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59568/KJSET-2025-4-1-29

Module dimensions [length × width × thickness] 1,483 mm × 668 mm × 35 mm

Maximum system voltage (Vmax) [V] 1,000

Nominal operating cell temperature (NOCT) 46േ2 oC

1.4. Data Collection and Tools kWh/kW. It is defined as the ratio of the net daily,
monthly, or annual AC power output (PAC) delivered
The data from the KIST solar PV system were
by the system to the rated power of the installed solar
collected using power conditioning devices
PV array, as calculated in Eq. (5).
(Model: SMA SMC 8000TL) at 60-minute
intervals, from 1:00 AM to midnight. The PDC
connection diagrams of the systems are shown in Ya = ´100% (4)
Fig. 1. The Fig. 2 shows the pictures of the actual
PPV -rated
connected systems in operation.
PAC
1.5. Performance Parameters Definitions and YFd = ´100% (5)
PPV -rated
Meanings

In a PV system, performance is typically Reference yield (Yr) is calculated by dividing

assessed using factors such as energy or power output, the total in-plane irradiance (Ht) by the PV reference
reference yield, array yield, final yield, system energy irradiance (G0). It represents the number of hours
losses, system and inverter efficiencies, performance during which the energy could be generated under ideal
ratio, and capacity factor [30], [31]. These are solar irradiance conditions. If G0 is equal to 1 kW/m²,
calculated using Eqs. (1) – (13). Energy output ( E AC then Yr represents the number of peak sun hours. It is
influenced by the location, the orientation of the PV
) is defined as the amount of alternating current (AC) array, and weather variability across months and years.
power generated by the system over a given period of
[32], [33]. The PV module efficiency ( h PV ) is
time. The total hourly ( E AC - h ), daily ( E AC - d ) and
captured by Eq. (7), where Vmpp and I mpp are the
monthly ( E AC - h ) energy produced can be determined
voltage and current at maximum power point,
respectively as Eqs. (1) – (3). The energy generated at
respectively. The solar panel area is represented by S
time t [minutes] is denoted by E AC -t , at hour h is
. The I-V characteristics of the KIST solar PV panels
denoted by h , at day d by E AC -d , at month m by are captured by Fig. 3. This figure displays the Vmpp
EAC -m . For these computations, the total days in a Vmpp and I mpp respectively as 36.2 V and 7.87 A.
particular month is denoted by N .
Ht
Yr = (6)
EAC -h = å t =1 EAC -t
60
(1) G0

Vmpp I mpp
EAC -d = å h =1 EAC -h
24
(2) h PV = (7)
SGavg
EAC -m = å d =1 EAC -d
N
(3)
The operating temperature ( T ) affects the solar
cell’s efficiency. This effect is demonstrated by Eq.
The array yield (Ya) is defined as the ratio of the
power output from the solar PV system (PDC) to its
(8), where reference efficiency is h ref , temperature
rated power (PPV-rated), as expressed in Eq. (4). Final coefficient is b ref , and the reference temperature is
yield (YFd) is calculated by dividing the net energy
output by the nameplate DC power of the installed Tref .
solar PV array. It indicates the number of hours the PV
array would need to run at its rated power to generate (
h PV = href 1 - b ref (T - Tref )) (8)
an equivalent amount of energy measured in hours or

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The nominal operating cell temperature 8760 hours. This is followed by how much losses (LTot)
(NOCT) of the module, as specified by the have occurred within the system shown by Eq. (14),
manufacturer, is attained under standard conditions which denotes the difference between the reference
with an irradiance of 800 W/m² and an ambient yield and the final yield of the solar PV system.
temperature of 25°C (Tamb). Then, the operating
temperature is computed by Eq. (9). E AC
CF = ´ 100%
hOP -Y PPV - rated
æ NOCT - 25 ö (13)
T = Tamb + ç ÷ G0 (9) E AC
è 800 ø = ´ 100%
8760 PPV - rated
Inverter efficiency (ηinv) can range from slightly
above 50% at very low power levels to over 90% when LTot = Yr - YFd (14)
operating near its rated output [34]. There are several
methods to compute this efficiency and are better 3.0 Results and Discussions
explained by Mertens [35]. This efficiency indicates The array yield, final yield, reference yield, and
the proportion of DC power from the solar PV that is performance ratio were analyzed, showing ranges of
converted and delivered to the AC side (see Eq. 10). 3.00 to 3.94; 2.83 to 4.41; 4.76 to 6.00; and 0.49 to
0.775 respectively. The average values were found to
PAC be 3.53 kWh/kWp for array yield, 3.57 kWh/kWp for
hinv = ൈ ͳͲͲΨ (10) final yield, 5.52 kWh/kWp for reference yield and
PDC
0.647 (64.7%) for performance ratio. The detailed
Solar cell efficiency refers to the fraction of results are shown in Figs. 4 - 5. The system is
sunlight energy that a photovoltaic cell can convert into performing as per specifications for the installed site at
electrical energy. Therefore, the solar PV system KIST.
efficiency combines effect of factors such as the type
of solar cells, latitude of the site, climatic conditions,
and the size of the solar panels. Then this paper [36]
proposed that solar PV system efficiency can be
computed by Eq. (11).

