigold for an uplifting effect. Use in bold proportions to
raise energy levels and mood.

Altar in San Miguel de Allende with food, photographs and marigolds for Day of the Dead celebration,
Mexico
Floating Piers by Christo and Jeanne-Claude, 2016
___________
* Maerz, A. and Paul, M. Rea, A Dictionary of Color, New York: McGraw‐Hill Publishing Co., 1930.
Green

There are not more greens in the world than any other shade, as a common
misconception has it; however, our eyes have evolved to be especially good at
distinguishing the nuances of green light wavelengths. We can see this for
ourselves when observing foliage in the natural world: what looks like one
shade at first glance offers almost infinite subtlety under further inspection.
Because our eyes are so adept at seeing green, it is also a particularly
comfortable shade for us to look at. Today, the health benefits of being in
nature are well known, and we can bring some of this indoors with us when
we use green in our interior palettes. T.S. Eliot once described his personal
green space as ‘my still point of the turning world’.*
From vivacious yellow- and leaf-greens to mysterious and soothing dark
greens; from murky olive-greens to bright and jewel-like emerald and
turquoise hues, the green family contains a vast range of shades to choose
from, and it has been equally prolific in generating associations. In Japan,
green is traditionally highly regarded as the giver of life. Strongly connected
with the prophet Muhammad and signifying paradise, fertility, luck and
wealth, it appears in the flags of many predominantly Muslim countries. On
the other hand, green is the colour of decay as well as rebirth, and it is
commonly linked with putrefaction and disease. In Thai, the word kheīyw,
besides denoting ‘green’, also means ‘foul’ and ‘smelly’ and holds other
unpleasant connotations. In Christian countries, green was also associated
with paganism – with the Celtic Green Man, for example – and it has since
often been used to signify evil, in contrast with sacred and valorous reds.
Despite its frequency in nature, for a long time green proved elusive as a
pigment. Until the advent of synthetic pigments, most greens were made by
mixing blue and yellow pigments due to the difficulty in extracting a stable
and charismatic green, and even then greens proved hazardous. In 1775,
chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele concocted an artificial green that was quickly
adopted into textiles and wallpapers. However, laced with arsenic, Scheele’s
green was toxic and caused an unknowable number of deaths throughout the
19th century.
Despite its chequered history, green is now making up for lost time. In the
latter half of the 20th century, the colour gained popularity alongside the rise
of the global environmental movement. Traditionally associated with
ecological groups such as Greenpeace and the UK’s Green Party, today it has
also been adopted into the branding of any organization wishing to associate
itself with environmentally sustainable practices. Most recently,
advancements in science and biomaterials have unlocked new potentials in
the natural pigments found in plant life, taking green’s association with a
sustainable future from the symbolic to the material.

Colours in this chapter:

Green Earth

Verdigris

Malachite

Celadon

Hooker’s Green

Emerald Green

Bottle Green

Turquoise

Olive

Vital Green

Modern Mint
Electric Lime

Chlorophyll

Algae
 Green Earth

Colour Values
Hex code: #8ba26c
RGB: 139, 162, 108
CMYK: 49, 23, 70, 2
HSL: 86, 33%, 64%

Also Known As
• Terre Verte
• Verona Green

Common Connotations
• Vulnerable
• Supportive
• Soothing

Green Earth in Art, Design & Culture

• Japanese wood and shagreen spectacle case by Rinkomoru Yoshigawa, accessory, c.1890
• Clay Green by Studio RENS x Moooi Carpets, carpet, 2020

Then
This pallid, eponymously earthy green sits somewhere between a sea mist at first
light and a dewy moss. It comes from naturally occurring minerals, including
celadonite and glauconite, that are as abundant as they are inexpensive.
Green earth rose to fame in Europe in Renaissance times, when painters such
as Giotto used it as a glaze under semi-transparent layers of crimson to create
lifelike skin tones. Unfortunately, time reveals unstable pigments, and as the
paintings have aged, so too have the flesh tones, often taking on a rather insipid,
deathly green appearance.
In the 17th century, Japanese artisans exported stingray skins as decorative
surfaces, which became known as ‘shagreen’. They were often coloured with lucent
terre verte so as not to distract from the scaly texture.

Now
More recently, the wash-like nature of green earth has allowed for the exploration
of transparency as a form of materiality by minimalist painters such as Robert
Mangold. Using a handmade tint in his painting series Ring H, the artist explores
the soothing, subtle colour and curvilinear abstract forms.

Use
The non-opposing nature of this neutral green makes it a perfect grounding base
tone. Layer to create peaceful, luminous washes, and balance with rosy hues and
clean white for a calming, modern colour scheme.

Firefly by Uemura Shōen, 1913

 Verdigris

Colour Values
Hex code: #27a1a4
RGB: 39, 161, 164
CMYK: 77, 16, 38, 0
HSL: 181, 76%, 64%

Common Connotations
• Fickle
• Alluring
• Individual

Verdigris in Art, Design & Culture

• The Statue of Liberty by Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, sculpture 1886
• True Colours vases by Lex Pott, homeware, 2017
• Verdigris range by Forbes and Lomax, electrical accessories, 2021

Then
Unstable, reactive and even toxic, verdigris offers a perfect example of all the
difficulties we have had in harnessing green. This amorphic green-blue colour is a
byproduct of an ancient chemical reaction: the oxidization of copper and bronze.
Described as the ‘green of Greece’ (the name comes from the French vert de
Grèce), the scraped-off surface patina of this verdant ‘rust’ was ground down and
made into a painter’s medium, first appearing in Europe in medieval artworks.
Despite its poisonous nature and tendency to discolour, as the only truly
vibrant green pigment available it remained in use until the 19th century. A
common practice in Indian and Persian cultures to prevent the colour from
turning brown or black was to introduce saffron. In the end, the fugitive colour
was made obsolete once modern methods brought the creation of more stable,
long-lasting tones.

Now
Today, the naturally occurring verdigris can still be seen gracing elegant copper
roofs and landmarks such as the Statue of Liberty. Unlike its corrosive red cousin,
rust, which eats away at iron, verdigris provides a layer of protection to the copper
that hosts it.
 Meanwhile, as contemporary tastes have evolved – in particular with reference
to Japanese principles of wabi-sabi, increased value placed on the natural world
and the desire for uniqueness – the use of verdigris has become popular once
more. London-based design studio Yenchen & Yawen’s Landscape of Oxidation
project features three homeware collections based on rust, Verdigris and kintsugi
(the Japanese practice of filling cracks in pottery with gold, making the broken
piece even more beautiful than the original). Pieces in the ‘Blue Patina’ collection
are made by mixing jesmonite with glass, copper, brass and iron powders, and
burying the vessels in wet dust for days to generate a unique verdigris patina that
will alter over time.

Use
Embrace verdigris’ imperfect beauty by building translucent washes of this
beautiful green-blue that interact with each other. Try pairing with minimal and
modern proportions of other metallic shades such as copper and brass.
Landscape of Oxidation by Yenchen and Yawen, 2018
 Malachite

Colour Values
Hex code: #126d64
RGB: 18, 109, 100
CMYK: 87, 37, 61, 20
HSL: 174, 84%, 43%

Also Known As
• Mountain Green
• Green Verditer
• Green Bice

Common Connotations
• Otherworldly
• Precious
• Luxury

Malachite Green in Art, Design & Culture

• Headdress or helmet with mosaic of turquoise, malachite and thorny oyster shell, Aztec, Mexico, 1400–
1521
• Chrysanthemums by Pierre-Auguste Renoir, painting, 1881–2
• Stelis Bag by Montunas, accessories, 2019

Then
The deep green, copper-based mineral malachite, ground down to form a
pigment, is known to have been used as eyeshadow and decorative paint by
ancient Egyptians, who gave the substance heavenly status, linking it to the
goddess Hathor, ‘the lady of malachite’. ancient Aztec civilizations mined
malachite and created decorative accessories with slices of the green striated
material, giving the deeply coloured substance talisman status. Japanese artist
Watanabe Kazan’s 1821 Portrait of Sato Issai (Age 50) shows malachite green at its
finest, adding depth and shade to the subject.
It is one of the oldest green pigments known, readily available in its mineral
form and giving a vibrant and lightfast (if toxic) green, but malachite did not find
wide use in Europe. To retain its vibrancy, malachite does not want to be ground
too fine, and while it would remain effective in paintings made with egg tempera
or plaster, it becomes insipid in the fine consistencies required by oil paint, which
supplanted the older tempera method during the Renaissance.

Now
Now phased out as a pure pigment, the glamorous green of ancient cultures has
made a comeback in the modern world thanks to an increased appreciation in art
and design for material qualities. In 2020, Italian design company Fornasetti gave
malachite a new outing by pairing patterns derived from the cut surface of the
mineral with modernist shapes and forms, gelling the past and the present
together in a new luxury aesthetic.

Use
Malachite’s evocative association with ancient cultures, and the beautiful hue and
delicate banded patterns of its gemstone, are what appeal today. Take a cue from
Fornasetti’s palette and pair deep malachite green with factory yellow and delicate
oyster grey for luxury branding or packaging.

‘Malachite’ living room, from the Unusual Living Rooms collection by Fornasetti, 2020
 Celadon

Colour Values
Hex code: #90b7af
RGB: 144, 183, 175
CMYK: 45, 15, 32, 0
HSL: 168, 21%, 72%

Common Connotations
• Enigmatic
• Graceful
• Peaceful

Celadon in Art, Design & Culture

• Chinese funerary urns, stoneware with glaze, Yuan dynasty, ceramics 1279–1368
• Another Sky by Edmund de Waal, sculpture, 2016
• Ready-to-Wear collection by Vince, fashion, S/S 2021

Then
In the 12th century, Chinese scholar Hsu Ching visited Korea to uncover the
nature of Goryeo celadons. He was impressed with what he saw, remarking, ‘With
regard to ceramic wares, that which is of green colour is described by the natives
as of fei si (‘kingfisher colour’)… their colour and glaze are particularly good.’*
Made by applying a wash (or ‘slip’) of diluted clay containing a high proportion of
iron, this green ceramic glaze was perfected in China around 25–220 CE.
As Hsu Ching’s comment suggests, ceramics made from the celadon technique
might vary from grey-green to greenish blue or a murky olive green, according to
the region it was produced in and the techniques used to make it. Despite its
material origin, the colour itself is insubstantial, as attested to by the seemingly
arbitrary manner in which it came to be named: it is believed that ‘celadon’ was
coined as a colour in the 17th century in reference to the hero of a French pastoral
comedy, whose delicate green costume put viewers in mind of the distinctive
green ceramics being imported from China.

Now
Still linked conceptually to the beautiful ceramics of China and South and East
Asia, contemporary design often prefers a more delicate, glaze-like tone of
celadon. Inspired by Chinese and Korean aesthetics and Bauhaus principles,
British ceramicist Edmund De Waal uses the colour on porcelain vessels in
atmospheric architectural spaces where its enigmatic and ephemeral nature sings.

Use
Pair celadon with other soft hues such as porcelain whites and creams, duck-egg
blues and butter yellows to bring an airy and quietening mood to interior spaces.

Celadon Maebyong from the Goryeo Dynasty (glazed ceramic). Korean School, 12th century.
 Hooker’s Green

Colour Values
Hex code: #00a63d
RGB: 0, 65, 24
CMYK: 82, 6, 100, 0
HSL: 142, 100%, 32.5%

Also Known As
• Botanical Green

Common Connotations
• Nourishing
• Nurturing
• Natural

Hooker’s Green in Art, Design & Culture

• Jack-in-the-Pulpit No. 3 by Georgia O’Keeffe, painting, 1930
• Tree of Plant Life from Botanicum by Katie Scott, print, 2016
• Pantone 15-0343 ‘Greenery’, Pantone Colour of the Year, design, 2017

Then
A lush, saturated colour, this painterly green was created by William Hooker, who
was employed by the Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) in 1815 as a botanical
illustrator. In pursuit of a true leaf green, he mixed the recently invented Prussian
blue with gamboge – a yellow pigment made from the sap of a deciduous tree
found in Cambodia and the surrounding regions. The result was a complex green
that altered according to its consistency, making it perfect for depicting a wide
variety of natural foliage.
Over the hundreds of illustrations he made for the RHS, Hooker demonstrated
his green’s particular aptitude for depicting the myriad hues of fruit trees and
became known as one of the ‘greatest pomological artists of all time’,*but his
botanical green had, and indeed has, the potential for much wider application.
Painters and colour-makers alike saw the value in Hooker’s green and the colour
was quickly adopted into palettes and commercialized to make a paint that is still
in production today.
Now
A burgeoning interest in the natural world combined with a nostalgia for the
authenticity of traditional design and production has ensured this green’s
continuing relevance. ‘Greenery’, a shade surely inspired by Hooker’s green, was
Pantone’s 2017 colour of the year, dubbed ‘nature’s neutral’.
The traditional botanical illustrations of Hooker’s era have recently
experienced a resurgence in interior design, while in 2015 contemporary botanical
artist Katie Scott worked with Nike on a campaign that imagined trainers
sprouting stylized foliage.

Use
Botanical greens are firmly part of a modern palette. The hue’s connection with
nature means it can feel deeply nourishing in environments and spaces. Pair with
earthy pinks, raw sienna tones and perhaps charcoal for balance.

The Equatorial Jungle by Henri Rousseau, 1909

 Emerald Green

Colour Values
Hex code: #439876
RGB: 11, 96, 88
CMYK: 89, 4, 63, 28
HSL: 156, 56%, 60%

Also Known As
• Scheele’s Green
• Paris Green

Common Connotations
• Opulence
• Jealousy
• Soothing

Emerald Green in Art, Design & Culture

• Te Fare by Paul Gauguin, painting, 1892
• Celia’s dress by Jacqueline Durran, worn by Keira Knightley in Atonement, costume design, 2007

Then
Vivid, rare and captivating, emeralds are evocative of envy as well as status, and in
times past they were revered for their theoretical healing powers. In the 1st
century CE, Roman historian Pliny the Elder wrote of them, ‘nothing greens
greener,’ and noted the soothing effect of the stone’s shade on the eyes. The
emperor Nero supposedly liked to observe his gladiators’ bloody combat through
emerald sunglasses, perhaps for this reason.
The first ‘emerald green’ pigment was created in the 18th century, known as
Paris green, a resplendent dye with a deadly edge. This coveted shade was one of
the many similar greens, including one invented by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, the
inventor of Prussian blue, formed by mixing copper with arsenic. Brighter and
longer-lasting than other greens on the market, impressionist painters’ such as
Paul Gauguin used these colours to depict stylized vegetation and fantastic
verdant scenes. In Victorian England, emerald-hued clothes, patterned wallpaper,
curtains, candles and even fake flowers and plastic toys, cut through the industrial
grey. However, the pigments were often poorly applied and would easily flake off,
producing toxic dust and leading to many deaths. Despite this, Scheele’s green was
used as an artist’s paint until the 1960s.

Now
Today, arsenic-based greens are a thing of the past and emeralds come with much
more positive connotations. Modern synthesized chromatic green-blue shades are
hugely popular in art, interiors, and fashion for their jewel-like elegance and
soothing effects. By splitting cooler and warmer combinations, tantalizing vistas of
colour create dynamic interplay on modern artist Ptolemy Mann’s paintings and
woven landscapes.

Use
Explore a split-complementary palette, with dark and chromatic green-blues
meeting hot pinks and oranges. Experiment with a cool, pale lavender to temper
and bring further balance to this striking combination.
Eclipse Painting (Ultraviolet Landscape) by Ptolemy Mann, 2020
 Bottle Green

Colour Values
Hex code: #1b5716
RGB: 27, 87, 22
CMYK: 84, 39, 100, 38
HSL: 115, 75%, 34%

Common Connotations
• Quality
• Distinction
• Prosperity

Bottle Green in Art, Design & Culture

• Bottle, green glazed porcelain, Qing dynasty, ceramics,1736–1795
• Green Coca-Cola Bottles by Andy Warhol, print, 1962
• PET-art sculptures by Veronika Richteová, sculpture, 2004–ongoing

Then
From ‘Ten green bottles sitting on a wall’ to rows of green wine bottles sitting on
supermarket shelves, the affiliation of bottles with greenery is so much part of our
daily household palette that we likely don’t think about it. But the history of this
association goes back further than you might think. In ancient Indian and Hindu
societies, the earliest kumbha, or ‘water-pitcher’, was also found decorated with
deep green washes, while porcelain bottles of the Chinese Qing dynasty (1644–
1912) were coated in green copper lead-based enamel, giving them a distinctive
green colouring.
Ultimately, however, the hue’s current association with the bottle form is down
to pure function. Glass was not a common commodity until the Industrial
Revolution, but wine had been bottled in glass as a luxury item for centuries
before. In the 17th century, British adventurer and polymath Sir Kenelm Digby
invented a new, stronger glass for wine bottles that was also darker. The darker
glass protected the wine from UV rays and to this day many beverages are bottled
in tinted glass to preserve them: traditionally brown for ales and green for wines.

Now
Still ubiquitous as the colour of wine and indeed many beer bottles, French
designers Ronan and Erwan Bouroullec gave bottle green a fresh outing as one of
the key colours in their Vases Découpage collection. Combining cylindrical vessels
with abstract shapes in contrasting colours, the components are designed to be
rearranged for different effects, each one creating its own ‘fragile balance’.

Use
Use in branding as the primary hue to communicate quality and elegance. Try
combining aqueous blue and yellowish sap green from either side of the colour
wheel to create a lush harmony.

‘Barre’ from the Vases Découpages collection, by Ronan & Erwan Bouroullec for Vitra, 2020
 Turquoise

Colour Values
Hex code: #8cd3d4
RGB: 64, 206, 203
CMYK: 62, 0, 27, 0
HSL: 179, 69%, 81%

Common Connotations
• Wellness
• Escapism
• Optimism

Turquoise in Art, Design & Culture

• The Blue Mosque, Istanbul, ceramics, 1609–16
• Silvered 2 by Bridget Riley, silkscreen print, 1981
• Dream Come True Building, Old Street, London, by Camille Walala, mural, 2015

Then
This family of brilliant blue-green colours derives originally from a stone that was
used ornamentally as long as 6,000 years ago in ancient Egyptian and Persian
societies, and from 200 BCE in Native American decoration. The name we know
today comes from the French pierre tourques, or ‘Turkish stone’, as the stone was
brought to Europe on the Silk Road around the 16th century.
A hydrous phosphate of copper and aluminium, turquoise is naturally
occurring, wide-ranging in hue according to its mineral composition and soft
enough to carve and work with easily, so it is no wonder it was appealing to
ancient craftsmen. In Persia, where it was believed to have protective qualities, the
stone was named pirouzeh, or ‘victory’. Ancient Persians adorned daggers and
bridles with it, as well as using it in amulets and, of course, religious architecture.
An iconic vision of turquoise’s most devout interpretations is the Sultan Ahmet
Mosque in Istanbul, popularly known as the Blue Mosque for the traditional
turquoise-coloured İznik tiles with which its interior is lined.

Now
As popular as ever, the 20th and 21st centuries have seen turquoise take on a
multitude of new personalities and applications. The Palm Springs-fevered mid-
century design scene of the 1950s and ’60s saw the tone make a splash in interiors,
with iconic designers such as Charles Eames and Verner Panton including the
punchy bright tone in furniture and lighting collections. As modern consumerist
culture broke out in the 1980s and ’90s, bold style heroes such as the Memphis
Group utilized the colour as a playful complementary tone to a brash, shiny retro-
inspired palette.
Turquoise now speaks of wellness and escapism, with the tranquil yet fresh
aspects of the tone being applied to a range of lifestyle applications, bringing a
sense of serenity. Adidas used turquoise to underscore its sensitive use of ocean
plastic in its recent footwear launch, relying on the clean feel of the tone to convey
environmental awareness.

Use
Unlock the shade’s potential for composure and create a modern monochromatic
palette that is as easy on the eye as it is mindful.
Ultra boost DNA Parley shoe using Ocean Plastic by Parley x Adidas, 2018
 Olive

Colour Values
Hex code: #868349
RGB: 134, 131, 73
CMYK: 47, 37, 83, 13
HSL: 57, 46%, 53%

Common Connotations
• Growth
• Peace
• Strength

Olive in Art, Design & Culture

• The Olive Trees by Vincent van Gogh, painting, 1889
• White and Textured Olive Green Tulip Side Chair by Eero Saarinen, furniture, 1950s
• Pasture by Anni Albers, textiles, 1958

Then
Named after the fruit of the tree whose branches have been extended in peace
since the times of ancient Greece, olive is also the colour of modern warfare since
armies ditched the bright costumes intended to differentiate them in favour of the
subdued tones of olive as long-range warfare made camouflage more important
(see also Khaki).
Aside from its associations with war and peace, this modest shade has also
enjoyed an illustrious relationship with design. When the Art Nouveau movement
of the turn of the 20th century brought its highly stylized vision of nature into
design and architecture, olive green was a key member of the colour palette. Warm
and unassuming, the shade continued to link interiors even in Bauhaus design,
famed for its bold primaries: delicate muted shades like olive played a role on walls
and ceiling to complement and accent the more strident tones. But it was with the
explosion of mid-century modern design in post-war America that saw this
colour in its most important interior role, with olive used alongside golds and
corals to create a sense of grounding optimism for new open-plan interiors.

