Basics of Quantum
Computing
Syllabus (UCS619)
Mathematics and Quantum Mechanics foundation: Basics of Vector, Inner and
outer product, Linear and complex vector space, Hilbert spaces (finite
dimensional), Tensor Products, Trace of a matrix, Dirac‘s notation, Probabilities
and measurements, Axioms of quantum probability, Quantum vs Classical
probability, Basics of quantum mechanics, Postulates of quantum mechanics,
Measurements in bases other than computational basis, Introduction of qubit,
Bloch sphere representation of qubit, Quantum Superposition and
entanglement, Super-dense coding, Density operators, EPR paradox, Bell's
inequality, Euler identity.
Quantum Computing: classical gates, Single qubit gates, multiple qubit gates,
quantum gates, universal quantum gates, Quantum circuits, design of quantum
circuits.
Syllabus
Quantum Fourier Transform: The quantum Fourier transform, Phase
estimation, Fourier Sampling, Applications: order-finding and factoring,
General applications of the quantum Fourier transform, Period-finding,
Discrete logarithms, The hidden subgroup problem.
Quantum Cryptography: Difference between classical and quantum
cryptography, Basics of BB84 and E91 protocol.
Quantum Error Correction: Graph states and codes, Quantum error
correction, fault-tolerant computation.
Text Books
1. Nielsen M. A., Chuang I. L., Quantum Computation and Quantum Information,
Cambridge University Press (2010) 10th Anniversary ed.
2. 2. Benenti G, Casati G., Strini G., Principles of Quantum Computation and
Information, Vol. I: Basic Concepts, Vol II: Basic Tools and Special Topics, World
Scientific (2007)
Online Resource
NPTEL:
Introduction to Quantum Computing: Quantum Algorithms and Qiskit, IBM and
IITM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2SPjEA-
4lKk&list=PLuBwWyD3M82x9PfxeF7oxb0E122mQAWh6&index=1
What is a computation?
Input Computation (Algorithm) Output
0111001 011000
Universal computation models:
A B C A
≈
Q
Turing machine, 1936
Uniform
≈ ≈ Circuits
• “Simulating Physics with Computers”
Richard Feynman – Keynote Talk, 1st Conference on
Physics and Computation, MIT, 1981
Is it possible to build computers
that use the laws of quantum
mechanics to compute?
Introduction
“I think I can safely say that nobody
understands quantum mechanics” - Feynman
1982 - Feynman proposed the idea of creating
machines based on the laws of quantum
mechanics instead of the laws of classical
physics.
1985 - David Deutsch developed the quantum turing
machine, showing that quantum circuits are universal.
1994 - Peter Shor came up with a quantum
algorithm to factor very large numbers in polynomial
time.
1997 - Lov Grover develops a quantum search
algorithm with O(√N) complexity
Information: 1 Bit Example
(Schrodinger’s Cat)
• Classical Information:
• A bit is in state 0 or state 1
OR
X=1 X=0
• Classical Information with
Uncertainty
• Bit is 0 with probability p0
• Bit is 1 with probability p1
• State (p0, p1)
• Quantum Information
• State is a superposition over states
0 and 1
• State is (a0, a1) where a0, a1 are
complex.
Information: 1 Bit Example
(Schrodinger’s Cat)
• Classical Information:
• A bit is in state 0 or state 1
OR
X=1 X=0
• Classical Information with
Uncertainty
• Bit is 0 with probability p0
• Bit is 1 with probability p1
• State (p0, p1)
X=1 X=0
with prob p1 with prob p0
• Quantum Information
• State is a superposition over states
0 and 1
• State is (a0, a1) where a0, a1 are
complex.
Information: 1 Bit Example
(Schrodinger’s Cat)
• Classical Information:
• A bit is in state 0 or state 1
OR
X=1 X=0
• Classical Information with
Uncertainty
• State (p0, p1)
• Quantum Information X=1 X=0
with prob p1 with prob p0
• State is partly 0 and partly 1
• State is (a0, a1) where a0, a1 are
complex. a1 + a0
Information: n Bit Example
• Classical Information:
• State of n bits specified by
a string x in {0,1}n
• Classical Information with
Uncertainty
• State described by
probability distribution over X = 011
2n possibilities
• (p0, p1, …., p2n-1)
• Quantum Information
• State is a superposition over
2n possibilities
• (a0, a1,…, a2n-1), where a is
complex
Information: n Bit Example
• Classical Information: p000
• State of n bits specified by
a string x in {0,1}n p001
• Classical Information with p010
Uncertainty
• State described by
probability distribution over p011
2n possibilities
• (p0, p1, …., p2n-1) p100
• Quantum Information p101
• State is a superposition over
2n possibilities
• (a0, a1,…, a2n-1), where a is p110
complex
p111
Information: n Bit Example
• Classical Information: a000
• State of n bits specified by
a string x in {0,1}n + a001
• Classical Information with + a010
Uncertainty
• State described by
probability distribution over + a011
2n possibilities
• (p0, p1, …., p2n-1) + a100
• Quantum Information + a101
• State is a superposition over
2n possibilities
• (a0, a1,…, a2n-1), where a is
+ a110
complex
+ a111
Bird’s view on Quantum computation
Inherently different from standard “classical”
computers. We believe that it will be
exponentially more powerful for certain tasks.