PAC
hsys = ൈ ͳͲͲΨ (11)
SG0

The performance ratio (PR), is defined in IEC

61724 [37], [38], is a widely used metric for evaluating
the performance of solar PV plants during acceptance Fig. 4. Performance ratio and solar fraction vs
testing and operation. This parameter (see Eq. 12) months.
quantifies the plant’s efficiency in converting sunlight
into AC energy, accounting for losses from system
components, cell mismatch, wiring, high temperatures,
surface soiling, downtime, shading [39]; and failures
of component [40]. Total operating hours is
represented by h0P.

E AC
PR = (12)
hOP PDC

The capacity factor (CF) of a renewable energy

generator indicates how effectively the solar PV plant
operates relative to its nameplate power rating. This is (a)
succinctly captured by Eq. 13 [41]. The total time in
one year is represented by hOP -Y which is equal to

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(b)
Fig. 5. (a) Normalized energy production (per
installed kWp) vs months (b) Normalized Fig. 7. Array temperature vs Effective irradiation
production and loss factor vs months.
The reference incident energy or the amount of
The solar PV array loss, energy supplied to the solar energy striking a surface indicates that panels are
user, collection loss (system losses) and battery typically tilted to optimize sunlight capture
charging were investigated and found to be 1.95 throughout various times of the day and across
kWh/kW/day (35.4%), 3.57 kWh/kW/day (64.7%) - different seasons. The average values were found to
0.1% respectively. The energy produced per day and be 5.516 kW/m2/day for energy produced from inverter
ambient temperature of the system were found to be output as shown in Fig. 8. These shows the capacity of
from 10 kWh/day to 160 kWh/day and from 25.3 °C to the designed system to serve the load at KIST during
28.58 °C for solar PV system. The detailed results are outages, and also to supply few selected loads to reduce
represented in Figs. 6 - 7. They detail a system capable the bills from the grid.
of utilizing the available and plentiful insolation for
immediate use and storage for later use.

Fig. 8. Reference incident energy vs month

Fig. 6. Daily array output energy vs months

5.0 Conclusions
This paper presents the installed solar PV plant
at KIST that was used to solve the problem of power
outages from the grid, voltage fluctuations, and
increase power availability. The system has shown that
average array yield is about 8.72 kWh/kWp, final yield
is 5.823 kWh/kWp, reference yield is 4.63 kWh/kWp
and performance ratio is 16.7. The maximum
efficiencies for the PV, inverter and system are shown
to be 34.9%, 66.8% and 39.2% respectively. The
average capacity was observed to be around 15.95%.
The annual average energy generated by the system is
395.5 kWh of the installed capacity, however it

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decreases due to insufficient sunlight in some months. Fuel Cell Prototype Fed by Sewage: Case Study at the
The financial implication of this KIST solar PV is not University of Dar es Salaam,” Tanzania Journal of
included in this study, and could potentially form an Science, vol. 49, no. 1, pp. 240–249, Mar. 2023, DOI:
excellent future study. 10.4314/tjs.v49i1.21.

[6] E. Chambile, N. Ijumba, B. Mkandawire, and

Acknowledgements J. de D. Hakizimana, “Modelling of environmental
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The authors express their gratitude to the University of 127830, Aug. 2021, DOI:
Dar es Salaam and the Karume Institute of Science and 10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127830.
Technology for providing a supportive environment
for conducting this research. [7] K. Troullaki, S. Rozakis, K. Latoufis, C.
Giotitsas, C. Priavolou, and F. Freire, “Sustainable
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Declaration of conflict of interest Wind,” Energies (Basel), vol. 15, no. 13, Jul. 2022,
DOI: 10.3390/en15134659.
The authors have jointly contributed to the
conceptualization, design, and execution of this study. [8] B. Akbas, A. S. Kocaman, D. Nock, and P. A.
They collaborated on drafting the manuscript and Trotter, “Rural electrification: An overview of
critically revising it to ensure the inclusion of optimization methods,” Renewable and Sustainable
substantial intellectual content. This manuscript has Energy Reviews, vol. 156. Elsevier Ltd, Mar. 01, 2022.
DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2021.111935.
not been submitted to, nor reviewed by, any other
journal or publishing platform. Furthermore, the [9] N. Sreekumar and D. Shantanu, “Challenges
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