Now
Elegant, timeless and slightly quirky, olive green and the mid-century modern
design aesthetic are still firmly in vogue in contemporary interiors. Today, olive
green complements the 1950s-inspired furniture designs of Herman Miller and
Eero Saarinen.

Use
Reboot the archive and employ olive as a warm neutral; try pairing with brass, and
mustard yellow for a rich yet wholesome approach to an interior scheme.

Olive Colour (72) by Little Greene

 Vital Green

Colour Values
Hex code: #7cf135
RGB: 124, 241, 53
CMYK: 50, 0, 100, 0
HSL: 97, 78%, 95%

Common Connotations
• Retro
• Digital
• Positive

Vital Green in Art, Design & Culture

• CRT screen by IBM, computing, 1972
• Fluorescent Green Medium Padded Nylon Clutch by Prada, accessory, A/W 2018
• Ready-to-Wear collection by Bottega Veneta, fashion, 2021

Then
A colour evolved for the modern world, vital green has its roots in the early days
of personal computers when monitors produced pixels via cathode ray tubes
shooting electron beams at phosphor dots behind the screen. Green was a cheap
and long-lasting phosphor, better performing than red or yellow or white, which
looked blurry on black. It was also easier on people’s eyes than looking at white
type on a black background – not only is green the most comfortable wavelength
for our eyes but also, perhaps counter-intuitively, it has an eye-grabbing quality
that can hold our attention.
Though screen technology advanced quickly, green on black became
synonymous with all forms of digital life. In the 1980s and ’90s, phosphorous
green screamed from the inner labels of countless 12" singles as music embraced
electronics in the age of synthesizers and autotune. Bright fonts greeted you from
T-shirts, accompanied by smiley faces and alien heads.
But this shade is still ubiquitous in our contemporary world if we stop to
consider it. It’s the universal indicator for ‘Go’ in traffic lights, road signs and green
switches, and points to first aid equipment, pharmacies and fire escapes. (See also
Reactive Red.)
Now
Today, many designers are using vital green to communicate more than
technological nostalgia. Since we live in a digital world where we generally see
green on screen more times in a day than in nature, colour theory in this space has
an ever-growing significance. A multitude of communication apps, including
Snapchat, use this shade to indicate a message from someone outside of the user’s
network; a calmer blue indicates a message from someone they know or have
already accepted. In 2020, New York’s High Line park introduced social distancing
measures through the use of graphic, high-visibility vital green dots.

Use
When creating websites or apps, bright greens can be particularly useful for
making designs look compelling and clickable. Keep contrast in mind as interfaces
with readable high contrast (black and green) make web content inclusive for a
broader range of people.

Pong video game by Atari, launched 1972

‘This shade is still ubiquitous in our contemporary world
if we stop to consider it. It’s the universal indicator for
“Go.”’

Social distancing graphics by Paula Scher, Pentagram, for Friends of the High Line, 2020
 Modern Mint

Colour Values
Hex code: #9be9c2
RGB: 155, 233, 194
CMYK: 36, 0, 33, 0
HSL: 150, 33%, 91%

Common Connotations
• Fresh
• Youthful
• Innovative

Modern Mint in Art, Design & Culture

• Standard SP chair by Jean Prouve for Vitra, furniture, 1934/1950
• Cadillac Coupé deVille in ‘Princess Green’, automotive, 1956
• Primary school, Boom, Belgium, by Areal Architecten, architecture, 2016

Then
Like many modern hues, mint was born out of technological evolution.
Techniques such as powder coating, patented in the US in 1945 by Daniel Gustin,
made solid-state colours like this bright pastel possible. With newly available
plastics and the rise of the automotive industry, the middle of the 20th century
was an era that grasped innovation with both hands and applied its principles to
the products that defined the modern lifestyle.
In the 1950s, the use of gentle tertiary shades also helped encourage acceptance
of startling designs by the likes of Jean Prouvé and Dieter Rams into home
environments across the globe. Pastel pastiche continued to reign supreme into
the 1990s, when mint lived in bathroom suites and Naf Naf streetwear, before
taking a nosedive in popularity as the consumerist future envisioned in the ’50s
peaked around the turn of the millennium and a new generation began to define
its own vision of modernity.

Now
Fresher, cleaner and futuristic, mint green has been synthesized far beyond its
pastel heritage to become a thoroughly contemporary sensation. Capturing the
zeitgeist of Instagrammable youth-driven colour trends and linking with plant life
and nature in interiors, mint green has become a symbol of utopian optimism.
In fashion, the colour continues to align itself with the future, as Gucci sent
male and female models down a mint-green travelator for Alessandro Michele’s
S/S 2020 show, while Irish designer Robyn Lynch chose the shade as the key note
for her youth-inspired Fashion East collection.

Use
Fresh greens are visually calming on the mind and are often a good choice for
welcoming people into public spaces. Take a monochromatic direction with mint
green as the leading player on walls, floors and surfaces. Pair with its opposite soft
rose-pink to tempt further interaction.
Menswear collection by Robyn Lynch, Spring/Summer 2020
 Electric Lime

Colour Values
Hex code: #00bb74
RGB: 0, 187, 116
CMYK: 76, 0, 75, 0
HSL: 157, 100%, 73%

Also Known As
• Neon Green
• Lime Green

Common Connotations
• Garish
• Exciting
• Inventive

Electric Lime in Art, Design & Culture

• Dodge in ‘Sublime’, automotive, 1970/2019
• NikeLab x Sacai, fashion, S/S 2015
• Thermo-Tect Lime Green by Toyota, automotive, 2016
• Menswear collection by Homme Plissé Issey Miyake, fashion, S/S 2021

Then
It was a workplace accident and the pursuit of stage magic that inspired two
American teenagers to create the first fluorescent pigments in 1933. After hitting
his head at the factory he worked at, 19-year-old Robert Switzer was forced to
spend months in a dark basement; meanwhile, his younger brother Joseph was
experimenting with fluorescent light for a glow-inthe-dark element to his magic
show. The two mixed a concoction of luminous minerals with a gooey lacquer and
created a series of new Day-Glo colours.
Lime green, named after the fruit of the same yellowgreen hue, has an older
and more dignified history, first coined as a colour in 1890 when it became
popular in Victorian design. However, after its Day-Glo reinvention, the colour
really came into its own in the futuristic 1960s and was seen in homewear and
interiors, clothing and, perhaps most lastingly, the high-octane muscle car.
Chrysler launched its optional high-impact paint colours in ’69 in conjunction
with PPG. What followed was a series of loud hues that stood out from the crowd,
not least with its popular lime green ‘Sublime’.

Now
The colour’s link with performance cars continues; now with a sustainable ethos
driving it. In 2016, Toyota launched ‘Thermo-Tect Lime Green’ for its Prius range;
in this new paint, the black carbon particles have been removed, meaning the car
heats up less, reducing the need for air conditioning and improving fuel economy.
Nike has also gravitated to the shade for decades; in 2015, it paired the luminous
shade with motion and movement, mixing performance with a burst of feminine
pleats.

Use
Give electric lime a chic makeover by combining it’s cool green tone with
contrasting fiery orange for a classic contrast of temperature.

Louis Vuitton’s neon green pop-up store, New York, with Virgil Abloh’s menswear collection, Fall/Winter 2019
 Chlorophyll

Colour Values
Hex code: #96d69c
RGB: 150, 214, 156
CMYK: 42, 0, 51, 0
HSL: 126, 30%, 84%

Common Connotations
• Growth
• Cleansing
• Vitality

Chlorophyll in Art, Design & Culture

• Holding #2 from the Immortality: The Remnants of the Vietnam and American War series by Binh Danh,
chlorophyll print, 2009
• Bamboo silk scarves dyed with chlorophyllin by Emily Mae Martin, textiles, 2019

Then
A transparent, clean green, chlorophyll is the photosynthetic pigment found in
plants that absorbs blue and red lightwaves, reflecting green to give leaves their
distinctive colouring. It is also this process that gives plants their energy to grow
and respirate, meaning that leaf green will always summon associations with new
life, health and verdant spring foliage.
First isolated in 1817 by French chemists Joseph Bienaimé Caventou and
Pierre-Joseph Pelletier, the light-sensitive properties of the pigment played a role
in the advancement of photography. In the 1940s, Sir John Herschel invented the
‘anthotype’ print, using flower petals, leaves and vegetable juices to produce light-
sensitive emulsions that could be waxed onto paper to form a negative – ‘anthos’
deriving from the Greek word for flower.
Today, chlorophyll is often used in food colouring, but one of the pigment’s
most infamous outings as a colourant dates to long before its discovery.
Originating in late-18th-century Switzerland, absinthe, otherwise known as ‘the
green fairy’, gets its natural colour from the chlorophyll in the botanicals it is made
with.

Now
Often used as a colourant, chlorophyll is also popular as a health supplement, with
a host of potential benefits including as an anti-ageing agent, a deodorant and in
some cancer treatments. Meanwhile, its photosynthetic properties continue to
drive technological innovation. Inspired by photosynthesis, designer Marjan van
Aubel has created coloured glass panels made from dyesensitized solar cells that
generate an electrical current to charge household devices from USB ports
integrated into window ledges.

Use
Chlorophyll’s pure green evokes the calming and health-boosting influence of
being in the natural world. It will always send a positive message in wellness
contexts, and its easy association with plant life establishes its environmental
credentials, particularly in the growing realm of plant-based food.

Apidium Filix from Botanische Wandtafeln by L. Kny, 1874

 Algae

Colour Values
Hex code: #61c69b
RGB: 97, 198, 155
CMYK: 60, 0, 52, 0
HSL: 154, 51%, 78%

Also Known As
• Phycocyanin
• Seaweed

Common Connotations
• Humble
• Organic
• Ecological

Algae in Art, Design & Culture

• BIQ building with bio-adaptive façade by Arup, Hamburg, architecture, 2013
• Ooho edible water bottle by Skipping Rocks Lab, product design, 2013
• Vivobarefoot Ultra III by BLOOM, footwear, 2016
• Indus by Bio-Integrated Design Lab, algae hydrogel tiles, 2019

Then
Historically, humanity has drawn on earth pigments from minerals, plant and
animal matter and mud to create colours for dyeing and decoration, but the future
of colour may lie in the sea. This is not an entirely new concept: the coastal lichen
orchil was used by ancient Phoenicians to make a purple dye – a cheap alternative
to Tyrian purple – while dulse, a red seaweed, and crotal, a rock-growing lichen,
have been used for dyeing Scottish tartans for centuries; the latter also having an
olfactory role, as it is said to be what gives Harris tweed its distinctive smell.
However, it was not until the mid-20th century that scientists began to understand
the pigment makeup and function of different algae, and only in recent years have
we begun to understand their full potential. Of the microalgae making waves
today, it is spirulina, a blue-green saltwater cyanobacterium, that has caused the
biggest splash.

Now
Packed with antioxidants, this humble alga has been used as a health supplement
for years, but it is the drive for sustainable energy solutions that really kicked off
the spirulina revolution. Bio-architect firm ecoLogicStudio has been looking at
ways to harness spirulina’s potential in built environments. Not only could it
provide a food source with high nutritional content, but its photosynthetic
processes mean it could be used to generate energy while at the same time
breaking down environmental pollutants, consuming carbon dioxide and
generating oxygen – a totally sustainable and symbiotic approach.
Back into the world of colour, algae are seeing increasing use as sustainable
dyes, both as food colourants and textile dyes, to replace the less eco-friendly
synthetic dyes that rose to prominence in the Industrial Revolution.

Use
Synthetic dyes replaced earth-based pigments because they were cheaper to
produce and less susceptible to fading. Tastes have changed, however, and the
unique patterns and qualities resulting from exposure to light have come to be
valued as an aspect of an organic beauty that is not harmful to the planet.
Spirulina and other natural pigments favour use in similarly natural
environments: avoid engineered precision and emulate nature’s rough perfection.
Dyed yarn on a traditional loom ready for weaving Harris Tweed, Scotland
___________
* Eliot, T.S, ‘Burnt Norton’, Poems, London: The Hogarth Press, 1919
* Gompertz, G. St. G. M., ‘The “Kingfisher Celadon” of Koryo’, Artibus Asiae, vol. 16, no. 1/2, 1953
* Blunt, Wilfrid and Stearn, William T., The Art of Botanical Illustration (Revised 2nd edition), Suffolk: ACC
Art Books, 1994
Blue

Blue is the colour that features most prominently in the natural world, and
yet for much of history people have had difficulty extracting a blue pigment
for use in art and design. In ancient times, the semi-precious stone lapis
lazuli was mined in the mountains of Afghanistan and the resulting pigment
was highly prized in Mesopotamia and Egypt; across the Middle East today
the colour is associated with spirituality and immortality and it appears in
sacred places such as mosques, where blue vaulted ceilings emulate the sky.
Later, lapis lazuli was also coveted by European painters, for whom the
ground-up stone yielded the best blue pigment; its name, ultramarine,
suggesting its rarity and exotic, almost mythical provenance.
Over the course of history, artists in all media have sought perfection in
blue. In the mid-20th century, in pursuit of the colour of the sky, the French
artist Yves Klein famously developed a version of ultramarine that retained
the pigment’s pure intensity that traditional binding agents had diminished.
Like many other artists, Klein believed that the colour blue could have a
transformative effect on the mind. Studies have since shown that blue is
indeed calming and improves mental wellbeing, which is why it is often used
in interior design.
For many years, however, attractive blue pigments remained rare and so
the colour was reserved for the rich and powerful, and set aside for artists’
most worthy subjects and illustrious commissions. It was not until the 18th
century, when a new pigment, Prussian blue, was discovered by accident and
became the first synthetically produced pigment, that it became commonly
available. In 2009, a new inorganic pigment, YInMn blue, was discovered –
also by chance. The purest form of blue we are likely to be able to see, it also
has unique cooling properties. Perhaps it is the connection with scientific
innovation that has made the colour a popular choice in the logos of new
media and tech companies.
Associated with both the rich elite and the working class of society – the
blue-blooded or blue-collared – and with both spirituality and the world of
science, the meanings attached to the colour blue are as endless as the sea and
sky, but the popularity of the colour remains unwavering. Among hunter-
gatherers, those drawn to clear skies and clean water were more likely to
survive, so over time this preference may, in fact, have become hardwired.

Colours in this chapter:

Indigo

Woad

Ultramarine

Prussian Blue

Smalt

Cobalt

Cerulean

Glaucous

Teal

Process Cyan

International Klein Blue

Electric Blue

YInMn Blue
 Indigo

Colour Values
Hex code: #0c426a
RGB: 12, 66, 106
CMYK: 100, 77, 34, 21
HSL: 206, 89%, 42%

Common Connotations
• Calming
• Honesty
• Wisdom

Indigo in Art, Design & Culture

• Basinjom mask and gown, Banyang of Nigeria and Cameroon, costume, 1973
• ‘State of Indigo’, presented by the India Pavilion at London Design Biennale, installation, 2018
• Symphony for Untold History by Aboubakar Fofana, textiles, 2018

Then
Indigo, a beautiful inky blue with a tinge of green and/or violet, depending on the
light, has been coaxed from the seeds of the Indigofera plant for thousands of
years. Its value as a dye made it an important commodity around the globe and led
to some of the first trade routes being forged across Asia and Europe. In recent
years, archaeologists unearthed a patterned indigo-dyed cloth sandwiched in
between the wooden beams of an ancient Peruvian burial site, dated at nearly
6,200 years old.
Like ultramarine, indigo was associated with wealth and luxury in many
cultures, who developed distinct ways of using it to embellish clothing, costumes,
domestic textiles and ritual objects. We can see its use from the ancient Kofar
Mata dye pits of West Africa to the Indian indigo farms and Japanese block
printers. In the 17th century, Isaac Newton named indigo the seventh colour of
the spectrum.

Now
Although it is rarely now given a place in the rainbow, indigo remains as iconic as
the blue jeans it is used to dye. And while today it may be best associated with
workers’ clothing, its deep hue still brings luxury to contemporary interior design.
In 2019, Japanese indigo pioneer Buaisou made a series of indigo-dipped wooden
stools for Finnish furniture manufacturer Artek, employing techniques that have
been used for thousands of years.

Use
Ancient indigo is still beautifully relevant, particularly when used in
monochromatic treatments – don’t be afraid to use it in bold proportions. Deeper
tones of indigo can help to focus your thoughts, while lighter tones calm the mind,
making this an ideal addition to the palette for restful interiors and lifestyle
settings.

Airvase by Torafu Architects from the artist series. Dyed by Buaisou, Japan
 Woad

Colour Values
Hex code: #20355c
RGB: 32, 53, 92
CMYK: 97, 84, 37, 29
HSL: 219, 65%, 36%

Common Connotations
• Trustworthiness
• Strength
• Mystical

Woad in Art, Design & Culture

• ‘The Unicorn Tapestries’, France/The Netherlands, tapestries, 1495–1505
• Woad/Guado collection by Nudie Jeans, fashion, 2012
• Spiritual Glamour collection by Viktor & Rolf with Claudy Jongstra, fashion, A/W 2019/2020

Then
Woad is a deep blue that is derived from the leaves of Isatis tinctoria using heat,
oxygen and water in a slow process that creates a plethora of shades. Despite the
rather pungent and dirty manufacturing process, woad was an important
commodity in ancient Mediterranean and Middle Eastern civilizations. It became
particularly significant in Europe because of the plant’s ability to grow in the wild
on the banks of hills and to survive in temperate climates, making it a cheaper and
more readily available alternative to indigo. The colour still conjures up images of
ancient Celtic tribes terrorizing Roman invaders, their faces and bodies painted
with fierce woad tattoos.
However, great quantities of Isatis tinctoria are required to produce woad, and
a dye-fast version, in particular, could only be afforded by the wealthy, which later
led to it being associated with nobility. Medieval tapestries depict French kings
Charlemagne and Louis XI wearing rich robes of ermine fur, blue textiles and gold
embroidery. In the 17th century, Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, was
one of the first rulers to give an army a blue uniform. The reasons were economic:
the German states were trying to protect their dye industry against imported
competition.
 Woad was eventually superseded when, in the European colonization of North
America, a new indigo crop was developed and exported in great quantities from
the 18th century onwards. However, wool continued to be dyed with natural woad
up until the 1930s in the UK at least – in part due to the use of the colour in police
uniforms.

Now
Woad and other organic dyes have had a resurgence in recent years. The rise of the
‘slow movement’ in modern design and the ethics of sustainability have brought
attention to this natural, deep blue shade. Fashion label Viktor & Rolf
commissioned textile artist and natural dye specialist Claudy Jongstra to create
several fashion pieces using the colour in uneven quantities to great success for
their Autumn/Winter 2019–20 collection.

Use
Take woad into the modern era by using a triadic approach with shades of gold
and bright red. What is key here is the proportion of shades, with small accents
supporting this historical tone. This could be a good fit for brands wishing to
present a luxurious message that’s mindful of environmental impact.

‘The rise of the “slow movement” in modern design and

the ethics of sustainability have brought attention to this
natural, deep blue shade.’
The Triumph of Fame over Death, South Netherlandish, 1500–1530
Viktor & Rolf, Paris, Autumn/Winter 2019–20
 Ultramarine

Colour Values
Hex code: #4166F5
RGB: 65, 102, 245
CMYK: 77, 63, 0, 0
HSL: 228, 73%, 96%

Common Connotations
• Divinity
• Distinction
• Perfection

Ultramarine in Art, Design & Culture

• The Dead Christ and the Virgin by Neapolitan follower of Giotto, painting, c.1330–40
• Hahn/Cock by Katharina Fritsch, sculpture, 2013
• Bluets by Maggie Nelson; cover design by Suzanne Dean, book, 2017

Then
Once worth more than gold, ultramarine is derived from lapis lazuli, a semi-
precious stone mined in the mountains of Afghanistan and ground into a powder.
The method for obtaining lapis lazuli’s intense colour – through purifying and
kneading a combination of wax, resin and oil with the stone’s naturally occurring
mica and metallic amalgams – contributed to the pigment’s price and its rarefied
status.
Lapis lazuli first appeared as a pigment in the 6th century, used in Buddhist
paintings in Bamiyan, Afghanistan. The Egyptian Book of the Dead recognizes
lapis lazuli, carved in the shape of an eye and set in gold, as an amulet of
inestimable power. It’s no wonder that the colour was used to decorate the elite of
ancient Egyptian society: Tutankhamun’s sarcophagus was ornamented with the
stones; later, Cleopatra wore powdered lapis lazuli as eye shadow.
Ultramarine was also used in 13th- and 14th-century Anglo-Saxon illuminated
manuscripts, where the key elements of the universe were pictorially illustrated
with the pigment. These works showcase some early examples of colour
association, with the brilliant ultramarine used to depict God the Creator;
vermillion red standing for the earth or nature; and lead white representing the
flesh.
Because of its prohibitive cost, Italian artists of the same period, such as
Cimabue, Duccio and Giotto, preserved their stocks of ultramarine for important
religious subjects, notably depictions of the Virgin Mary. A particular shade was
even named after her: Marian blue. The colour’s alluring depth, radiant qualities
and price led Baroque master Johannes Vermeer into monetary ruin. It remained
expensive until a synthetic ultramarine was invented in 1826 by French chemist
Jean-Baptiste Guimet, which was then aptly named ‘French ultramarine’.