Polynomial time
Quantum
algorithm for
factoring
Deutsch Bernstein Simon
Shor[’94]
Josza [‘92] Vazirani[‘93] [‘94]
14
14
Physics of many particles Philosophy
Algorithms (non universal computations) of Science
Cryptography
technology
A bit of data is represented by a single atom that is in one of
two states denoted by |0> and |1>. A single bit of this form is
known as a qubit
[2]
Application of Quantum Computer (in future)
• AI development requires the processing of vast amounts of data for machine learning. This helps the
AI recognize patterns and make decisions better. Faster Quantum processing can lead to better AI
performance.
• Manufacturing requires efficient processes and designs to produce high-quality products. Quantum
computing can help designers fish through the different possibilities faster. This technology can help
them save time and create better designs for a better product.
• Financial procedures often rely on a lot of complex mathematical processes. Quantum computing can
help make more accurate simulations and predictions of market activity.
• Chemical engineering deals with the manipulation of atoms and molecules. With such a wide variety
of chemical configurations available, it can take time to find the right one. Quantum computing can
help speed up these processes. This application is beneficial in pharmaceuticals and vaccine
development.
Application of Quantum Computer (in future)
• Conventional random number generators typically rely on algorithms known as pseudo-random
number generators, which are not truly random and thus potentially open to compromise. Companies
such as Quantum Dice and IDQuantique are developing quantum random number generators that
utilize quantum optics to generate sources of true randomness.
• Quantum computer can solve the algorithms behind encryption keys that protect our data and the
Internet's infrastructure. Quantum key distribution (QKD) utilizes aspects of quantum mechanics to
enable the completely secret exchange of encryption keys and can even alert to the presence of an
eavesdropper.
• Solar capture
• Traffic optimization
• Weather forecasting and climate change
• And so on.
India in Quantum Computer
• In December 2021, the Indian Army set up a quantum computing laboratory and
an AI centre at a military engineering institute at Mhow, Madhya Pradesh. It is
also backed by the National Security Council Secretariat (NSCS).
• The Government in its 2021 budget allocated INR 8000 Crore towards
the National Mission on quantum technologies and applications to spur
developments in quantum computing, cryptography, communications, and
material science.
• IBM regularly organizes India-focused programmes such as Qiskit India Week of
Quantum, which celebrated women in quantum to kickstart their journeys in
quantum.
Representation of Data - Qubits
A bit of data is represented by a single atom that is in one of
two states denoted by |0> and |1>. A single bit of this form is
known as a qubit
A physical implementation of a qubit could use the two energy
levels of an atom. An excited state representing |1> and a
ground state representing |0>.
Light pulse of
frequency for
Excited time interval t
State
Nucleus
Ground
State
Electron
State |0> State |1>
Classical Models Quantum Models
• 0-1 strings Lin. combinations
of 0-1 strings
• E.g., one bit
{0,1} E.g., one qubit
a|0>+|1>
• Bool. Functions
• Gates & circuits Matrices
• Primary outputs Gates & circuits
Probabilistic
measurement
Mostly ignored here
Representation of Data - Superposition
A single qubit can be forced into a superposition of the two states
denoted by the addition of the state vectors:
|> = a 1 |0> + a 2 |1>
2 2
Where a 1 and a 2 are complex numbers and |a 1| + | a 2 | = 1
A qubit in superposition is in both of the
states |1> and |0 at the same time
Representation of Data - Superposition
Light pulse of
frequency for time
interval t/2
State |0> State |0> + |1>
Consider a 3 bit qubit register. An equally weighted
superposition of all possible states would be denoted by:
1 1 1
|> = |000> + |001> + . . . + |111>
√8 √8 √8
Challenges in Quantum Computing
• Complexity of quantum computing processes is huge. Quantum computers are difficult to engineer
and program. Thus it becomes challenging to find skilled individuals to operate and maintain the
necessary machinery.
• Qubits exist in superposition in specific conditions, including very low temperatures (~0.01 K), with
radiation shielding and protection against physical shock.
• Quantum computers also require protected environments to operate. Yet, they make many mistakes
due to the fragility of maintaining superposition and entanglement.
• Quantum computing is still an emergent technology. It is not yet the standard, though many industry
leaders see it in their future. It does have significant potential. But, it still needs further development
to get into the mainstream.
• A practical QC needs at least 1,000 qubits and the current biggest quantum processor has 433 qubits.