Now
Although the development of synthetic dyes and pigments have made a plethora
of rich blues possible, ultramarine has retained much of its power.
Twentiethcentury artists Wassily Kandinsky and Yves Klein both saw perfection
and divinity in the rich colour, the latter using it as the base for his superlative IKB
(International Klein Blue;). It remains a potent symbol of power as well: the
Queen of the United Kingdom and the Chancellor of Germany often wear a royal
blue sash at formal occasions.

Use
Play to the colour’s richness by combining it with sunkissed yellows and accents of
violet-pink in a powerful triadic colour scheme.
The Virgin in Prayer by Giovanni Battista Salvi da Sassoferrato, 1640–50
Autumn Landscape with Boats by Wassily Kandinsky, 1908
 Prussian Blue

Colour Values
Hex code: #010042
RGB: 1, 0, 66
CMYK: 100, 95, 31, 56
HSL: 241, 100%, 26%

Also Known As
• Midnight Blue

Common Connotations
• Melancholy
• Introspective
• Trustworthy

Prussian Blue in Art, Design & Culture

• The Great Wave off Kanagawa by Katsushika Hokusai, woodblock print, c.1830–2
• Photographs of British Algae: Cyanotype Impressions by Anna Atkins, photo book, 1843–53
• Slice Painting in Prussian Blue by Cian Donnelly, painting, 2004

Then
A deep, dark hue, Prussian blue is chemically created using prussic acid (hydrogen
cyanide). The pigment version was synthesized by German-Swedish chemist Carl
Wilhelm Scheele in 1782 and the result has an alluring, colour-shifting nature. In
sunlight, this midnight hue is identifiably blue to the eye, but it can easily appear
black, particularly under the limited gamut sometimes found in artificial lighting,
due to its chemical composition and its ability to absorb specific wavelengths of
visible light. As a result, the pigment colour cannot be accurately seen on a digital
display.
One of the first modern synthetic pigments, Prussian blue was also possibly the
world’s first ‘onbrand’ colour, when it became the predominant colour worn by the
infantry regiments of the Prussian Army in the 18th century. It was also quickly
adapted for use in dyes, inks and oil paints, supplanting ultramarine and Egyptian
blue thanks to its lightfast nature.
This new, intense hue was exported around the world and was quickly adopted
by Japanese painters such as Hokusai, replacing native indigo in woodblock
printing.

Now
At the turn of the 20th century, Pablo Picasso, while in his ‘blue period’, painted
obsessively with this colour, finding in its dark and shifting nature a form of
sincere emotional expression to describe his state of mind. This is perhaps its most
compelling association today, as a thoughtful and intelligent colour.

Use
Prussian blue’s tendency to reflect back very little light naturally draws us in to
inspect further, giving the colour an intensity and almost melancholic nature. This
serious colour is ideal for uses connected with mental wellbeing, working well in
combination with soothing greens.

Mère et enfant (Mother and Child) by Pablo Picasso, 1902

 Smalt

Colour Values
Hex code: #295ea0
RGB: 41, 94, 160
CMYK: 90, 67, 8, 1
HSL: 213, 74%, 63%

Common Connotations
• Timeless
• Confident
• Elegant

Smalt in Art, Design & Culture

• A Dutch Delft Dish from Het Moriaanshooft Factory, ceramics, 1679–86
• Arcanum by Olivier Van Herpt, ceramics, 2017
• A Pair of Memory Vessels LXIV by Bouke de Vries, sculpture, 2020

Then
Smalt is a semi-transparent, earthy, mineral blue with a rich history. Ancient
Egyptians drew smaltite ore out of the earth and first made a colourant by a
process of experimentation, melting the ore together with quartz and potash, in
much the same way as they made Egyptian blue (see Cerulean). The result was an
intensely blue, glass-like substance that was cooled, splintered, ground up and sold
to producers of glassware and porcelain.
In the 8th and 9th centuries, smalt gave Chinese pottery painters a colour with
which to illustrate life, nature and day-to-day tales and scenes, giving us the classic
blue-and-white chinaware that is ubiquitous today. When the blue-glazed
porcelain was shipped back to Europe by Dutch traders in the 17th century, it
inspired the famous blue-and-white Delftware. The centuries that followed saw
smalt take on a range of shades, from light mineral blue to deeply intense cobalt,
depending on the preferences of the ceramicware master artisans and the upper-
class fashion trends of the time.

Now
Smalt faded, literally, and was shunted aside by the chemically stable and
multifaceted synthetic cobalt in the 19th century. However, smalt still has a place
in art and design, if only in respect of its valued history. In 2016, Dutch designer
Olivier van Herpt, working for the Kunstmuseum Den Haag, 3D-printed
porcelain and smalt-cobalt pigments together for the first time, playfully
absorbing the blue back into the material once again.

Use
Reference the liquid quality of glazed smalt by using it in transparent layers,
softening with bone white and an accent of deep midnight blue to capture the
elegance of the hue.

Bottle with peony scroll, Jingdezhen ware, Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368)

 Cobalt

Colour Values
Hex code: #536fb0
RGB: 83, 111, 176
CMYK: 74, 57, 3, 0
HSL: 222, 53%, 69%

Common Connotations
• Otherworldly
• Joyful
• Profound

Cobalt in Art, Design & Culture

• Chefchaouen, Morocco, architecture, from 1492
• Limnos Wines: Krama Limnio Merlot, packaging by Luminous Design Group, graphic design 2019
• Darkening series by Lorna Simpson, paintings, 2019

Then
Cobalt is a bright and decorative hue associated with porcelain and impressionist
paintings, but it has a dark past. An element, cobalt was historically extracted
from mineral ores and was often found in combination with arsenic. Extracting it
was so dangerous, causing strange, unexplained deaths, that in the 17th century,
German miners named it ‘kobold’ after the evil mountaindwelling spirits of
Germanic folklore. It wasn’t until the 18th century when Swedish chemist and
smelting-plant owner Georg Brandt discovered its elemental nature and renamed
it cobalt, to rid it of its devilish associations.
In 1802, French chemist Louis Jacques Thénard boiled the ore with alumina to
create a stable pigment, and impressionist painters such as J.M.W. Turner, Pierre-
Auguste Renoir and Vincent van Gogh took heed. Thénard’s cobalt quickly
replaced organic smalt and, alongside synthetic ultramarine and Prussian blue,
ushered in a new blue age, providing a nuanced vocabulary to describe deep
waters and the purest skies. Van Gogh, who used all three new pigments in his
masterpiece The Starry Night (1889), described cobalt as ‘a divine colour and there
is nothing so beautiful for putting atmosphere around things.’*

Now
Since its early beginnings, this luminous blue has continued to inspire artists.
Cobalt literally predominates in William Scott’s 1972 series of paintings A Poem
for Alexander, alongside a limited palette of brown, black, white, yellow and green.

Use
Long since having thrown off its historical association with dark and deadly
mines, cobalt is an established colour of bright, outdoor, summertime scenes.
Combine with bright but natural impressionist colours – carmine, vermillion, pale
yellow and leaf greens – to capture this atmosphere.

Cobalt Predominates from the series A Poem for Alexander by William Scott, 1972
 Cerulean

Colour Values
Hex code: #6aa9de
RGB: 109, 169, 222
CMYK: 55, 22, 0, 0
HSL: 208, 51%, 87%

Also Known As
• Egyptian Blue
• Sky Blue

Common Connotations
• Sanctuary
• Tranquillity
• Creativity

Cerulean in Art, Design & Culture

• Girl on a Divan by Berthe Morisot, painting, c.1885
• Cinderella’s ballgown by Jane Law, worn by Lily James in Cinderella, costume design, 2015
• Couture collection by Elie Saab, fashion, S/S 2016

Then
The name ‘cerulean’ derives from a Latin word referring to the sky or heavens
above, aptly describing this rich hue. It was the name the Romans gave to Egyptian
blue. Historically important as possibly the first synthetic pigment, this blue was
made by the ancient Egyptians from copper, which gave it its hue, combined with
a mixture of silica, lime and an alkali. It remained in use until the means of
making it were forgotten with end of the Roman Empire.
In 1805, a new synthetic cerulean was created by the Swiss chemist Albrecht
Höpfner. The shade was popular with artists, especially with the rise of the
impressionist movement in the middle of the century. Obsessed with capturing
the quality of light, many impressionist artists followed developments in colour
theory, notably the work of French chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul. Chevreul’s
theory of ‘simultaneous contrast’ suggested that a colour’s visual appearance can
be affected by neighbouring hues regardless of their material consistency. Instead
of mixing colours on the palette, the impressionists painted dabs of pure colours
on the canvas, placing analogous or complementary shades side by side. This
technique relies on the optical effects of the colours to do the work of mixing, as
demonstrated so effectively in Claude Monet’s Water Lilies paintings.

Now
When you look closely at Monet’s works, you will often find a garish spectrum of
colours dabbed over the canvas – but it appears natural enough when you stand
back. The colour combinations blend in the eye, drawing out each other’s subtle
nuances, mimicking the effects of light and shadow. More recently, ‘colour field’
painters such as Mark Rothko and Willem De Kooning have explored a similar
approach to create balanced sonatas of colour.

Use
In Monet’s skyscapes and lily ponds, you will often find colours and tints of violet
beside blue, analogous on the colour wheel, offset with a tiny dab of
complementary yellow to enliven the whole palette. His example inspires us to
understand the way colours interact, to consider the effects of our palettes and
proportions holistically.
Water lilies, water study, morning (detail) by Claude Monet, from a series of eight large canvases painted at
Giverny, c.1914–18
 Glaucous

Colour Values
Hex code: #849bab
RGB: 132, 155, 171
CMYK: 51, 31, 25, 0
HSL: 205, 23%, 67%

Common Connotations
• Natural
• Ambiguous
• Meditative

Glaucous in Art, Design & Culture

• Room 606, SAS Radisson Hotel (formerly Royal SAS), Copenhagen, by Arne Jacobsen, interior design, 1950
• Eventbrite offices, San Francisco, by Rapt Studio, interior design, 2014
• Cosm Chair by Studio 7.5 for Herman Miller, furniture, 2020

Then
Sometimes green and sometimes blue, the ancient Greeks – who famously did not
distinguish between the two hues – used the word γλαυκός, or glaukós, to describe
the pale grey or blue-green appearance of aloe leaves. Later, the colour would be
identified in the fleeting storm-grey feathers of the glaucous gull, as well as the
grey-green haze of glaucoma. Poets of the ancient world loved this colour for its
mutability, sometimes applying the name to browns and yellows, as well as the
more common greys, greens and blues.
Over the centuries, the ephemeral colour persisted: in Latin, it took the
spelling we use today, becoming ‘glauk’ in Middle English, and it enjoyed a revival
among Romantic artists and poets who revered both the ancient Greeks and the
natural world that glaucous blue evokes.

Now
Both its restless changeability and its eye-pleasing harmony have kept this shade
relevant and useful. In the 1950s the shade found a renaissance when Italian
typewriter manufacturer Olivetti and Danish architect Arne Jacobsen both used
the shade to soften the forms and encourage acceptance of their progressive
designs.
 Readily found in nature but difficult to pin down, this colour remains
important, if obscure, for artists of all fields. In a 2018 multimedia performance
commissioned by Tate St Ives, Cornish artist Nina Royle explored the
contradictions and unclassifiable nature of the colour blue through her work
entitled Glaucous.

Use
Born out of the observation of the natural world, this shade is uniquely suited to
instilling the meditative quality of the blue-green sea wherever it is found. A
calming and understated shade, it can be given prominence without overpowering
or offending the eye. Try balancing the cool sea-blue of glaucous with its warm,
complementary terracotta to create a balanced and restorative atmosphere.
Room painted in Coastal Grey from the Dulux Colour Futures palette, 2021
 Teal

Colour Values
Hex code: #367589
RGB: 54, 118, 137
CMYK: 81, 43, 36, 8
HSL: 194, 61%, 54%

Common Connotations
• Clarity
• Creativity
• Luxury

Teal in Art, Design & Culture

• Virginia Woolf by Vanessa Bell, painting, 1912
• Vespa 98 by Enrico Piaggio, automotive, 1946
• iMac G3 by Apple in Bondi Blue, product design, 1998

Then
A modern-day hero, teal got its first outing as a colour in 1917, the name deriving
from the Eurasian teal – a freshwater duck with a distinctive blue-green marking.
Mexican artist Leonora Carrington, born the same year as the colour, made great
use of this opulent shade in her surrealist landscapes, often pairing it with golds,
blues and reds in jewel-like combinations. The colour also found rich expression
in the works of master colourist Henri Matisse, who often paired it with orange to
sensationally bold and playful effect.
However, it was post-war Europe that really embraced the colour: hungry for
the new, Vespa launched its first scooter in teal in 1946 and generated a media
frenzy around its fresh use of the shade. Two years later, in 1948, the Plochere
Color System, a publication for interior designers, added ‘Teal Blue’ to its
repertoire, thrusting the colour into the interior design scene of the 1950s and
’60s. Italian designer Gio Ponti made glamorous use of the colour for interiors by
pairing it with modernist architecture, chic vintage pinks, wingback chairs and
sleek teak accents, turning teal into a modern yet approachable design statement.

Now
The popularity of this modern colour has been building steam for decades.
Thought to promote and support our ability to concentrate and think clearly
because of its calming effects on the nervous system, the hue was one of the first
16 colours in HTML/CSS web coding and the background screen colour of
Windows 95. It’s no surprise that when Apple launched its iconic iMacs in 1998,
teal was one of the chosen shades.
Not only has teal found favour in the innovative field of information
technology, it has also been a darling of the fashion industry for years. Perhaps
due to its association with the charismatic eras of the ’20s, ’50s and ’60s, or
perhaps because it pairs well with gold and elegant rose hues, teal seems a natural
fit for the red carpet.

Use
Modern and versatile, teal can both blend in as a neutral to soothe and bring
tranquillity to interior and product design, or work its chic magic in bolder
outings. Hark back to Gio Ponti’s retro sophistication by pairing teal with a
complementary mid-tone pink, and ground it with darker and lighter neutrals.

Lettera 32 typewriter, designed by Marcello Nizzoli for Olivetti in 1963

 Process Cyan

Colour Values
Hex code: #00aeef
RGB: 0, 174, 239
CMYK: 100, 0, 0, 0
HSL: 196, 100%, 94%

Also Known As
• Printer’s Cyan
• Process Blue

Common Connotations
• Optimism
• Simplicity
• Inspiration

Process Cyan in Art, Design & Culture

• Colour Sound by Karl Gerstner, silkscreen print, 1973
• ‘Winston Churchill: The Wilderness Years’ poster design by Ivan Chermayeff, lithograph, 1983
• Amsterdam Urban Nature Map by Urban Good/Nature Desks, map, 2019

Then
Along with yellow, magenta and black, cyan is one of the four inky pillars of the
CMYK colour model that is used in most modern printing. As such, cyan really
came into its own with the development of modern printing techniques in the
early 1900s that allowed colour illustrations to be printed cheaply and accurately,
in particular with the rise of mass-market comic books from the 1930s onwards.
By the 1970s, the garish colours that characterized most comics were
beginning to show more nuance and restraint as a result of improved printing
techniques; it was in this decade also that Italian-born graphic designer Massimo
Vignelli redesigned New York’s subway map. His map married modern
typography with a rainbow of primary and secondary colours, including cyan, and
used a healthy pinch of graphic license to create a system that was clear and easy
to use. Although Vignelli’s map was not immediately loved – the abstraction from
reality he employed being too much for many at the time, who could not
recognize the physical city in the diagram – it has since become a classic example
of the use of simplified colour and design to transform the user experience.

Now
As one of the CMYK’s four fundamental pigments, cyan will always have a place
in design. The halftone technique that underpins the CMYK printing process
involves printing tiny dots that vary in size, space and colour – either cyan,
magenta, yellow or black – and combine to create a virtually infinite number of
colours. As a subtractive colour model (see Addition & Subtraction: Material &
Immaterial Colour), the more colours that are combined, the darker the result –
just as when children (or adults) mix all the colours on a paint palette and
inevitably end up with a disappointing muddy brown. Therefore, the simplest
combinations will always be the brightest, and you will often find pure cyans,
magentas and yellows wherever designers want to showcase clean colour or
reference the printing process.

Use
Colour can help users follow what would typically be a complicated sets of
instructions. Use distinct primaries such as cyan to help guide the eye and
promote confidence in navigating physical locations, printed plans or instruction
manuals.
New York Subway Map by Massimo Vignelli, 1972
 International Klein Blue

Colour Values
Hex code: #3b3ff6
RGB: 59, 63, 246
CMYK: 81, 73, 0, 0
HSL: 239, 76%, 96%

Common Connotations
• Infinite
• Playful
• Mesmerizing

International Klein Blue in Art, Design & Culture

• Blue by Derek Jarman, film, 1993
• Ready-to-Wear collection by Céline, fashion, S/S 2017
• Couture collection by Maison Margiela, fashion, S/S 2019

Then
‘Blue is the invisible becoming visible,’ French artist Yves Klein once said.* It was,
for him, not just a colour, but a pure expression of the infinite, and his obsession
with it led him to invent a new blue pigment.
In order to achieve his perfect blue, he worked with paint specialist Edouard
Adam to create a new binder for ultramarine that preserved the intensity of the
pigment in its pure, powdered form. The result was a luminous, matt blue paint,
which Klein patented under the name International Klein Blue (IKB) in 1960.
Klein went on to make a series of rich and radiant artworks with the colour, not
only nearly 200 IKB monochrome paintings, but also his Anthropometries, a
performative series that involved painting a naked woman (or women) with IKB,
who would then lie upon the canvas as a ‘human paintbrush’.

Now
Klein was following in a long tradition of artists who had, since the Renaissance,
and even earlier in the Middle East and Africa, reserved the colour for their most
holy and illustrious subjects. But in making the colour the subject – rather than
the means of representation – he inspired a new way of looking that continues to
reverberate in the art world. IKB has been adopted by artists, creatives and fashion
houses right up to the present day: for Spring 2017, fashion giant Céline launched
a collection of Anthropometries inspired prints with IKB, while John Galliano’s
Spring 2019 collection for Maison Margiela was linked by the motif of a distinctly
IKB poodle.

Use
For the 90th anniversary of Klein’s birth, the Yves Klein Archives partnered with
paint manufacturer Ressource to create an official IKB paint. A transformative
shade that commands attention, IKB is also ideal for product design, and graphic,
typeface and user interface design. To realize its full impact, IKB wants to be used
alone or on white.
 Table IKB® by Yves Klein, 1961

‘Blue has no dimensions, it is beyond dimensions ... blue

suggests at most the sea and sky, and they, after all, are in
actual, visible nature what is most abstract.’
– Yves Klein
 Electric Blue

Colour Values
Hex code: #0091ff
RGB: 0, 145, 255
CMYK: 73, 40, 0, 0
HSL: 206, 100%, 100%

Common Connotations
• Connectivity
• Technology
• Speed

Electric Blue in Art, Design & Culture

• 276. (On Colour Blue) by Joseph Kosuth, light installation, 1990
• ID.R electric racing car by Volkswagen, automotive, 2018

Then
People have been describing shades of blue as ‘electric’ since the late 19th century,
inspired by Thomas Edison using electricity to produce light. A shade often
connected to technology and advancement, David Bowie’s 1977 song ‘Sound and
Vision’ spells out what the interior design of the future might look like: ‘Blue, blue,
electric blue / That’s the colour of my room / Where I will live.’

Now
Electric blue remains the go-to colour for representing the future. Science fiction
films such as Minority Report (2002), Tron (1982) and Wall-E (2008) have all
utilized the colour when depicting futuristic technology, while energetic and
pulsating shades have been used to represent the promise of innovation across a
range of industries. It has been used in advertising campaigns for 5G connectivity,
and Ford’s 2020 ‘Go Electric’ campaign features electric blue vehicles and visuals.
Other brands including Volkswagen, Mercedes-Benz and Virgin have also
embedded this luminous colour in various advertising campaigns.
If electric blue is the colour of the future, however, it also comes with a
warning. A study by Harvard Medical School has recently shown how blue light
wavelengths produced by electronics, such as smartphones, suppress melatonin
levels, making it hard to fall asleep and potentially causing other health issues.

Use
Use electric blue sparingly to call attention to key features. Ideal for branding and
UI/UX applications, balance this vivacious colour with a grounding navy
background. Use accents around interaction points and buttons for easy usability,
while fonts and graphics could be offset with a complementary hot violet.

Vision AVTR concept car by Mercedes-Benz, 2020

 YInMn Blue

Colour Values
Hex code: #00289b
RGB: 0, 40, 155
CMYK: 100, 94, 4, 2
HSL: 225, 100%, 61%

Common Connotations:
• Cooling
• Futuristic
• Balanced

Then
In 2009, chemist Mas Subramanian of Oregon State University made a real-life,
out-of-the-blue discovery, of which we are only now just beginning to see the
fantastic potential. This was all thanks to a lab accident in which a super-heated
mixture of the elements yttrium, indium and manganese fused in an evaporation
dish within moments to reveal a tantalizing new shade of blue. Even more
remarkable, it is the first truly new blue to surface since cobalt in 1802, over 200
years ago.

Now
What’s key about this new artificial pigment is that it is almost completely
unmuddied by other colours. It doesn’t fade over time, is stable when mixed with
oil or water and it reflects a high proportion of infrared light. The colour is one of
the purest forms of blue we are likely to be able to see, as its crystalline structure
absorbs red and green light wavelengths while reflecting blue wavelengths almost
exclusively. In 2015, a licensing agreement was reached for commercial
production. The shade is already yielding a high-performance value and a proven
ability to keep temperatures down when used with tech devices, cars and aircraft.

Use
This vibrant shade can be paired with greens and violet pastels to provide a
cooling environment. A bright red could juxtapose the blue in a high-contrast
scheme, ideal for wayfinding or controls.

YInMn Blue by Kremer Pigmente

___________
* Roskill, Mark (ed.), The Letters of Vincent Van Gogh, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997
* Weitemeier, Hannah, Yves Klein, Cologne: Taschen, 2016
Pink & Purple

A little bit redder, a tiny bit bluer, very few truly spectral violets appear in the
natural world, and violet is also the colour wavelength that is hardest for our
eyes to detect, making it a deeply mysterious and elusive hue. Pinks,
meanwhile, make up a fluid, shapeshifting family adopting many faces: pinks
can be gentle and soothing, but they can also be shocking, rebellious and
powerful. Both pinks and purples are mixes of key primary colours; as a
result, these hues run the gamut of personalities, associations and moods.
Throughout history, pink has assumed a range of guises, at various times
being considered masculine, feminine, sensual, tasteless, chic and opulent. In
17thcentury China, it was not recognized as a colour at all, the word for pink
meaning ‘foreign colour’; it was eventually brought into the culture under
increasing Western influence. However, we know that ancient Egyptians were
making natural rose-tinted dyes for cloth, probably from limestone, long
before today’s shades and associations came along.
In the West today, pinks are typically entrenched with ideas of femininity,
but this association did not come about until the early-to-mid 20th century.
When pink and blue pastel hues were created in the 19th century, pink was
seen as a boyish version of masculine red; a stronger colour than the dainty
blue that at the time was thought to be more appropriate for girls. By the
1950s, this had changed thanks to the rise of consumerism in post-war
America and branding that used pink as a symbol of hyper-femininity.
However, its countercultural leanings in the 1970s and ’80s and the
emergence of millennial pink make it a case study in how perceptions of
colour are entangled with the concerns and contexts of each generation.
Exploring the purple family reveals a similar story of evolution. Purple
gained fame with Julius Caesar who, influenced by Cleopatra’s use of the
colour, adopted it as the colour of emperors. Subsequently, it became a royal
colour, with a strict monopoly around who was allowed to wear it. This can’t
have been hard to enforce, as scientists have estimated that it would have
taken around 12,000 harvested Murex snails to create just 1.4 grams of Tyrian
purple, barely enough to cover a small swatch of fabric, and so the pigment
was extravagantly expensive.
Purple is still associated with royalty, status and luxury across much of the
world, but it is also commonly linked with mysticism and divinity. As the
colour most commonly used to represent the crown or Sahasrara chakra in
Ayurvedic and Tantric Buddhist meditation, it is also linked to pure
consciousness and the highest spiritual states. In the West, it has long been
connected with the supernatural. Today, we are seeing the magic of purple
pigments in action, with violet-tinged bacterial dyes presenting extraordinary
new opportunities for sustainable textile production.

Colours in this chapter:

Tyrian Purple

Magenta

Violet

Heliotrope

Rose

ShockingPink

Baker-MillerPink

Neon Pink

Pinkish

MillennialPink

PalePink
Aubergine

Beetroot

Living Lilac
 Tyrian Purple

Colour Values
Hex code: #472a4c
RGB: 71, 42, 76
CMYK: 72, 87, 42, 39
HSL: 291, 45%, 30%

Common Connotations
• Royalty
• Exclusivity
• Power

Tyrian Purple in Art, Design & Culture

• New Balance x Concepts 990v2 ‘Tyrian’, footwear, 2016
• ‘The Soft Enfilade’ show space by AMO for Miu Miu, set design, 2017
• Purple Poem for Miami by Judy Chicago, performance art, 2019

Then
This rich purple dye comes from predatory Murex snails, specifically the odorous
secretions of a mucous gland located near the anus, dried and boiled. Legend has
it that it was first discovered when the Greek hero Hercules’ dog chewed on a
Murex shell on the shores of Tyre. When his mouth turned purple and the dye was
revealed, Hercules’ amorous nymph ‘companion’ demanded a garment of the same
colour. When Hercules told King Phoenix of his encounter, the monarch decided
that the rulers of Phoenicia would wear purple as a symbol of royal status.
The Romans named the shade sacer murex (‘sacred purple’), and it was heavily
priced and restricted, with severe penalties for those who wore it without imperial
permission. The Vestal Virgins, chaste priestesses responsible for the wellbeing of
Rome, wore headdresses with purple stripes signalling that their person was
sacrosanct, and any transgression considered a crime. In fact, the Romans were so
obsessed with the purity and status of the colour that adoratio purpurae (‘the
kissing of the purple’) was an act of kissing purple cloth at the feet of the emperor
to honour its value and worth.

Now
In the late 1850s, British chemist William Perkin accidentally derived the pigment
mauve out of coal tar, a readily available substance during the Industrial
Revolution. When Queen Victoria and Empress Eugénie were seen wearing
elaborate mauve dresses, ‘mauve mania’ saw the shade enjoy a new, widespread
popularity.
While purple may have become common with Perkin’s discovery, the hue has
lost none of its cachet. Worn by ordinary people, the colour has supported radical
ideas including feminism: it was used alongside green and white to mark the
Suffragettes’ ‘Votes for Women’ campaign at the turn of the 20th century. In more
recent times, it has regained a sensual mystique in the hands of luxury brands
such as Dior and Yves Saint Laurent, who used it in the branding of their
dangerous-sounding perfumes Poison and Opium.

Use
Create a powerful, modern combination using this exclusive tone matched with
vibrant emerald green for trustworthy statements and attentiongrabbing
messaging.

‘While purple may have become common, the hue has

lost none of its cachet. Worn by ordinary people, the
colour has supported radical ideas.’
Justinian I and his retinue, from a mosaic in the Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy, c.547 CE
Interior design by AMO for Miu Miu Womenswear Fall/Winter 2017/2018 at Paris Fashion Week
 Magenta

Colour Values
Hex code: #ec008c
RGB: 236, 0, 140
CMYK: 0, 100, 0, 0
HSL: 324, 100%, 93%

Also Known As
• Fuchsine
• Fuchsia

Common Connotations
• Revolutionary
• Assertive
• Flamboyant

Magenta in Art, Design & Culture

• Les Toits de Collioure by Henri Matisse, painting, 1905
• Foyer of Teatro Regio Torino Theater, Turin, by Carlo Mollino interior design, 1965–73
• The American Restaurant by Warren Platner, Kansas City, interior design, 1974

Then
The success of William Perkin’s mauve prompted the European scientific
community to embark on a race that would result in the discovery of over 50
further distinct colour dyes. French chemist François-Emmanuel Verguin was the
first to infuse aniline and tin chloride, a process that in 1858–9 resulted in a
reddish purple dye that Verguin called fuchsine (or fuchsia), after the flower.
At the same time, two British chemists, George Maule and Chambers Nicolson,
discovered a virtually identical dye that they named roseine. Fuchsine and roseine
were later renamed magenta by dye manufacturers to commemorate France and
Sardinia’s recent victory at the Battle of Magenta, one of the bloodiest and most
important skirmishes of the Second Italian War of Independence.
This weird and wonderful shade was embraced by Victorian fashionistas, who
splashed it onto dresses, petticoats, bonnets, stockings, shoes, gloves, parasols,
fans and jewellery. Like many early dyes, however, magenta’s allure concealed a
deadly secret: traces of arsenic were discovered in textiles dyed with the original
magenta synthesis. After a less poisonous process was adopted, magenta dye found
itself used in numerous consumer products, from wines and syrups to
pharmaceutical drugs and wallpaper.

Now
Increased production of cheap dyes resulted in a market flooded with bright,
garish magentas. American artist Jeff Koons’ use of the colour in his Sacred Heart
(1994–2007), Balloon Dog (1994–2000) and Balloon Rabbit (2005–10) sculptures
highlights its association with warmth and romance, riffing on the tokens we give
each other in celebration.
Today, magenta plays a key role in the CMYK printing process, sitting snugly
between red and blue and directly opposite green on the colour wheel, making it a
versatile colour with sass and style to spare.

Use
Pair with deeper, grounding shades of berry, gold and oatmeal. This luxurious
combination foregrounds the approachability of magenta when used in a balanced
way, making it ideal for packaging and branding.

‘This weird and wonderful shade was embraced by

Victorian fashionistas, who splashed it onto dresses,
petticoats, bonnets, stockings, shoes, gloves, parasols,
fans and jewellery.’
Ladies Wearing Crinolines at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, London, by T.H. Guerin, 1859
Balloon Rabbit (Magenta) by Jeff Koons, 2005–10
 Violet

Colour Values
Hex code: #6f6cb7
RGB: 111, 108, 183
CMYK: 63, 62, 0, 0
HSL: 242, 41%, 72%

Common Connotations
• Spirituality
• Intuition
• Eccentricity

Violet in Art, Design & Culture

• Pantone 18-3838 ‘Ultra Violet’, Pantone Colour of the Year, design, 2018
• Le Creuset ‘Ultra Violet’ collection, homeware, 2019
• Pegasus XP-2 by Virgin Hyperloop with BIG and Kilo, 2020

Then
What differentiates violet from other purples is its purity: violet is a spectral
colour, not a red-blue mixture, and as such it is rarely seen in nature. Nevertheless,
the earliest evidence of the colour dates to 25,000 years ago when Neanderthals
discovered a deep, dark violet shade by grinding the mineral manganese – a
substance and process still used by the Hopi Native Americans of Arizona to
colour ritual objects.
After the invention of mauve in 1856 and the subsequent popularity of purple
hues, it was not long before new violets followed. These included the highly
saturated but toxic cobalt violet in 1859 and a synthetic manganese violet in 1968.
The new colours ignited the imagination of artists and specifically the
impressionists, whose uninhibited use of them led to the term ‘violettomania’
being coined. Working outdoors, or en plein air, impressionists strived to capture
the effects of light and shadow using complementary colour pairings, which made
violet vital: if the sunlight was yellow, then its direct opposite shadow was not
black but violet.

Now
Violet has the shortest wavelength and our vision is relatively insensitive to its
colour, often just seeing black even though violet is present. Perhaps it is this
elusive quality that connects the hue to mystery and spirituality: in Ayurvedic
tradition, the Sahasrara chakra, indicating our highest spiritual centre, is
represented with violet. The musician Prince branded his music and unique style
with the mystical force of deep violet which he dubbed ‘purple rain’. In 2018, ‘Ultra
Violet’ 18-3838 was Pantone’s Colour of the Year, referencing the need for mystery
and meditative connection in a world oversaturated with information and
immediacy.

Use
‘Rare’ can be translated as ‘unusual’, and violet is often seen as an eccentric shade.
Use in confident, monochromatic schemes to win the trust of the viewer or user.
 Mathematics: The Winton Gallery, Science Museum, London by Zaha Hadid Architects, 2016

‘I have finally discovered the true colour of the

atmosphere. It’s violet. Fresh air is violet.’
– Monet
 Heliotrope

Colour Values
Hex code: #9a7ccf
RGB: 154, 124, 207
CMYK: 43, 55, 0, 0
HSL: 262, 40%, 81%

Common Connotations
• Ethereality
• Healing
• Individualism

Heliotrope in Art, Design & Culture

• Ziff by Frank Bowling, painting, 1974
• The Colour Purple by Alice Walker, book, 1982
• ‘Piggy Ring Box’ by Wang & Söderström, sculpture, 2018

Then
A head-turning shade of pure wonder, heliotrope was coined as a colour in 1882.
The petals of the flower for which the shade is named gain their radiant
appearance from the presence of anthocyanins, natural pigments that are found in
the leaves, roots, stems and flowers of certain plants. Today, we know that fruits
and vegetables with the distinctive red, purple and blue colourings, such as
blueberries, that indicate anthocyanins are rich in antioxidants, but people have
used such plants for medicine long before we understood this. Traditional Indian
healers in the Kancheepuram district of Tamil Nadu, for example, have used the
root and leaves to cure skin diseases and poison bites for centuries.

Now
Material forms of this colour in dyes and pigments are rare, and humans have
sought to reproduce it over the years. Finally, in the 2000s, thanks to the discovery
of YInMn blue, a new form of the inorganic purple dye has entered our palette.
Today, the interior design scene’s adoption of the shade’s playful, spirited
nature can be seen in the work
of Adam Nathaniel Furman, while in fashion, Nina Ricci utilized it as a
stimulator in a modern, bold and eclectic palette in its 2020/21 collection.
Use
Pair heliotrope with its opposite, a sunny marigold, for a bold bouquet that
expresses individuality and fun.

Nina Ricci, Paris Fashion Week, Womenswear Fall/Winter 2020/21

 Rose

Colour Values
Hex code: #d0747c
RGB: 208, 116, 204
CMYK: 16, 66, 40, 0
HSL: 355, 44%, 82%

Also Known As
• Rosa Pink
• Rococo Rose

Common Connotations
• Tenderness
• Sweetness
• Privilege

Rose in Art, Design & Culture

• Nova Statuta, UK, manuscript, c.1400
• The Swing by Jean-Honoré Fragonard, painting, 1767
• Nous restaurant and florist, Dongguan, China by Studio 0321, interior design, 2018

Then
The consummate pink since ancient times, Homer defined this hue as the colour
of morning light in The Odyssey, which includes no fewer than 20 mentions of the
‘rosy-fingered dawn’. A moment of wonder and awe, that gentle first light gives us
a sense of optimism towards the day ahead – and perhaps a rose-tinted viewpoint
on the past.
In its history since, this blush shade has pinballed between associations with
masculinity and femininity, extravagance and innocence. Raphael used the
sweeter side of the colour to depict tender, almost spiritual moments between
mother and child, but rose was also used to represent staunch masculinity, as can
be seen in the illuminated manuscript Nova Statuta, c.1400, which shows King
Henry V posing in a rosy pink tunic. The colour gained a more feminine status
among 18th-century European nobility when Madame de Pompadour, the chief
mistress of Louis XV, loved the colour so much that, in 1757, French porcelain
manufacturer Sèvres named its exquisite new shade of pink Rose Pompadour in
her honour.
In early-20th-century America, rose pink was again associated with
masculinity (this time with male sports) and extravagant wealth. The 2013 film
interpretation of F. Scott Fitzgerald’s 1925 novel The Great Gatsby picks up on this
in the three-piece suit worn by Leonardo DiCaprio, playing the sanguine Jay
Gatsby. The rose hue of this costume emphasizes Gatsby’s status while also
softening the impact of his outrageous behaviour.

Now
In our modern world, rose is used to soften a moment or message and to stand for
optimism in times of need. This worked to great success in the 2020 ‘Community
is Kindness’ billboard campaign in London by the BUILDHOLLYWOOD family
of JACK, JACK ARTS and DIABOLICAL, which called for empathy in the
community in the face of the Covid-19 pandemic.

Use
For a contemporary twist, pair naturalistic petal hues with a more daring, darker
purple to hint at deeper networks, particularly for digital communication
channels.
Elephant Candelabrum Vase (Vase à Tête d’Eléphant), Sèvres, 1757–8
‘Community is Kindness’ billboard campaign by the BUILDHOLLYWOOD family of JACK, JACK ARTS and
DIABOLICAL, London, 2020

‘In our modern world, rose is used to soften a moment or

message and to stand for optimism in times of need.’
 Shocking Pink

Colour Values
Hex code: #b51366
RGB: 255, 0, 255
CMYK: 25, 100, 36, 3
HSL: 329.3, 81%, 39.2%

Common Connotations
• Empowerment
• Passion
• Energy

Shocking Pink in Art, Design & Culture

• ‘Silence = Death’ project by Avram Finkelstein, Brian Howard, Oliver Johnston, Charles Kreloff, Chris
Lione, and Jorge Socarrás, lithograph print, 1987
• Do Women Have To Be Naked To Get Into the Met. Museum by Guerilla Girls, screenprint, 1989
• Lady Gaga in Brandon Maxwell at the Met Gala, fashion, 2019

Then
It was in 1937 that fashion designer Elsa Schiaparelli coined this determinedly
outrageous colour. With this bold shade, her designs stood out against the
restrained palettes that defined fashion during Second World War. Bright colours,
especially pink, were a means to both distract from and take a sartorial stance
against the fear, loss and deprivation that accompanied the global conflict.
In the decades that followed, shocking pink fell out of favour. The post-war ’50s
idealized pastel shades, while ’60s America rejected the colour, which was linked
to anti-establishment feminist movements.
But in the ’70s, the colour regained relevance in punkera London when Vivienne
Westwood and Malcolm McLaren branded their famous King’s Road clothing
boutique with a four-foot-high pink rubber sign announcing the name of the
shop: SEX.
From this moment, the colour was established as the shade of counterculture
and political action. Its use by punk bands including the Ramones and The Clash
established its edginess, and fashion designer Zandra Rhodes dyed her hair hot
pink. Meanwhile, the pink triangle became a symbol of solidarity in the face of the
AIDS crisis, after the important, awareness-raising ‘Silence = Death’ poster
campaign in 1987.

Now
In modern times, activism and shocking pink remain entwined, from the Pussyhat
Project that turned women’s marches against Donald Trump’s presidential
inauguration into a ‘sea of pink’ to the signature colour of the feminist vigilante
Gulabi Gang in India, as well as the current Extinction Rebellion campaign.

Use
Use the power of shocking pink with a series of equally contrasting off-beat allies
to create powerful branding or messaging to emphasize online and offline
campaigns.

‘I gave to pink, the nerve of the red, a neon pink, an

unreal pink.’
– Elsa Schiaparelli
Evening Jacket, Winter (silk velvet, silk & metallic thread embroidery with sequins) by Elsa Schiaparelli,
1937–8
Poster from the Rebellion Extinction group in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 2020
 Baker-Miller Pink

Colour Values
Hex code: #e68d8d
RGB: 230, 141, 141
CMYK: 7, 54, 34, 0
HSL: 0, 39%, 90%

Common Connotations
• Relaxing
• Calming
• Reassuring

Baker-Miller Pink in Art, Design & Culture

• Normann Copenhagen flagship store, Copenhagen, Denmark, by Hans Hornemann and Britt Bonnesen,
interior design, 2016
• Museum of Ice Cream, New York, USA, by Maryellis Bunn and Manish Vora, interior design, 2016

Then
Even fleeting moments with colour can be all that is needed to transform mood
and improve user experience. In the late 1970s, Alexander Schauss, director of life
sciences at the American Institute for Biosocial Research in Tacoma, studied
psychological and physiological responses to colour. His research on inmates at
the Naval Correctional Facility in Seattle led to findings that appeared to show
that a particular shade of pink – which he created himself by mixing pure white
paint with red semi-gloss paint – had a calming effect on those exposed to it. He
named the shade after the institute directors, Gene Baker and Ron Miller, who
allowed the walls and railings of the prison cells to be painted to create an
immersive environment. According to the study, over 156 days, no violent
incidents took place, where previously the prison had been rife with fights and
violent attacks.

Now
The validity of the original Baker-Miller experiments has been challenged in the
decades since they first took place, but the story has continued to inspire
designers. Interior brand Normann Copenhagen used the shade to entice users
into its stores, where it found that people relaxed and considered what they would
purchase for much longer. The Vollebak Baker-Miller pink hoodie was designed
specifically to help athletes prepare for endurance events. When zipped up and
enveloped in the colour, the wearer’s heart rate lowers, suggesting the colour’s
effect helps the heart work more efficiently.

Use
Create a calming equilibrium using lightly tinted neutrals and Baker-Miller pink.
You could also experiment with other colours known to have a calming effect,
such as turquoise.

Relaxation Hoodie in Baker-Miller Pink, by Vollebak, 2016

 Neon Pink

Colour Values
Hex code: #f600ca
RGB: 246, 0, 202
CMYK: 17, 87, 0, 0
HSL: 311, 100%, 96%

Common Connotations
• Psychedelic
• Playful
• Innovative

Neon Pink in Art, Design & Culture

• Untitled/Night-Time Traffic (Pink and Red Traffic Stream with White Sparks) by László Moholy-Nagy,
photography, c.1937–46
• End Around: Ganzfeld by James Turrell, light installation, 2006
• Ready-to-Wear collection by House of Holland, fashion, S/S 2019

Then
The word neon can broadly apply to a wide range of ultrabright, fluorescent
colours that have come to symbolize modernity, innovation and sometimes even
spirituality. In the 1960s and ’70s, American minimalist Dan Flavin used
fluorescent-light tubing and coloured gels to create simple geometric installations
that mixed light and colour like never before. In the same era, another American
artist, James Turrell, began experimenting with immersive light-and-space
environments. Some were lit with deep, diffused but intense monochrome pink.
Audiences reported the experience of entering these spaces to be profoundly
moving.
From the psychedelic pink-and-orange swirls of the ’60s to the acid house
music movement of the ’90s, neons have had a place in many counter-culture
movements of the last 50 years. The first issue of i-D magazine, released in 1980,
was a hot pink spot-printed paper zine stapled together by founders Terry and
Tricia Jones.

Now
The turn of the new millennium saw a nostalgic throwback to the music, movies
and video games of the previous decades. Flashes of neon pink are associated with
synthwave electro sounds and glitching screens in this resurgence in fluoro-
inspired graphic design, clothing and branding.

Use
Be wary of neon saturation: a pure black or white base and/or typography will
help to temper a hot pink for a contemporary, graphic look.

The Diagonal of May 25th by Dan Flavin, 1963

 Pinkish

Colour Values
Hex code: #ceafb2
RGB: 206, 175, 178
CMYK: 19, 31, 21, 0
HSL: 354, 15%, 81%

Common Connotations
• Intelligent
• Soothing
• Friendly

Pinkish in Art, Design & Culture

• Three Houses by Paul Klee, painting, 1922
• ‘A Tribute to Bauhaus’ collection by Sarit Shani Hay, furniture/textiles, 2019
• The Webster flagship store, LA, USA, by Adjaye Associates, architecture, 2020

Then
When we think of Bauhaus, it is usually primary-coloured palettes and imposing
concrete buildings that come to mind. Yet a warmer, earthier rose shade can be
found at the base of many a Bauhaus palette, as well as in photography, wallpaper
designs and printed posters.
This modern pink can be seen as a neutral underscore to support domestic life,
following the example set by Bauhaus artists and designers. A recent restoration of
Wassily Kandinsky’s house revealed that the living room was once coloured in
mustard-toned yellow and pinkish rose, and adorned with gold leaf details, with
great thought and consideration given to texture and placement. In the internal
hallways and entrances of Walter Gropius’s Dessau-Törten Housing Estate, the
ephemeral pinkish tone was used to provide a warm and welcoming atmosphere
to the social housing project. Paul Klee used pinkish to explore space and
dimension in Three Houses (1922), and Anni and Josef Albers carried the hue’s
friendly connotations over into domestic wallpapers and textiles.

Now
Perhaps the reason this colour passed relatively unnoticed in the Bauhaus canon
could be its resistance to classification – it is hard to pinpoint the exact pinkish
shade, as it was probably mostly mixed by hand. Nevertheless, this colour, or range
of colours, is inextricably linked with modernity and style, and we can still see the
ripple effects today, with designers and architects picking up a pink-led neo-
neutralism in architectural elements and retail interiors.

Use
Use pinkish as a neutral, warming base for any interior scheme. Block with
complementary botanical greens and saturated accents of deep red or orange for a
modernist nod.
Master House No. 3, Bauhaus Dessau, interior
 Millennial Pink

Colour Values
Hex code: #efc7c5
RGB: 239, 189, 185
CMYK: 4, 29, 19, 0
HSL: 5, 22%, 94%

Also Known As
• Tumblr Pink
• Scandinavian Pink
• Rose Quartz

Common Connotations
• Youthful
• Challenging
• Aspirational

Millennial Pink in Art, Design & Culture

• iPhone 6S in Rose Quartz by Apple, product design, 2015
• Pantone 13-1520 ‘Rose Quartz’, Pantone Colour of Year, design, 2016
• Peggy Porschen flagship, London, UK by Kinnersley Kent Design, interior design, 2019

Then
Millennial pink, an amorphous hue, was mentioned over 32,000 times online in
2017. With incredible media presence, the colour soared to popularity as savvy
lifestyle brands, social media and Generation-Y consumers propelled this
indistinct shade into the limelight. Hovering somewhere between rose gold and
dusty pink, even its name was contested, with Tumblr pink and Scandinavian pink
as hashtag challengers.
Perhaps the first glimpse of the shade’s coming importance was in Juergen
Teller’s 1998 shot of Kate Moss with once-bright-pink hair, washed out to salmon
at the roots, spilling over a pillow. When British fashion designer Paul Smith
opened his LA store in 2005, the entire exterior, painted in a punchy pastel pink,
was a strong style statement. But it was in the 2010s, with the rise of the Instagram
aesthetic, that this pink wall became a landmark for a generation. In 2014, Paul
Smith’s spring menswear collection was replete with pinks. That same year,
interior designer India Mahdavi curated the restyling of London restaurant
Gallery at Sketch with a show-stopping display of delectable rose quartz pink,
helping it to become the most Instagrammed restaurant in the world.
What happened after that was design history, and a conglomerate of brands
including Nike, Acne, Celine and Jonathan Saunders shared in the commercial, if
short-lived, success.

Now
The rise of millennial pink was a watershed moment, as with it, the pink family
took a new stand against conventional ideas around gender while at the same time
gaining mass commercial adoption.

Use
Play with monochromatic tonal schemes to create a more sophisticated and
contemporary millennial pink palette. This modern colour invites us to consider
its use in many applications, challenging conventional ideas of how and where we
use pink.

Fenty x Puma by Rihanna, Spring/Summer 2017

 Pale Pink

Colour Values
Hex code: #efded4
RGB: 239, 222, 203
CMYK: 5, 12, 13, 0
HSL: 22, 11%, 94%

Also Known As
• Modern Pink
• Neo-Pastel Pink

Common Connotations
• Calming
• Inviting
• Connecting

Pale Pink in Art, Design & Culture

• Untitled by Agnes Martin, painting, 1963
• COS + Snarkitecture pop-up store, LA, interior design, 2015

Then
Once the glow of millennial pink had faded, what remained was a less
ostentatious, more considered shade. As we turn our back on the excess of the
previous decades’ hyperconsumerism, we seek more meaningful, inclusive
products – and that includes our colour choices.
In the summer of 2017, two grid-like buildings sprung up in King’s Cross,
London. The new office buildings were part of a massive construction scheme to
regenerate the area, but what made them stand out from other prestigious
architectural projects being developed at the time were their rose pink and pale
pink exteriors. The pinks, emulating the bricks of the nearby St. Pancras
Renaissance Hotel, talked to each other; they were connected but distinct and
created an enhanced sense of place.

Now
The use of pale pink is as intuitive as it is useful for architecture and urban
planning, as demonstrated by the Secondary School Romanshorn in Switzerland,
completed in 2019. Designed by Bak Gordon Arquitectos and Architekturbüro
Bernhard Maurer GmbH, its pink concrete exterior with deeper pink window
shutters combines with beige tiles to soften the otherwise austere exterior while
reflecting light, creating a cool and bright environment for learning.
Colour in architecture can be smarter and more sustainable when used
intelligently. By selecting lighter colours in crucial areas of the buildings we
occupy, we can harness natural light to create visually open and welcoming spaces
– even in dense urban environments.

Use
Use inviting pale pink with contrasting supportive tones of green and sky blue to
promote a gentle but dynamic dialogue.
R7, UK, by Duggan Morris Architects, 2017
 Aubergine

Colour Values
Hex code: #503c47
RGB: 80, 60, 71
CMYK: 61, 68, 47, 49
HSL: 237, 25%, 31%

Also Known As
• Eggplant

Common Connotations
• Distinctive
• Sophisticated
• Approachable

Aubergine in Art, Design & Culture

• 670 lounge chair by Charles and Ray Eames for Herman Miller, 1958
• Vegetal chair by Ronan and Erwan Bouroullec for Vitra, furniture, 2009

Then
The deep purple-brown shade known as aubergine was first classified as a colour
in 1915. During the first part of the 20th century, a mood of post-war austerity
and functionalism saw a movement towards standardized colours and a set limit
for manufacture, particularly in paint and industrial coatings, famously promoted
by Henry Ford. This left many designers exasperated, including Charles and Ray
Eames. Upon creating new furniture pieces for Herman Miller, Ray was left
uninspired by the basic shades of resin coatings available to her. Influenced
instead by a Japanese eggplant, Ray fine-tuned a lustrous aubergine lacquer shade
for the legs of the 1968 Eames chaise longue and the leather covers of the earlier
lounge chair, instantly lifting the distinctive shade to style highs.

Now
Today aubergine is used as a sophisticated alternative to plain black. Brothers
Ronan and Erwan Bouroullec have created furniture pieces for Vitra such as the
Vegetal chair, using the deep hue on structural parts to neutralize the stark
industrial plastics. In doing so they created an approachable aesthetic that has the
ability to harmonize with different interior environments and within a product
line up.

Use
Warm gold accents balance rich dark aubergines and black to create an overall
cosy and harmonious feel to interior design schemes.

Lane tiles by Barber & Osgerby for Mutina, 2018

 Beetroot

Colour Values
Hex code: #d31448
RGB: 344, 90, 83
CMYK: 10, 99, 59, 2
HSL: 344, 90%, 83%

Common Connotations
• Vibrant
• Earthy
• Natural

Beetroot in Art, Design & Culture

• ‘Dyed by Nature’ by G-Star Raw with Archroma, fashion, 2019
• From a Mezzanine Window by Jane Bustin, mixed-media painting, 2019

Then
Anyone who’s ever cooked with this root vegetable will know how hard it is to
remove a beetroot stain from clothes. In fact, beetroot juice has been used as a
vegetable dye since at least the 16th century. In Victorian Britain, it was deployed
to tint all manner of foodstuffs – it was even used as a coloured hair rinse and
served as a nifty lip and cheek stain. Beetroot’s pink tint comes from a mixture of
betalain pigments. Up until 1856, almost all textile dyes were made from natural
sources, but with the invention of synthetic dyes and the ensuing vogue for vivid
hues, natural colours like beetroot were all but forgotten.

Now
Natural pigments are making a comeback, in part due to health and
environmental concerns about the toxic and non-biodegradable nature of artificial
dyes. Bio-derived pigments can make recycling consumer products simpler and,
in turn, help them to become more sustainable too. Many plants and fruits we eat
every day, such as avocados, onions and oranges, have valuable colours within
their skins and peels. Normally these are left to rot in landfills, but material
innovation startup Kaiku Living Color, founded by Nicole Stjernswärd, transforms
this waste into a high value resource for artists and designers.
Use
Take inspiration for an all-natural palette based on the different parts of the beet
plant, from the muddy roots to the red-purple heart and the tender green leaves.

Beetroot dye extracted using Kaiku’s machinery

 Living Lilac

Colour Values
Hex code: #9e9af7
RGB: 158, 154, 247
CMYK: 39, 39, 0, 0
HSL: 243, 38%, 97%

Also Known As
• Living Lividum

Common Connotations
• Innovative
• Sustainable
• Intelligent

Living Lilac in Art, Design & Culture

• Living Colour project by Laura Luchtman & Ilfa Siebenhaar, textiles, 2017
• Bio-dye for textiles by Colorifix, dyes, 2018

Then
Tiny violet dots scatter to create an intriguing surface effect. This intricate
detailing is not the work of human hands but made by growing bacteria. Microbes
are revealing a new frontier of hue and shade. This new addition to the Forbes
Pigment Collection by Faber Futures in 2018 isn’t just a dye or pigment but a set of
instructions for creating colour from bacteria.
For the past seven years, Natsai Audrey Chieza, the bio-design pioneer and
founder of biotech consultancy Faber Futures, has been exploring the ability of
microbes to generate pigment. The S. coelicolor bacteria pigment molecule
(actinorhodin) holds the key to a range of blue-purple hues. When these soil-
dwelling organisms interact with protein fibres, they produce a living,
biodegradable pigment, dyeing the textiles without the use of chemicals and
requiring substantially less water than conventional processes. What emerges is
colour that is organic in its nature, and which gracefully fades in the light: a new
aesthetic and zero-waste concept for consumers and brands alike.

Now
This incredible innovation is a massive technological shift in colour, and it
presents game-changing possibilities for a waste-free textile industry. In 2020, bio-
design company Living Colour Collective exposed the bacteria strain J. lividum
and its deep violet pigment molecule (violacein) to pH levels, temperature and
even sound to produce an organic tonal colour range for sportswear giant Puma.
Their joint Design To Fade concept reinvents the predictable activewear palette
while minimizing the adverse effects on the environment.
The expectation is that this field of scientific research will continue to evolve,
even forming predesigned palettes that react to different base materials and
environments.

Use
Take inspiration from the range of bio-organic blueviolet shades generated by this
organic substance, and combine with complementary coral accents to create an
advanced and intelligent palette.

‘This incredible innovation is a massive technological

shift in colour, and it presents game-changing
possibilities for a waste-free textile industry.’
Colony of Streptomyces coelicolor bacteria
‘Design to Fade’ by Puma x Living Colour Collective, 2020
White & Pale

Blink and you could miss these unassuming shades. But learn to tune your
eye to the subtlety of the white family, and you will find that white isn’t
always what it seems; as with all colour, there is depth and duality to be found
once you scratch the surface. The eye sees variations in pale tones well due to
the colour’s affinity with light: the whiter the hue, the more light is reflected
into our eyes.
Context and culture can sway and affect the emotional responses of any
given shade, and it’s arguably easier to observe these nuances in the pale
family than in any other colour group. A perfect pale pebble held in the palm
of your hand can feel special, pure, untarnished; but when the same shade is
applied to an entire room, it can bring the temperature down and feel harsh
and clinical.
The earliest natural white pigments – chalk and burned bone – conjure up
evocative traditions. In Japanese, the character for ‘white’, 白 (shiro) – appears
with the compound for ‘emptiness’, while in China, white is transformational,
signalling death and sadness, but also rebirth. A blank page, a clean slate, a
new life in a pale eggshell, white can be an empty void to be filled.
Alongside these varying hues, there is also the ultimate brilliant white.
This pigment, titanium white, did not become available until the early 20th
century; now it seems to be omnipresent. Dazzling white is taken for granted,
used everywhere from eye-catching road markings to kitchen appliances and
medical products, creating a ‘safe and clean’ signal that consumers trust.
The minimalist art movement of the late 1950s saw achromaticity raised
to new heights, idealizing empty white space to play with the perception and
experience of light, and aesthetically we’ve never looked back. Today, tech
brands such as Google and Facebook use white extensively for their
typography and backgrounds. Apple uses tinted whites and light metals as a
core brand palette, making their products feel essential and modern, and
provoking minimal distraction from the quality of the product.
 In recent years, contemporary designers and scientists are also exploring
the phenomenon of iridescence that occurs naturally in pearls and certain
other materials. The amazing colours we see in iridescent substances are
created by the interactions of light with material structure rather than
pigment, inspiring a new way of thinking about colour itself.

Colours in this chapter:

Chalk

Lead White

Plaster

Bone

Titanium White

Lunar White

Glacial Ice

Architectural White

Pearl
 Chalk White

Colour Values
Hex code: #f5ede4
RGB: 245, 237, 288
CMYK: 0, 3, 7, 4
HSL: 32, 7%, 96%

Also Known As
• English Whiting
• Creta

Common Connotations
• Tactile
• Tranquil
• Expressive

Chalk White in Art, Design & Culture

• The Uffington White Horse, UK, land art, late Bronze Age
• Chalk Paths by Eric Ravilious, painting, 1935
• The Erratics by Darren Harvey-Regan, photo book, 2019

Then
Millions of years ago, while Earth’s landscape was still forming into the continents
we know today, the flourishing oceans left huge deposits of microscopic
phytoplankton that over time turned into calcium carbonate, or chalk. The famous
white cliffs of England’s coastline are an ode to this fossilized remnant.
A soft white substance that disintegrates easily into powder, chalk is mineral
and colour combined, its materiality highly linked to its use. In early cave
drawings, it was used to shade the illustrations of red ochre bison. ‘Chalking’ was
an ancient ritual in England that involved communities or ‘chalkers’ smashing
chalk to a paste to create the oldest form of English art, including the Uffington
White Horse in Oxfordshire, as well as several other figures of men and horses
carved into hillsides. Chalk has also been used for millennia as a filler and aid in
painting to allow the mixing of pale hues, and it remains a popular artists’
medium today.

Now
Scrawled on the body, a blackboard or tarmac, chalk is an instant communication
tool. Ethiopia’s Kara people traditionally paint their faces and bodies with chalk to
boost the chances of finding love and scare off rivals. The act of decoration is a
unifying experience and a means of identity and rite of passage.

Use
Chalk white can counterbalance saturation well. Fuse with hot pink and yellow
ochre to express a confident visual identity.

Young Kara man with chalk paint, Omo River, Ethiopia, by Carol Beckwith and Angela Fisher, 2013
 Lead White

Colour Values
Hex code: #f2f9e7
RGB: 242, 249, 231
CMYK: 3, 0, 7, 2
HSL: 83, 7%, 98%

Also Known As
• Flake White
• Cosmetic White
• Cremnitz White

Common Connotations
• Purity
• Concealment
• Sombre

Lead White in Art, Design & Culture

• Portrait of a Lady (‘La Schiavona’) by Titian, painting, c.1510–12
• Lucy by Marlene Dumas, painting, 2004

Then
Also known as flake white, this was the predominant white used by artists until
the synthetic pigments of the 19th century replaced this dangerous colour.
First records indicate use of lead white started in Anatolia from the 4th
century, where earthenware pots were lined with lead and vinegar and sealed with
potent animal dung. Noxious fermenting vapours cooked up a flaky layer of lead
carbonate, which was scraped, powdered and sold. Painters such as Titian,
Vermeer and Rembrandt daubed with these lead-based pigments to bring a lucid
quality to folds on elegant attire, ceramic jugs and skin tone. In Elizabethan
England, lead white was used as a cosmetic to hide age and disguise skin
imperfection. Rapidly absorbed into the human body, lead poisoning caused
physical and neurological afflictions; the whiter the faces, the more damage done.

Now
This toxic pigment remained in household paints, ceramic enamelware and
cosmetics until the 1970s when it was banned. We can see its legacy in modern
cosmetics, and while the concealers of today are thankfully not toxic, we might
still remember lead white’s ode to a perfectionism that was ultimately
unobtainable, and even deadly.

Use
Create an unusual off-beat palette with a similar solid white opaque base. The
original lead white pigment had a subtle warm undertone that will pair well with
muted mustard yellows for a rich yet weighty duotone palette ideal for luxury
branding.
Woman in Blue Reading a Letter by Johannes Vermeer, 1663–4
 Plaster

Colour Values
Hex code: #dbcabf
RGB: 219, 202, 191
CMYK: 16, 21, 24, 1
HSL: 23, 13%, 86%

Also Known As
• Limewash
• Lime White

Common Connotations
• Protective
• Honest
• Raw

Plaster in Art, Design & Culture

• Woman Holding a Sistrum, Egypt, painting, 1250-1200 BCE
• ‘The Death of Pentheus’, the House of the Vettii, Pompeii, Italy, fresco, 62 CE
• Model III by Rachel Whiteread, sculpture, 2006

Then
The perfect base, plaster is a warm, mellow pale with a tinge of pink. Traditionally
made with lime or gypsum, water, ash – even hair – it was first used by early
civilizations to protect reed shelters. Ancient hieroglyphics were often painted on
smooth gypsum surfaces, and the Romans poured and cast in plaster many
thousands of copies of Greek statues and developed frescos, painting directly onto
the plaster on the walls of the wealthy, such as the House of the Vettii in Pompeii.

Now
Modern design has developed a nostalgia for the setting plaster and chalky patinas
often found in interiors in places with warm climates. A pale plaster wall evokes
tactility, colour and even a sense of place in our psyche. This is combined with a
renewed desire to enjoy raw surface finishes in interiors.
We also have our awakening eco-conscience to thank for plaster’s renewed
popularity in a material sense, with greater use of limewash and chalk-based
paints the result of increased knowledge of the damage of chemicals found in
other base paints.

Use
This delicate tone has its roots in the past but can still deliver an inviting,
contemporary mood. Create a calm, natural interior by combining with deep
browns and burnt caramels.

Plaster emblema with Aphrodite and Eros, Mediterranean, c.1st–2nd century CE

 Bone

Colour Values
Hex code: #d9cfc6
RGB: 217, 207, 198
CMYK: 17, 18, 22, 1
HSL: 28, 9%, 85%

Common Connotations
• Corporeal
• Grounding
• Soft

Bone in Art, Design & Culture

• Still Life with a Skull (Vanitas) by Philippe de Champaigne, painting, c.1660s
• Skeletons by Olaf Breuning, installation, 2002
• Remember You Must Die series by Emma Witter, sculptures, 2019

Then
Ancient humans created one of the earliest pigments by roasting animal skeletons
in fire pits. The gritty, whitish mineral substance has a warm and soft undertone
due to its calcified state. As an artist’s pigment, with less gruesome alternatives
available, it became obsolete quickly, but bones have a longstanding relationship
with art history – from Leonardo da Vinci, who dissected cadavers to improve his
figure drawing, to the 17th-century Dutch artists who included a faded skull in
still life paintings as a memento mori, a symbol of mankind’s mortality.

Now
Death is an archetypal theme, usually represented as a white skeleton or cloaked
reaper. In traditional practices such as tarot, however, death is not menacing but a
herald of rebirth. Either way, the traces that we leave after death have been an
enduring fascination and a source of inspiration to artists up to the present day. A
2002 installation, for example, saw Swiss artist Olaf Breuning arranging skeletons
in gardens or rooms as a piercing reminder of our barest, authentic selves.
In Cumbrian Bone Marble, artist Yesenia Thibault-Picazo imagines future bone
material to be unearthed in hundreds of thousands of years at the site of the mass
burial of a million cattle slaughtered in response to the foot-and-mouth epidemic
in 2001. Exploring this thought-provoking project, we might also be reminded of
the millions of tonnes of food waste that we produce annually.

Use
Pair this grounding tone with unbleached, soft neutrals, ideal for modern spaces
or environments where a dialogue with the past is critical.

From the series Cumbrian Bone Marble by Yesenia Thibault-Picazo, 2013

 Titanium White

Colour Values
Hex code: #fbfaf6
RGB: 251, 251, 251
CMYK: 2, 1, 4, 0
HSL: 48, 2%, 98%

Also Known As
• Brilliant White
• Bright White

Common Connotations
• Purity
• Divine
• Iconic

Titanium White in Art, Design & Culture

• White on White by Kazimir Malevich, painting, 1918
• Broadway Boogie Woogie by Piet Mondrian, 1942–3
• iBook in White by Apple, product design, 2001

Then
Elusive for millennia, the whitest of all whites eventually arrived in pigment form
with the invention of titanium white in the early part of the 20th century. The
formula was twice as opaque as lead white and reflected considerably more light
than its predecessors, making it appear much brighter when used in paint. This
transformed the use of white in art and design, giving birth to the bright tone we
are now used to seeing.
Conceptually, brilliant white can be used to represent a resolute start point: the
aftermath of a big bang; white light; a clean escape; a new beginning.

Now
Ubiquitous today, brilliant white has come to be a symbol of quality. Apple uses
pure white paired with bright anodized metals as a core palette for its main
product range, minimizing distraction and optimizing the design language. Strict
monochrome palettes of white, black and cream have created many commercial
successes and are deployed by luxury brands as a universal signifier of
modernism. Chanel’s creative director Karl Lagerfeld once said, ‘Black and white
always looks modern, whatever that word means’.*

Use
Titanium’s luminous, clean quality perfectly balances jet black. Use this timeless
combination to create a smart and sophisticated brand identity.

Chanel Haute Couture, Spring/Summer 2020, Paris

 Lunar White

Colour Values
Hex code: #ced5dc
RGB: 206, 213, 220
CMYK: 23, 13, 11, 0
HSL: 210, 6%, 86%

Also Known As
• Moon White

Common Connotations
• Introspective
• Alluring
• Tranquil

Lunar White in Art, Design & Culture

• Le Monde by Man Ray, photography, 1931
• Earthrise by William Anders, photography, 1968
• Totality, by Katie Paterson, installation art, 2016

Then
The mystery of the moon has long captivated artists and scientists. Romantic
painter Francisco Goya represented it as the guiding white light of ‘the other’ in
his 1789 painting Witches’ Sabbath. Similarly, the pearly, ethereal light of the thin
crescent moon in The Fighting Temeraire by J.M.W. Turner is an immediate mood-
setter. In 1969, during the first lunar landing, a blurry image of a flat, whitish-grey
moonscape beamed onto TV screens around the world, presenting an entirely new
view and mythology of the moon for the modern age.

Now
The moon continues to be an inspiration in art and design. In 2007, Habitat
teamed up with Buzz Aldrin to create the Moonbuzz lamp – a perfect miniature
replica of the surface Aldrin walked on in 1969. James Turrell’s 2019 Aquarius,
Medium Circle Glass presented luminous, lunar-inspired sculptures that when
viewed alter perceptions and persuade us to pause for a moment of tranquillity.
Addressing the growing desire for technology that blends in with the home, audio
technology company Sonos selected a lunar white shade for its Move speaker,
offering a quieter alternative to the harsh brilliant whites and severe blacks that
dominate the industry.

Use
Ethereal, violet-grey-tinged lunar white can help create a sense of contemplation
and peace, much needed in our over-stimulated world. Pair soft lunar white with
delicate purple-blues on products for a moodenhancing effect.

Sonos Move in Lunar White

 Glacial Ice

Colour Values
Hex code: #c7d9e7
RGB: 199, 217, 231
CMYK: 26, 9, 7, 0
HSL: 206, 14%, 91%

Common Connotations
• Otherworldly
• Cold
• Calm

Glacial Ice in Art, Design & Culture

• The Icebergs by Frederic Edwin Church, painting, 1861
• Axing Ice to Cross the Sea by Hu Xiaoyuan, video installation, 2014
• Ice Island from ‘Altered States’ installation by Snarkitecture and Caesarstone, kitchen design concept, 2018

Then
In 1893, while freezing in the Arctic ice, Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen
reflected, ‘Nothing more wonderfully beautiful can exist than the Arctic night. It is
dreamland painted in the imagination’s most delicate tints; it is colour
etherealized. One shade melts into the other’.* Humans have a powerful fascination
with this wilderness of brilliant white, reflecting a cool undertone of azure blue. In
the 19th century, American artist Frederic Edwin Church explored the receding
nature of the white horizon against the frozen permanence of glacial formations in
his paintings.

Now
Twenty-eight trillion tons of ice in Antarctica has melted in the past thirty years,
with more predicted loss to come. In a bid to show the impact of global
temperature rises on the Arctic circle, Olafur Eliasson observed the shifts in
glacial movement and its effects on the landscape. Using frozen water and colour,
his work shows the delicate fragility of the glaciers that support life. Travelling to
the North Pole in 1989, Andy Goldsworthy learned traditional Inuit techniques of
snow-cutting and packing to erect four huge rings around the remote,
northernmost point of the planet.
 As we continue to realize the impact of man-made climate change and the
importance of what we stand to lose, this hue has gained new and urgent
relevance.

Use
This soft yet fresh ice tone represents a crucial supportive element for planetary
survival. Use a palette of algae green, bright cyan and glacial ice white to bring a
fresh yet sharp focus on ecological messaging.

Touching North by Andy Goldsworthy, 1989

 Architectural White

Colour Values
Hex code: #e3e3e3
RGB: 227, 227, 227
CMYK: 13, 9, 11, 0
HSL: 0, 0%, 89%

Common Connotations
• Modern
• Peaceful
• Light

Architectural White in Art, Design & Culture

• Villa Savoye, Paris, France by Le Corbusier, architecture, 1928–31
• Abbey of Our Lady of Nový Dvůr, Bohemia, Czech Republic, by John Pawson, architecture, 1999–2004
• Louvre-Lens Museum, France, by SANAA, architecture, 2006

Then
There has often been a sense of space, openness and spirituality associated with
white. It’s no wonder that a clean, soft white with a slight neutral tone such as
architectural white is so highly valued in the design world. According to coatings
brand Sherwin-Williams, it is the bestselling colour of all time.
In the early-to-mid-20th century, Swiss master Le Corbusier used white to
underscore purity in newly stripped-back modern architecture. The image of an
all-white interior, clean, empty and pristine, has since come to be worshipped in
contemporary design for its representation of simplicity and order in terms of
lifestyle as well as aesthetic.

Now
Architecture’s love of white continues right up to the present day, where it offers a
clean, white canvas quietly upholding all it contains. In the 1980s, British architect
John Pawson made architectural white his signature, using the shade to elevate the
sense of space in a building by pairing it with peaceful and decluttered minimalist
environments. He said, ‘The challenge lies in bringing together mass, proportion,
and light in the most harmonious ways possible.’* Pawson gave Calvin Klein’s
stores their signature sparseness and put Ian Schrager’s boutique hotels on the
map by stripping away any flashiness from the idea of luxury.

Use
Try pairing this simple tone with well-measured proportions of grass green or sky
blue to complement a natural environment.

Tower of Light by Tonkin Liu, Manchester, 2021

 Pearl

Also Known As
• Pearlescence
• Iridescence

Common Connotations
• Captivating
• Magical
• Exotic

Pearl in Art, Design & Culture

• Jardinière by Clément Massier, lustreware, 1893–5
• Untitled by Matti Braun, textiles painting, 2014
• ‘Inkjet Colour Printing by Interference Nanostructures’ by Aleksandr V. Yakovlev et al, ACS Publication,
nanoink research, 2016

Then
If you’ve ever seen light catch the wings of a dragonfly, a bubble of soap or the
lustre of pearls and their shells, you’ll have seen how they shimmer with pale-to-
vivid colours. Pearl white, a creamy tone that glows with sunset hues, has a
beautifully subtle sheen. This phenomenon, known as iridescence, is a natural
expression of ‘structural colour’. Minuscule, naturally occurring ridges are
invisible to the naked eye, but they interfere with the way lightwaves reflect,
producing colour effects that alter depending on the angle of view. This is not
limited to pale surfaces; the same effect can be seen in dark materials such as the
feathers of a magpie, oil and rare black (as well as white and grey) opals. The
remarkable thing about iridescent colour is that it is immaterial – a quality of light
not pigment – and so it will only fade with the degradation of the material
substrate.
In the 19th century, Western artists attempted to record this phenomenon, for
instance in John James Audubon’s colourful illustrations of exotic birds, but
success was limited by a lack of mediums capable of capturing the wonder of
iridescence.

Now
Since the mid-20th century, sustained research into natural iridescence has led to
the invention of an increasing number of artificial materials that mimic the effect.
These have found wide application, from automotive coatings and cosmetics to
printed security features on banknotes. More recently, responding to increased
awareness around plastic waste, designer Elissa Brunato has harnessed cellulose’s
lightinterfering qualities to create a colour-shifting and compostable alternative to
plastic sequins.
This fascinating area of science and design research is still only beginning to
realize the full potential of structural colour. As we look closer at naturally
iridescent surfaces, their fluid, shimmering hues reveal a world of optical colour
we are still yet to discover fully.

Use
Explore a primary palette of black and white, with waves of bright gradients. The
perfect brand identity for a pioneering technology company, for instance.

‘As we look closer at naturally iridescent surfaces, their

fluid, shimmering hues reveal a world of optical colour we
are still yet to discover fully.’
‘American Magpie’ from The Birds of America by John James Audubon, 1827–38
Bio Iridescent Sequin by Elissa Brunato, 2018
___________
* Lagerfeld, Karl and Roitfeld, Carine, The Little Black Jacket: Chanel’s Classic Revisited, Göttingen: Steidl, 2014
* Nansen, Fridtjof, Farthest North, New York: Modern Library, 1999 (1897)
* Pawson, John, ‘White on White’, John Pawson Journal, January 2016
http://www.johnpawson.com/journal/white-on-white
Grey & Black

Grey and black may have a dark and dour reputation, but the reality is that
this category is made up of a subtle range of tones with different histories and
personalities. The journey from white to black is not one simple
monochrome line, but contains innumerable nuances of blue and green,
purple and brown. The tension between light and dark, and what lies between
in the shadows, has long been a preoccupation of fine art. Italian Renaissance
painters developed the technique of chiaroscuro, using dramatic contrasts to
emphasize subject and atmosphere, like a spotlight on a dark stage.
Many of our greys and blacks like silver, concrete and obsidian are
materials first and foremost, celebrated for the quality of their colour as well
as their physical characteristics. The first black pigments are still in use today
– the burnt remains of ancient fires produced the charcoal that our ancestors
used to mark the walls of caves. Beloved by artists for the velvety rich black
mark it makes, today this modest medium is making waves in design for its
absorbent qualities. On the other end of the technological scale, we come to
the cutting edge of colour development with the creation of surreal and
uncanny Vantablack. This substance is so black that it absorbs 99.965 percent
of light, making it almost impossible to perceive the shape of objects coated
in it, and it has been adopted for use in deep-space imaging and optics as well
as by artists and designers.
From brooding shadows to airy shades, greys are the support; they give
depth and nuance to form. Many of the grey shades included here have a
grubby industrial heritage and, love them or hate them, they often form part
of the palette of everyday life, from an aluminium staircase to a brutalist
concrete flyover. A particularly interesting area of contemporary colour use
and theory is how these materials can now be part of a post-industrial, more
ecologically friendly palette.
This spectrum of grey manifests in a multidimensional space instead of a
linear one. We should see it as an incredibly malleable and multifaceted
palette for the modern designer or contemporary artist.
Colours in this chapter:
Silver

Aluminium

Altostratus

Concrete

Slag

Charcoal

Ink Black

Paynes Grey

Obsidian

Vantablack
 Silver
Colour Values
Hex code: #d5d5d5
RGB: 213, 213, 213
CMYK: 19, 14, 15, 0
HSL: 0, 0%, 84%

Common Connotations
• Prosperity
• Sophistication
• Futurity

Silver in Art, Design & Culture

• Silver Clouds by Andy Warhol, installation art, 1966
• Silver and black dress from Twelve Unwearable Dresses in Contemporary Materials by Paco Rabanne, 1966
• Ready-to-Wear collection by MM6 Maison Margiela, fashion, A/W 2018

Then
As gold is associated with the sun and masculine energy, silver is linked to the
moon and femininity, and like the moon, this bright, reflective metal’s associations
are often complex and contrary. An elemental metal, it is associated with purity –
but it tarnishes easily: the phrase ‘silvertongued’ describes one whose persuasive
words hide corruption. A malleable metal, it has been mined for and made into
jewellery and other objects since prehistoric times, but its softness makes it liable
to wear and break.
One of the most precious metals in the world, silver has seen wars fought for it,
countries named after it and currencies made from it, so for most of history it has
been tied to wealth and status. However, it gained new meaning in the 1960s. Pop
artist Andy Warhol painted his hair silver, celebrated it in his artworks and even
declared that the ’60s were ‘the perfect time for silver’.* The Space Raceinspired
fashion movement of the same era saw metallic eyeshadow matched with
shimmering silver body paints, and designers such as André Courrèges dressing
models in futuristic silver costumes.

Now
Connotations aside, silver is a versatile and timeless shade. Its neutral tonality
means that, unlike gold, it doesn’t clash with other tones, and it complements a
wide range of the spectrum. From the red carpet to the silver screen, when we see
this hue, we most commonly associate it with elegant sophistication. As a material,
silver has antimicrobial qualities, which has led to the medical industry
embedding the metal into surgical gowns and wound dressings.

Use
Consider the use of bright silver as more than just adornment. Embed the shade
with pale cream and nude shades for a neo-futuristic style statement.
Womenswear by Rick Owens Fall/Winter 2015–16
 Aluminium

Colour Values
Hex code: #adacab
RGB: 173,172, 171
CMYK: 35, 27, 28, 6
HSL: 30, 1%, 68%

Common Connotations
• Industrial
• Cold
• Sleek

Aluminium in Art, Design & Culture

• Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain, Piccadilly Circus, London, by Sir Alfred Gilbert, sculpture, 1892–3
• Winged Figure by Barbara Hepworth, sculpture, 1963
• Daily Paper flagship store, New York City, by Heather Faulding of 4plus Design, interior/exterior design,
2020

Then
This bright grey elemental metal with a relatively modern industrial past is one of
the world’s most common materials. Though it has been used in its compound
form for thousands of years, pure aluminium wasn’t industrially produced until
the late 19th century. Its lightweight nature helped the Wright Brothers to achieve
flight at the turn of the 20th century; later, the Adolph Coors Company used it to
create the now ubiquitous aluminium can.
Cheap, abundant and relatively easy to work with, the metal was quickly
adopted by a wide range of industries and products, including aeronautics and car
engines, but also household products, architecture and the decorative arts. It can
be cast, cut, spun, extruded, rolled, crumpled, cut and machined into a wide range
of states. Due to its widespread use in mechanical engineering, it is often used to
give a deliberately industrial look. The utilitarian Emeco Navy Chair 1006, for
example, was designed for the US Navy, with strategically placed bolt holes to tie
the seats to the hold to brace for rough seas. These iconic chairs were later adopted
in high-end interior design.

Now
In design, aluminium is synonymous with sleek, massproduced objects, but a new
generation of designers and brands are reinventing aluminium for the present day,
taking it out of factories and back into foundries. Once used to brand Formula
One cars, transparent colouring techniques such as anodizing are now being
applied by artists who have taken the surface treatment to levels of high craft, with
subtle patinas showcasing the true beauty of the metal.
Aluminium can be recycled again and again with no loss of quality, making it a
sustainable choice in product design. In 2018, Apple announced that new models
of its MacBook Air would use 100 percent recycled aluminium.

Use
Aluminium invites you to embrace the raw industrial look and feel. Paired with
radiant, fully saturated colours, the tones will work together to increase the
vibrancy of the whole palette.

‘Due to its widespread use in mechanical engineering,

aluminium is often used to give a deliberately industrial
look.’
The Pyramid Shelves by Bram Vanderbeke and Wendy Andreu, 2019
MacBook Air in Aluminium by Apple, 2018
 Altostratus

Colour Values
Hex code: #a9abb1
RGB: 156, 165, 173
CMYK: 42, 28, 25, 6
HSL: 208, 10%, 68%

Also Known As
• Cloud Grey

Common Connotations
• Ethereal
• Solitude
• Gentle

Altostratus in Art, Design & Culture

• Seascape Study: Boat and Stormy Sky, John Constable, painting, 1828
• Abstract Painting (Grey) (880-3) by Gerhard Richter, painting, 2002
• Rotating glass shelf by Nendo for Lasvit, furniture, 2013

Then
Altostratus is the name for the grey-blue mid-altitude sheet layer of cloud. The
wonderfully variable nature of clouds has inspired artists and writers of all kinds
to attempt to describe them. J.M.W. Turner captured their luminous qualities at
sunrise and sunset, and the sublime menace of dark storm clouds rolling in over
shipwrecks.
The Japanese language has a remarkably diverse vocabulary to describe each
permutation, with some terms that are descriptive, such as the ‘sardine sky’, similar
to the scale-like ‘mackerel sky’ in English; some spiritual, such as ‘novice monk
clouds’, a cumulus whose name refers to the bald pates of Buddhist initiate monks;
and some seasonal, such as ‘autumn sky’, a high, thin sheet on a pleasant blue sky
that might refer to altostratus. The fantastic range of these cloud types can be seen
in Hokusai’s most famous set of works, Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji (1830–2),
which demonstrate how a shift in cloud cover, from a bluespotted sky to an
overcast afternoon, can change the whole mood of the day.
Now
In the wide range of cloud-based hues used in design and art, altostratus has a
sense of translucence and light. The colour’s poetic and lightweight nature is
captured beautifully by Japanese design studio Nendo in its homeware.
Overlapping glass discs tinted with warm and cool greys imbue a beautiful vista of
subtlety to their bespoke shelving design.

Use
Soothing, not dull, soft cloud-like greys can have a meditative effect. Take
inspiration from the pale horizon fading from salmon peach to grey-blue to create
a calming interior palette.

Ejiri in Suruga Province (Sunshū Ejiri), from the series Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji (Fugaku sanjūrokkei) by
Katsushika Hokusai, c. 1830–2
 Concrete

Colour Values
Hex code: #a6a2a0
RGB: 166, 162, 160
CMYK: 36, 30, 31, 9
HSL: 20, 4%, 65%

Common Connotations
• Robust
• Tactile
• Minimal

Concrete in Art, Design & Culture

• The Hayward Gallery, London by Higgs & Hill, architecture, 1968
• Crowd Candlesticks by David Taylor, 2013
• Concrete Puffy Brick by Soft Baroque, sculpture, 2018
• Acne Studios flagship, Seoul, South Korea by Sophie Hicks Architecture, architecture, 2019

Then
Love it or hate it, concrete is omnipresent in the architecture and infrastructure of
most modern cities. The synthetic material comprising aggregate (such as brick or
sand) and lime, mixed with water, creates a semi-fluid, workable substance that
sets as hard as stone. Allowing infinite possibilities for sculptural and tactile
effects, it can be polished or ground, shuttered or etched, poured like cake mix, or
roughly squashed with terrazzo chips.
The material is usually associated with the functionalist and brutalist social
architecture of the mid-20th century, but early forms of lime-based concrete in use
in the Middle East as long ago as 1300 BCE were already demonstrating its
potential. Nabataeans used it to build houses, but more significantly also
waterproof underground cisterns. The ability to collect and store water allowed the
Nabataeans to establish a powerful kingdom, with the extraordinary city of Petra
as its capital built out of the rock in the heart of the desert.

Now
Today, the material has crossed over from functional use to lifestyle products with
plant pots, polished concrete worktops and even a perfume by Comme des
Garçons. Exposed concrete has been a source of inspiration for many designers
and architects, with some connecting to the raw aesthetic to communicate a
restrained luxury, and others to the sleek potential of the polished material.
However, the material’s environmental impact is high, both in its creation –
which generates large quantities of CO₂ and requires vast amounts of beach sand;
desert sand not being of a suitable consistency – and in its disposal – which is
invariably in landfill. British architectural collective Assemble is rethinking the
urban environment by creating temporary buildings with hand-coloured concrete
tiles, made directly on site, and designed for disassembly, to be rebuilt as needed
elsewhere.

Use
Offset concrete’s sombre tones with warm, revitalizing earthy hues, and be
mindful of the environmental impact of your design.

Yardhouse by Assemble Architects, London, 2014

 Slag

Colour Values
Hex code: #736f6c
RGB: 115, 111, 108
CMYK: 51, 43, 44, 29
HSL: 26, 6%, 45%

Common Connotations
• Dirty
• Waste
• Revalue

Slag in Art, Design & Culture

• Tipping the Slag by Edwin Butler Bayliss, painting, c.1940–5
• Slag Heap II by Prunella Clough, painting, 1959
• Slag Studies by Jamie North, sculpture, 2019

Then
Slag is a brown-grey, semi-lustrous residue material made up of the leftover
impurities from smelting metal. Slag traces have been found in ancient
Mesopotamian glassware, where it was ground down and fired to create black,
glassy vessels. The Industrial Revolution saw the beginning of the widespread
commercial refining of steel, and by the early 20th century, huge slag piles were
being dumped in the natural landscape – a sight that left an impression on many
artists working at the time. British artist Prunella Clough observed the raw heaps
of residue against the pastoral countryside: a haunting image of ecological damage
that is yet to be undone.

Now
The primary use for slag in the modern day is in the creation of cement, another
functional grey. Studio ThusThat repurposed this residue, giving it a new value
while simultaneously cleaning up its carbon footprint. Using geopolymerization,
they created a new black cement directly from slag, saving energy and making
furniture as a byproduct.

Use
With a gritty industrial heritage, this warm grey can still be a grounding asset. Pair
with charcoal black and pale blue to create surfaces and textures that work with a
modern, eco-driven palette.

From the ‘This is Copper’ collection by Studio ThusThat, 2019

 Charcoal

Colour Values
Hex code: #2a271f
RGB: 42, 39, 31
CMYK: 61, 55, 63, 80
HSL: 43, 26%, 16%

Common Connotations
• Timeless
• Primal
• Expressive

Charcoal in Art, Design & Culture

• Sappers at Work: Canadian Tunnelling Company, R14, St Eloi by David Bomberg, drawing,1918–19
• Night Sky #19 by Vija Celmins, drawing, 1998
• On-Journey Wear collection by Senscommon with Uchino Japan, fashion, 2019

Then
A naturally black material made from burning wood slowly with little oxygen, this
humble residue was our first drawing implement, and it has had an incredible
number of applications through history. Charcoal has been used in medicine since
the ancient Egyptians, in water filtration as far back as the Phoenicians, and in the
9th century CE, a Chinese alchemist combined it with saltpeter and sulphur to
invent gunpowder.
In art, a charcoal stick is a fluid, expressive and versatile medium that leaves a
rich black mark. Edgar Degas used it delicately to sketch the female form, while
20th-century British artist David Bomberg reduced his industrial subjects and
settings to graphic geometric shapes, with charcoal’s rich shading underscoring
tension and energy in compositions.

Now
Charcoal is back in the public eye today for its ability to extract impurities, but, as
we’ve seen, charcoal filtration is hardly new. In Japan, the use of charcoal to purify
drinking water has been common practice since the 17th century, while in the US,
Jack Daniel’s filters its whiskey through maple charcoal to achieve clarity and a
smoky flavour.
 In design, Amsterdam clothing brand Senscommon partnered with Japanese
textile designer Uchino to create a ‘self-purifying’ line of clothing using activated
charcoal to eliminate body odours and protect the wearer from environmental
pollution. Italian design duo Formafantasma, based in the Netherlands, reference
the traditional craft of charcoal making, as well as the material itself, in a series of
filters, ladles and vessels.

Use
A deep, smoky black, charred with a long history, is an innately grounding shade.
Use it to create a serene yet moving monochromatic palette of soft blacks and
greys.

From the Charcoal project by Formafantasma for The Vitra Design Museum, 2012
 Ink Black

Colour Values
Hex code: #3b3e41
RGB: 59, 62, 65
CMYK: 70, 58, 52, 56
HSL: 210, 9%, 25%

Also Known As
• Inkwell
• Indian Ink

Common Connotations
• Formal
• Prestigious
• Authentic

Black Ink in Art, Design & Culture

• The DermalAbyss Project by MIT’s Media Lab, wearable ink 2017
• somebody-010 by Kim Joon, digital print, 2014
• Ichimura Kakyo as Shirataki Sakichi, by Utagawa Toyokuni III, Japanese woodblock print, 1861

Then
The earliest known carbon-based black ink to be used as a writing medium was
lampblack, the sooty residue of burning oil or wood. In 3200 BCE, the ancient
Egyptians were already setting the rules of typography, using black ink for main
text, with other colours, particularly an iron-based red, used for accents and
headings. When the mechanical printing press was first developed in Europe in
the mid-15th century, lampblack was the first ink to pioneer this new realm.
Writing with ink and a sharp-pointed needle was common in early civilizations
in China, Japan and Southeast Asia. Various other cultures were also developing
natural inks from charring fruit stones or boiling plants and tree bark, each
producing different nuances and symbolic meanings. Ink made from carbonizing
oak galls was the preferred drawing fluid of Leonardo da Vinci.
However, the best-known ink today is Indian ink: an opaque, velvety black
initially made in China, with the English term India(n) ink evolving due to ink
trade deals. Made from finely ground soot and a binding agent such as shellac, it
produced a distinctive and permanent colour to be used in art, writing and
calligraphy.

Now
Messy, visceral and hands-on in a way that digital technology can never be, the
allure of ink has hardly faltered in the digital world. Calligraphy has found a new
lease of life in recent years as a mindful activity, and the annual online event
Inktober sees artists around the world creating works in ink and posting them on
social media. Ink continues to be a popular fine art material, and calligrapher
Keiko Shimoda explores its material qualities and heritage, using the same sumi
ink her grandmother once used.

Use
A palette of soft greens and pinks with ink black and gold can create an evocative
palette for spaces that wish to nurture contemplation and learning.

Creation by Keiko Shimoda

 Payne’s Grey

Colour Values
Hex code: #395266
RGB: 57, 82, 102
CMYK: 76, 51, 33, 40
HSL: 207, 44%, 40%

Common Connotations
• Gloomy
• Thoughtful
• Gender-neutral

Payne’s Grey in Art, Design & Culture

• Landscape with Donkeys by William Payne, painting, 1798
• Fifty Shades Darker set by Nelson Coates, production design, 2017
• Ready-to-Wear collection by Hussein Chalayan, fashion, S/S 2018

Then
The ultimate brooding colour, Payne’s grey was invented and first used in the early
19th century. It was originally made from a combination of Prussian blue, yellow
ochre and crimson lake, resulting in a shade that appears midnight blue or slate
grey depending on how much it is watered down. William Payne, the watercolour
artist credited with creating it, used the hue to depict shadows, cloudscapes and
distant mountains. A wash of the hue can give a landscape an emotionally charged
air of foreboding or melancholy.
Artist Georgia O’Keeffe proved an expert at conveying emotion with this hue,
as can be seen in her work Storm Cloud, Lake George. The smoky shade gives
depth to the far-off mountains, and her darker use of the hue has been said to
express the oppression she felt while staying with her husband’s family at Lake
George.

Now
Sober, naturalistic hues tend to remain relevant and often outperform brighter
colours over time. The rise of the Fifty Shades of Grey franchise in the 2010s
appears to have had a surprising impact on interior design, inspiring a renewed
interest in this distinctly moody grey. Indeed, from the opening scene, interiors in
the film sequel, Fifty Shades Darker, are painted with Payne’s grey and other cool,
neutral tones to create a dark and sensuous mood.

Use
Draw on various shades of Payne’s grey to create a nuanced palette, and enliven it
with brighter, naturalistic hues such as botanical greens and indigo blue.

Storm Cloud, Lake George by Georgia O’Keeffe, 1923

 Obsidian

Colour Values
Hex code: #011a22
RGB: 1, 26, 34
CMYK: 99, 66, 56, 70
HSL: 195, 94%, 7%

Common Connotations
• Mystical
• Revered
• Amorphous

Obsidian in Art, Design & Culture

• Sacred and Profane Love by Giovanni Baglione, painting, 1602–3
• The Nativity, Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, painting, 1665–70
• ‘Prophecy’ electric concept car by Hyundai, automotive, 2020

Then
Obsidian is a form of volcanic glass, with a captivating black shade and a blue-
green undertone. People have used sharp obsidian as cutting tools since the Stone
Age, and macuahuitl, a paddle-shaped weapon with blades of obsidian embedded
in its sides, were used in Mesoamerica from 900 CE. The Aztecs also created
obsidian mirrors in honour of their god Tezcatlipoca, whose name translates
literally as ‘smoking mirror’; these luminous black mirrors were prized for their
use in divination.
The material has been adopted by artists including the 17th-century Spanish
painter Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, who used it as a surface with oil paints.
Obsidian’s natural lustre creates a mesmerizing interplay of dark and light,
elevating the sense of wonder in his religious scenes.

Now
Performance design industries have adopted obsidian’s light-bending effects to
create a streamlined, liquid effect. In 2020, Hyundai presented its new ‘Prophecy’
concept car, with its sleek obsidian finish. However, it’s the substance’s mind-
bending quality that has captured the eye of contemporary creatives. Korean
designer Seungjoon Song’s ‘Obsidian’ mirror recalls the Aztecs’ ancient use of the
substance, with a small obsidian hemisphere that becomes a complete sphere; a
surreal, meditative pinpoint floating in the centre of our daily vanity.

Use
Bring a sense of curiosity to technology products with dominant, glossy obsidian;
ramp up the intensity with fiery red touches to communicate performance and
power.

Obsidian by Seungjoon Song, 2020

 Vantablack

Also Known As
• Nanoblack

Common Connotations
• Futuristic
• Absorbing
• Stealthy

Vantablack in Art, Design & Culture

• Descent into Limbo by Anish Kapoor, installation artwork, 1992
• The Redemption of Vanity by Diemut Strebe and Brian Wadle, installation, 2019
• BMW X6 Vantablack, automotive, 2019

Then
Colour performance pulls its biggest magic trick to date with Vantablack. Like
something out of a science fiction movie, this is a black that evades perception and
is able to absorb 99.965 percent of visible light, which makes it almost impossible
for the human eye to decipher the shape of an object it coats. There is no Pantone
number, as it’s not really a colour in the strictest sense; rather, it’s the total absence
of reflection of all colours. The substance is packed full of vertically aligned
nanotubes, microscopic filaments of super carbon called ‘forests’, that stand to
attention when stimulated.
Since its invention in 2014 by Surrey NanoSystems, this unique substance has
gained traction within NASA’s deep space imaging work, smart optics and also in
the art world. Artist Anish Kapoor controversially licensed the pigment’s exclusive
rights for use in his art and developed a series of world-exclusive art projects using
it.

Now
Outraged by Kapoor’s monopoly of Vantablack, in 2019, artist Stuart Semple
launched Black 3.0, described as the ‘flattest, mattest, black acrylic paint in the
world’. The paint, which absorbs 98–99 percent of visible light, is now available for
anyone to buy via the project’s Kickstarter page – on the condition that ‘To the
best of your knowledge, information and belief this material will not make its way
into the hands of Anish Kapoor’.*
MIT researchers and others have since developed more commercially available
nanoblack substances. BMW enveloped the X6 model with Vantablack, while
architect Asif Khan bent spatial perception with angular, hypnotizing Vantablack
walls for the South Korean Winter Olympics Pavilion in 2018.

Use
Applied to objects or details, nanoblacks create a dramatic aesthetic illusion ideal
for gallery installations or experiences. The shade’s functional properties, such as
thermal control, can be applied to surfaces that reach sub-zero temperatures, with
far-reaching applications that are still being explored.

Hyundai Pavilion designed by Asif Khan at PyeongChang Winter Olympics, South Korea, 2018
___________
* Atelier Éditions (Ed.), An Atlas of Rare and Familiar Colour: The Harvard Art Museums’ Forbes Pigment
Collection, Los Angeles: Atelier Éditions, 2019
* https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/culturehustle/the-blackest-black-paint-in-the-world-black-30
Brown

There is something undeniably levelling and grounding about brown. It is

fundamentally regenerative in its origins – as soil rich with nutrients sustains
life itself. The prehistoric drawings on cave walls at Altamira and Lascaux
were created with still-extant earth pigments, and clay and pottery were used
as a primary vessel of communication, decoration and art in early cultures
around the world. Today, a revival in ceramics and working with natural clays
speaks of heritage and the value of craft (see Tenmoku).
Throughout history, when it came to dyeing cloth, brown was often the
colour left for the poor, who were unable to afford the price tags attached to
brighter hues. The monks of the Franciscan order wore it as a sign of poverty
and humility. The term for the plebeians, or urban poor, in Classical Latin
was pullati, literally meaning ‘those dressed in dark garments’, demonstrating
the extent to which different shades defined class and identity in eras past.
In spectral definition, brown is not a hue but a low yellow or orange
shade; the perception is generated when low-intensity light of these
wavelengths reaches our eyes. In art and design, brown remains a critical tool
in the artisan’s arsenal. Without rich burnt sienna and raw umber as artistic
pigments, the drama of chiaroscuro and tone would be lost. In the work of
artists from Van Dyck to Rothko, brown brings a mesmerizing depth to
painted shadows like nothing else.
In recent years, plain, honest brown has taken on a very contemporary
symbolism as the colour of wholesome eco-friendliness. Brown paper bags
and brown boxes can allow brands and establishments to give a coded nod to
environmentalism (without necessarily following through in practice, of
course). Coupled with brown’s innate natural and soft qualities, earth shades
are once again emerging to gift us a set of grounded and supportive tones to
keep things rooted and temper the chaotic world around us.

Colours in this chapter:

Sepia

Van Dyke Brown

Umber

Tenmoku

Burnt Sienna

Taupe

Khaki

Cardboard

Melanin
 Sepia

Colour Values
Hex code: #bf9f64
RGB: 191, 159, 100
CMYK: 24, 33, 64, 10
HSL: 39, 48%, 75%

Common Connotations
• Nostalgic
• Delicate
• Authentic

Sepia in Art, Design & Culture

• Crystal Palace Transept by Benjamin Brecknell Turner, photography, c.1852
• Large Melbourne Sepia or Cuttlefish, Sepia Apama by John James Wild, lithographic print, c.1889–90

Then
Sepia is the colour of the dark brown pigment produced by cuttlefish. This natural
substance has been used as a drawing ink and watercolour wash for millennia.
Sepia wash drawings became particularly popular among expedition illustrators
recording anthropological discoveries in the 18th and 19th centuries. Fine artists
and craftspeople have also deployed sepia to create delicate background washes
before gestural brushmarks build up tone and depth, such as in the draft work of
William Morris’s fabric designs.
However, sepia is perhaps best known in the modern world for its use in early
photography. In the 19th century it was discovered that dipping or washing
cyanotype photographs in sepia naturally protected the images from light damage,
at the same time as giving them a distinctive brown colouring.

Now
Though cuttlefish ink is no longer widely in use, taste for sepia’s natural colour
expression has not faded in the contemporary world. A nostalgia for vintage
photographs and curiosities means sepia tinting is still on trend; whether that’s in
an Instagram filter or with chemicals in a darkroom.

Use
Create a sense of natural richness with two softly muted complementary shades.
Muted sepia and washed-out indigo blue contrast in a beautiful yet unimposing
way. Add a delicate outline or graphic accent in a darker nutty brown to make a
naturalistic palette that will draw the eye to crucial details.

Cartoon for ‘Mermaid’ woven fabric by Edward Burne-Jones, c.1880

 Van Dyke Brown

Colour Values
Hex code: #28171a
RGB: 40, 23, 46
CMYK: 63, 75, 57, 82
HSL: 349, 43%, 16%

Also Known As
• Cassel Earth
• Cologne Umber

Common Connotations
• Pensive
• Conservative
• Authentic

Van Dyke Brown in Art, Design & Culture

• Marchesa Geronima Spinola by Anthony van Dyck, painting, c.1624
• ‘De Straat Makers: Colours of the City’ project by Atelier NL, research project, 2019

Then
Upon the shelf of renowned artists’ supplies shop L. Cornelissen & Son in London,
a bottle of the organic pigment Van Dyke brown is marked ‘Unstable in all media.
Dries poorly in oil, can turn grey’. Not the most glamorous advert for a shade that
at one time created some of the most dramatic and profound shadows in painting
history.
Somewhere between black soot and earthy peat lies this brooding shade made
from natural earth. By packing oil carriers with freshly dug soil, lignite (a brown
coal substance) and other earthy ochres including Cassel earth, Flemish Baroque
artist Anthony van Dyck made a tarry glaze that he most famously used to paint
King Charles I. Van Dyck’s masterworks are characteristically theatrical and
sombre, which we now know is in part as a result of fugitive pigments.

Now
Naturally fluctuating, as with all earth pigments, Van Dyck’s brown became grey
with UV exposure. Still available today in artists’ tubes and with a new, less
unstable formula, this shadowy brown is a reminder that colour can be derived
from the very earth beneath us.

Use
Embrace the natural aspect of Van Dyke brown by crafting a palette based on
varying natural earth shades found close to your locality. Rustic nuances work well
with red earth and pale clay accents to create authentic hue contrasts that speak of
longevity and environmental history.

Equestrian Portrait of Charles I by Anthony van Dyck, 1637–8

 Umber

Colour Values
Hex code: #534024
RGB: 83, 64, 36
CMYK: 49, 57, 80, 59
HSL: 36, 56%, 33%

Common Connotations
• Timeless
• Sombre
• Supportive

Umber in Art, Design & Culture

• The Night Watch by Rembrandt, painting, 1642
• Untitled (Umber, Blue, Umber, Brown) by Mark Rothko, painting, 1962
• Moruga by Peter Doig, painting, 2002–8

Then
Natural umber is one of the oldest pigments known to have been used by humans,
and due to its robust make-up of manganese and iron oxide, it can still be seen in
paintings on cave walls at Altamira in Spain that date back to the Palaeolithic age.
In more recent history, Rembrandt was known for his technique of layering,
scumbling and brushing back umber ochres with lampblack to create chocolate
hues.
As colour theory and terminology developed, umber, with its yellow-brown
undertone, came to be described as a warm, chromatic dark. In his 1923 painting
Static-Dynamic Gradation, Bauhaus artist and teacher Paul Klee explored colour
relationships through a harmonized progression from chromatic darkness to
lightness, drawing your eye into the middle of the painting. Darker outer squares
are made with rich umber, while the heart of the piece has cool blue blocks offset
by contrasting hot orange.

Now
A neutral and supportive tone, umber allows more saturated colours to sing, and
has featured widely in fine art, from atmospheric Rothkos to the dark,
contemporary vistas of Peter Doig. Indeed, Mark Rothko is known to have
requested, upon the hanging of the Mark Rothko room at Tate Modern in 1970,
that the ideal gallery wall tone be an ‘off-white with umber and warmed by a little
red’.*

Use
Explore Klee’s principles and play with warm chromatic shades to bring weight or
attention to certain functions or features. To contrast or highlight, add an accent
of soft, cool blue.
Static-Dynamic Gradation by Paul Klee, 1923
 Tenmoku

Colour Values
Hex code: #341601
RGB: 52, 22, 1
CMYK: 54, 76, 78, 80
HSL: 25, 98%, 20%

Also Known As
• Hare’s Fur

Common Connotations
• Unique
• Timeless
• Rarity

Tenmoku in Art, Design & Culture

• ‘Flat-Sided Bottle’ by Bernard Leach, ceramics, 1957
• ‘Yōhen Tenmoku Chawan’ by Kyosuke Hayashi, ceramics, 2001
• ‘Galaxy’ by Kondō Takahiro, ceramics, 2001

Then
Tenmoku pottery began life as a Chinese art in Buddhist temples on Mount
Tianmu (known as Mount Tenmoku by the Japanese), which entailed finishing tea
bowls with an iron-rich dark ceramic glaze, made of the ashes of burnt plants or
potash, and iron oxide. Japanese Zen monks made pilgrimages to the mountain to
study the ritual process of tea-making and brought the practice back with them.
Tenmoku glazes are traditionally intensely warm black, but are further
characterized by how the glaze breaks or spots to a beautiful rust colour, with a
natural beauty that speaks of hand-craft and uniqueness.

Now
There has been a revival in tenmoku, though there are still very few artisans able to
reproduce the exacting historical process. Contemporary Japanese ceramicist
Kyosuke Hayashi is one such artist, and his hypnotic work, which is held in
galleries around the world, demonstrates the ongoing appeal of this ancient craft.

Use
Let the traditional tenmoku glaze inspire a palette of burnt bark to warm chocolate
brown nuances to make a perfect scheme for a profoundly nourishing interior
space.

Tenmoku tea bowl, China, Song period, 10th–13th century

 Burnt Sienna

Colour Values
Hex code: #8d3715
RGB: 141, 55, 21
CMYK: 29, 83, 99, 32
HSL: 17, 85%, 55%

Common Connotations
• Earthy
• Natural
• Transformative

Burnt Sienna in Art, Design & Culture

• Sacrifice of Isaac by Caravaggio, painting, 1602
• 36 by Pierre Soulages, painting, 1965
• Two Figures Lying on a Bed with Attendants by Francis Bacon, painting, 1968

Then
Raw sienna is one of the planet’s naturally occurring ochres or earth colours.
Burnt sienna, a warm brownish red shade, is created by heating the naturally
yellow ochre until the heat partially converts the iron oxide into hematite. The
name comes from the Tuscan city of Siena that produced the colour in large
quantities during the Renaissance. European artists such as Caravaggio and
Rembrandt brought out the beauty of burnt sienna by diluting it to bring forward
undertones of subdued pinks and chromatic brown tints. The colour was later
employed in the energetic, abstract paint marks of 20th-century artists Pierre
Soulages and Howard Hodgkin, the latter juxtaposing the colour’s primal
earthiness with powerful synthetic hues such as chrome green.

Now
With reserves of ochre in Tuscan mines much depleted by the end of the 20th
century, the commercial colour market began to use chemically made iron oxides.
However, contemporary artists are reverting back to making colour in traditional
ways: Colombian designer and artist Laura Daza creates coloured sienna tones
from locally sourced soils, creating a range of shades from yellow to reddish
brown.

Use
This rich and natural brownish red tone may suit brands and companies that are
nature-focused at heart. Pair yellow ochres with small accents of leaf green to
create colour harmonies that are naturally warm and evocative of a natural
landscape.

From the Burnt Sienna collection by Laura Daza, 2015

 Taupe

Colour Values
Hex code: #a59089
RGB: 165, 144, 137
CMYK: 35, 39, 39, 12
HSL: 16, 17%, 65%

Common Connotations
• Restrained
• Restful
• Nurturing

Taupe in Art, Design & Culture

• Robie House by Frank Lloyd Wright, architcture, 1909–10
• Still Life by Giorgio Morandi, painting, 1960
• Menswear collection by Rick Owens, fashion, S/S 2017

Then
Not an easy colour to define, the name taupe comes from the French word for
‘mole’, and throughout history the term has defined a series of warm, mousy greys,
sometimes tinged with dusky purple or ruddy brown undertones. At the turn of
the 20th century, this shade range became associated with a sophisticated
neutrality, and it appeared in both home décor and wearable pieces. Décor
schemes of the period, influenced by the Arts and Crafts movement, were defined
by muted shades of blue, green, taupe brown and softened whites. Taupe became
fashionable again during the 1970s, accompanied by burnt oranges and harvest
golds in a wholesome palette used on everything from kitchen appliances to
injectionmoulded chairs.

Now
Muted taupes enjoyed a resurgence in the 2000s and are still a popular choice for
interiors and fashion, when creating a soft and safe sanctuary is vital. From a
colour psychology standpoint, the colour’s grounding effect married with a soft,
desaturated neutrality is not only easy on the eyes, but also restful for the mind.

Use
Taupe can be used to form a naturalistic, neutral scheme with clay, muted
avocado, soil brown and sand shades.

Desert Rain, by Agnes Martin, 1957

 Khaki

Colour Values
Hex code: #857856
RGB: 133, 120, 86
CMYK: 43, 40, 64, 27
HSL: 43, 35%, 52%

Common Connotations
• Utility
• Salvaged
• Rebellious

Khaki in Art, Design & Culture

• The Arrival of a Leave Train, Victoria Station by Bernard Meninsky, painting, 1918
• Survival Jacket by Franco Moschino, fashion, S/S 1991

Then
The colour name ‘khaki’ is borrowed from the Urdu word meaning the colour of
earth, ashes or dust. The yellowy-brown fabric it refers to in English was first
issued as a camouflage uniform to soldiers in the 19th century on the north-west
frontier of India by Lieutenant-General Harry Burnett Lumsden. The pigment
used was from a dye called cutch, extracted from the bark of the Senegalia catechu
tree, which had long been used in India to colour calico fabric.
The scale of khaki cloth manufacturing would later escalate in response to the
high demand for uniforms for those enlisting during the First World War.
Through variations in dyers’ baths, khaki lost its sandiness and took on a more
olive nuance. By 1917, approximately 45 million separate woollen articles had
been recovered from the trenches. In an act of mass salvage, khaki garments were
broken down, rewoven, recut and redistributed.

Now
Later in the 20th century, khaki garments became a ubiquitous item of utilitarian
casual wear, but also fashion rebellion. Skinheads became emblematic of British
youth culture in basic khaki army trousers, and at Stella McCartney’s Central Saint
Martin graduate collection
in 1995, Kate Moss famously walked in a green camisole dress, pink stockings and
a khaki army hat, taking the shade from lowly uniform to fashion statement.

Use
Pair khaki with other warm and cool neutrals to create a modern palette that
works with active outdoor brands to express a kinship with natural settings.

Kate Moss models at Stella McCartney’s degree show, 1995

 Cardboard

Colour Values
Hex code: #d7a77c
RGB: 215, 167, 124
CMYK: 15, 37, 53, 4
HSL: 28, 42%, 84%

Common Connotations
• Basic
• Neutral
• Thrifty

Cardboard in Art, Design & Culture

• Picture of Spatial Growths – Picture with Two Small Dogs by Kurt Schwitters, assemblage, 1920–39
• Cake Lift by Michael Johansson, sculpture, 2009
• Cardboard Stool by Luisa Kahlfeldt, furniture, 2016

Then
A warm yellow-brown, cardboard is similar in shade to other brown neutrals such
as tan, biscuit and camel. What differentiates it is that unlike these other,
descriptive colour names, cardboard is first and foremost a ubiquitous and useful
material that happens to have a distinctive hue. Today, most industrial cardboard
is made from virgin and recycled wood pulp sourced from managed forests,
resulting in a natural, organic appearance.
The cardboard box’s cheapness and availability has made it fair game to
swathes of modern creatives. In 1919, German artist Kurt Schwitters famously
began constructing collaged artworks made of discarded debris and cardboard,
which he called Merz art – a nonsense word akin to Dada. Later in the century,
Canadian-American architect and designer Frank Gehry was inspired by
corrugated sheets of cardboard to create his corrugated furniture forms, including
the iconic Wiggle Side Chair, as a cheap and lightweight alternative to traditional
furniture in the 1960s.

Now
Today, in marketing terms, cardboard brown is a signifier of eco-friendliness.
Boxes and products shipped to consumers in this basic tone boast a stripped-back
aesthetic and fewer superfluous details, suggesting a low-waste approach. The
reality, however, is that over 850 million tonnes of paper and cardboard – equating
to approximately a billion trees – is thrown away every year in the USA alone.

Use
Embrace the simple and straightforward nature of cardboard brown. In print, pair
eye-catching contrasts of yellow ochre and bold teal blue while still allowing the
material’s natural colour to come through.

Wiggle Side Chair, designed by Frank Gehry c.1970. Vitra Edition, 1998
 Melanin

Colour Values
Hex code: #996e43
RGB: 153, 110, 67
CMYK: 30, 50, 73, 27
HSL: 30, 56%, 60%

Common Connotations
• Natural
• Evolutionary
• Powerful

Then
Melanin is one of the world’s most ancient and powerful colours. This natural
pigment is responsible for the vast spectrum of animal fur, bird plumage and
human skin tones, and has been found in the fossils of dinosaurs and earlier,
primitive organisms. When we gain a freckle, it is caused by our skin increasing
localized melanin production to offer protection against UV damage.
Today, it is believed that when our early ancestors were covered with fur, our
skin was probably pale underneath. When we developed more sophisticated
mechanisms for regulating body temperature and shed most of our body hair, the
early homo sapiens evolved with darker skin with higher concentrations of
melanin to help protect them from the equatorial sun’s intense radiation. Later,
descendants of the groups that migrated to regions with less natural sunlight
progressively developed paler skin, as it is essential to absorb some UV radiation
for the body to make vitamin D, which is needed for strong and healthy bones.

Now
The Mediated Matter Group at MIT is a research group working with melanin as a
material for design and architecture. Having extracted melanin from bird feathers,
the group chemically synthesizes it with modern lab techniques and can replicate
the pigment on large scales to give sun protection to materials such as
architectural glass. The results have yielded an environmentally responsive,
melanin-infused glass structure, which displays pigments that naturally darken in
response to sunlight.

Use
The performative potential of responsive melanin opens up new opportunities for
the design world. Along with other powerful natural pigments such as chlorophyll,
it suggests we look to colours for more than aesthetics or symbolic associations,
and follow the function with innovative uses.

‘Totems’ by Neri Oxman and The Mediated Matter Group, 2019

___________
* Quoted in Banville, John, ‘Temple of Mysteries: Mark Rothko’, Tate Etc., Issue 7, 1 May 2006
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Picture Credits
Ilex would like to acknowledge and thank the following for providing images for use in this book:

1 Courtesy Galerie kreo. Photo © Sylvie Chan-Liat; 1 Studio Olafur Eliasson Boros Collection,
Germany. Photo: María del Pilar García Ayensa; 1 Karl Gaff/Science Photo Library; 1 ©The Josef and
Anni Albers Foundation/DACS 2021. Image: Yale University Press; 1 Mint Images Ltd/Alamy Stock
Photo; 1 Wikimedia/Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 © 2007 Jacob Rus, 2007; 1 Mika
Baumeister/Unsplash; 1 Courtesy Agnė Kučerenkaitė; 1 Photo: CyrilleWiener; 1 Library of Congress,
Department of Prints and Drawings; 1 album/Alamy Stock Photo; 1 Illustration courtesy of Shepard
Fairey/Obeygiant.com; 1 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Gift of George D. Pratt, 1930; 1
akg-images; 1 Courtesy of ARTCOURT Gallery. Photo: Takeru Koroda; 1 Robert Harding/Alamy
Stock Photo; 1 © Banco de México Diego Rivera Frida Kahlo Museums Trust, Mexico, D.F./DACS
2021. Photo: Archivart/Alamy Stock Photo; 1 Victoria and AlbertMuseum, London; 1 Courtesy
WardWijnant. Photo: Ronald Smits; 1 BeatieWolfe; 1 Courtesy Marco Menghi and Mandalaki; 1 ©The
Barnett Newman Foundation, New York/DACS, London 2021. Photo: World History Archive/ akg-
images; 1 Ashmolean Museum, Oxford/ Bridgeman Images; 1 Russ Images/Alamy Stock Photo; 1
Brionvega is a brand of BV2 srlMilano: the Brionvega Art Products Company, www.brionvega.it.
Photo: Giorgio Serinelli; 1 RobertMorris/Alamy Stock Photo; 1 Artokoloro/Alamy Stock Photo; 1
Galit Seligmann/Alamy Stock Photo; 1 Jimlop Collection/Alamy Stock Photo; 1 © Keith Haring
Foundation; 1 Victor Virgile/Gamma-Rapho via Getty Images; 1 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York, Cynthia Hazen Polsky and Leon B. Polsky Fund, 2006; 1 Fabric dyed by Joanna Fowles. Stylist:
MeganMorton, photo: Pablo Viega; 1 © Succession H.Matisse/DACS 2021. Photo: Museum of Fine
Arts, Houston. Museum purchase funded by Audrey Jones Beck/Bridgeman Images; 1 Photo:
Anthony Coleman; 1 Nathaniel Noir/Alamy Stock Photo: 1 incamerastock/Alamy Stock Photo; 1
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Rogers Fund, 1949; 1 Pascal Le Segretain/Getty Images; 1
PAINTING/Alamy Stock Photo; 1 Marco Montalti/Alamy Stock Photo; 1 Courtesy Studio RENS.
Photo Ronald Smits; 1 Merrill Images/Getty Image; 1 Giacomo Pasqua/ Shutterstock; 1 Matteo
Omied/Alamy Stock Photo; 1 Styling by Yenchen & Yawen Studio. Photo: Anna Pors
(annaslichter.com); 1 Courtesy of Fornasetti; 1 Photo © Christie’s Images/Bridgeman Images; 1
National Gallery of Art, Washington, Chester Dale Collection; 1 Courtesy PtolemyMann; 1 Vitra UK
© Studio Bouroullec; 1 Courtesy Parley for the Oceans; 1 Little Greene; 1 Illustration by Oleksandr
Khoma/Dreamstime.com; 1 Rob Kim/Getty Images; 1 Virgile/Gamma-Rapho via Getty Images; 1
Timothy A Clary/Getty Images; 1 Courtesy Delft School ofMicrobiology Archives at Delft University
of Technology, The Netherlaands; 1 Marion Carniel/Alamy Stock Photo; 1 IItajime airvase, designed
by Torafu Architects and manufactured by Fukunaga Print Co. Photo Kyoko Nishimoto/Buaisou; 1
incamerastock/Alamy Stock Photo; 1 Francois Guillot/AFP via Getty Images; 1 Heritage Image
Partnership Ltd/Alamy Stock Photo; 1 Photo © Christie’s Images/Bridgeman Images; 1 © Succession
Picasso/DACS, London 2021. Photo National Galleries of Scotland, Edinburgh/Bridgeman Images; 1
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Rogers Fund, 1926; 1 © Estate ofWilliam Scott 2021. Photo
© Tate; 1 Alfredo Dagli Orti/Shutterstock; 1 Courtesy Dulux; 1 © Olivetti SpA. Photo Bahadir
Yeniceri/Dreamstime.com; 1 © MTA. Used with permission; 1 © Succession Yves Klein c/o ADAGP,
Paris and DACS, London 2021. Photo © Phillips Auctioneers Ltd; 1 Photo: Mercedes-Benz AG; 1
Courtesy Kremer Pigmente; 1 Raffaello Bencini/Bridgeman Images; 1 Victor Boyko/Getty Images; 1
Archives Charmet/Bridgeman Images; 1 © Jeff Koons. Photo © 2017 Fredrik Nilsen. Courtesy
Gagosian; 1 Neil Juggins/Stockimo/ Alamy Stock Photo; 1 PeterWhite/Getty Images; 1 WBC
Art/Alamy Stock Photo; 1 Courtesy JACK ARTS; 1 PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art. Gift ofMme Elsa
Schiaparelli, 1969/Bridgeman Images; 1 Robert van Hoenderdaal/ Alamy Stock Photo; 1 Courtesy
Vollebak. Photo Andy Lo Po; 1 © Stephen Flavin/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York 2021. Photo:
Bridgeman Images; 1 Photo ©Thomas Rusch; 1 Victor Boyko/Getty Images; 1 Arcaid Images/Alamy
Stock Photo; 1 CourtesyMutina. Photo Gerhardt Kellermann; 1 © 2020 Nicole Stjernswärd, Kaiku
Living Color; 1 Wim Van Egmond/Science Photo Library; 1 Courtesy Puma; 1 Photo by Carol
Beckwith and Angela Fisher. Courtesy THK Gallery; 1 Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. On loan from the
City of Amsterdam (A. van der Hoop Bequest); 1 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Gift of
Alexander Götz, in honor of Samuel Eilenberg, 1996; 1 © Yesenia Thibault-Picazo; 1 Pixelformula/
SIPA/Shutterstock; 1 Courtesy Sonos; 1 © Andy Goldsworthy. Courtesy Galerie Lelong & Co; 1 ©
Tonkin Liu; 1 © British Library Board. All Rights Reserved/Bridgeman Images; 1 © Elissa Brunato; 1
Richard Bord/WireImage/Getty Images; 1 CourtesyWendy Andreu & BramVanderbeke; 1 Patrik
Slezak/ Shutterstock; 1 Metropolitan Museumof Art, New York, The Howard Mansfield Collection,
Purchase, Rogers Fund, 1936; 1 © Assemble; 1 Courtesy Studio ThusThat; 1 Photo: Luisa Zanzani,
Formafantasma; 1 Courtesy Keiko Shimoda, www.kcalligraphy.com; 1 © Georgia
O’KeeffeMuseum/DACS 2021. Photo: Art Resource/Scala, Florence; 1 Courtesy Seungjoon Song; 1
Luke Hayes/Asif Khan via Getty Images; 1 William Morris Gallery, London Borough of
WalthamForest; 1 Niday Picture Library/Alamy Stock Photo; 1 agefotostock/Alamy Stock Photo; 1
Saša Fuis/Van Ham, Cologne/akg images; 1 Photo: Studio Laura Daza; 1 © AgnesMartin Foundation,
New York/DACS 2021. Photo © Christie’s Images/Bridgeman Images; 1 Mike
Floyd/DailyMail/Shutterstock; 1 Courtesy Vitra; 1 Courtesy Neri Oxman and theMediatedMatter
Group. Produced by Stratasys Ltd.
Acknowledgements

Many thanks to all the designers and colour makers I was able to interview
and garner individual and unique colour stories from, which informed
much of the raw research material, especially during lockdown restrictions.
Particular mentions go to Laura Luchtman and Ilfa Siebenhaar from Living
Colour Collective, and to Agnė Kučerenkaitė for introducing me to a world
of fascinating and game-changing nuances.
Many thanks to Ellie Corbett for seeking me out and supporting the
bandwidth of colour this book covers. To the editorial, picture, and design
team, including Rachel Silverlight, Ben Gardiner and Giulia Hetherington,
whose expertise brought it all together.
Special thanks to Sarah Conway – writer and friend – for lending the
time to discuss colour’s endless possibilities and the importance of the
narrative, and to Laura Salter for assisting on the research just at the right
moment. An extra special mention to my husband Daniel for supporting me
always, reading many drafts and making shrewd comments and suggestions,
and building me a beautiful garden studio to write in. This book is also
dedicated to my late grandmother Kitty, who always loved to read. It was
one of her life pleasures to sit with a book and get lost, if only just for a few
hours.
An Hachette UK Company
www.hachette.co.uk

First published in the United Kingdom in 2021

by ILEX, an imprint of Octopus Publishing Group Ltd,
Carmelite House, 50 Victoria Embankment,
London EC4Y 0DZ
www.octopusbooks.co.uk

Text © Laura Perryman 2021

Design and layout © Octopus Publishing Group 2021
All images © their respective copyright holders

While every effort has been made to trace the owners of copyright material, to secure permissions and
give correct accreditation, the publishers would like to apologise for any omissions and errors and will
be pleased to incorporate any missing information in future editions of this book.

Publisher: Alison Starling

Commissioning Editor: Ellie Corbett
Managing Editor: Rachel Silverlight
Editorial Assistant: Ellen Sandford O’Neill
Art Director: Ben Gardiner
Design: She Was Only
Picture Research: Giulia Hetherington
Senior Production Manager: Katherine Hockley

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or utilised in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and
retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Laura Perryman asserts the moral right to be identified as the author of this work.

eISBN 9781781578445