See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/262946699

Suitability of Some Climatic Parameters for Grapevine Cultivation in South

Africa, with Focus on Key Physiological Processes

Article in South African Journal of Enology and Viticulture · January 2011

DOI: 10.21548/32-1-1374

CITATIONS READS

77 1,596

2 authors:

J J Hunter Valérie Bonnardot

ARC Infruitec-Nietvoorbij Agricultural Research Council, Stellenbosch South Africa University of Rennes 2
192 PUBLICATIONS 2,756 CITATIONS 134 PUBLICATIONS 999 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by J J Hunter on 07 August 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Suitability of Some Climatic Parameters for Grapevine Cultivation in
South Africa, with Focus on Key Physiological Processes
J. J. Hunter1 & V. Bonnardot2*

(1) ARC Infruitec-Nietvoorbij, the Fruit, Vine and Wine Institute of the Agricultural Research Council, Private Bag X5026, 7599
Stellenbosch, South Africa & Department of Viticulture and Oenology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag XI, Matieland 7602,
South Africa ([email protected])
(2) ARC-Institute for Soil, Climate and Water (ISCW) of the Agricultural Research Council, Private Bag X5026, 7599 Stellenbosch,
South Africa. (Current address: University Rennes 2, COSTEL LETG-UMR 6554 CNRS, 2 Place Recteur H. Le Moal, 35 043
Rennes Cedex, France ([email protected])

Submitted for publication: December 2010

Accepted for publication: March 2011

Key words: Grapevine, regional and district differences, climate profile, climatic ranges, cultivation, photosynthesis, physiological
processes

To optimise the functioning of the grapevine in a specific environment and to improve grape and wine quality,
suitability of climatic parameters for key grapevine physiological processes needs to be assessed at fine scales. This
paper presents methodology using hourly weather data in three wine producing regions of South Africa (Coastal
Region – Stellenbosch district; Breede River Valley – Robertson district; Central Orange River Region – Upington
district) during the pre- (November to December) and post-véraison (January to February) periods. Durations
inside and outside an optimum climatic range and of extreme climatic conditions were calculated over a 5-year
period (1999/2000 to 2003/2004) to quantify a climatic profile related to grapevine physiological requirements.
Climatic requirements for optimum photosynthetic activity were defined as follows: temperature 25°C to 30°C,
windspeed <4 m/s, relative humidity 60% to 70%. Unsuitable climatic periods for vine performance were
calculated as <20°C and >35°C, >4m/s, <50% and >80%. A coefficient was assigned to each climatic parameter
according to an assumed importance level for physiological processes. Optimum temperature requirements for
other physiological parameters were also investigated. A diurnal minimum/maximum temperature range of
25°C to 30°C was used for sugar content and organic acid levels and a maximum night/day temperature range
of 15°C/25°C for colour and flavour. Light intensity was accepted as being sufficient. Stations were classified
according to their potential for meeting the climatic requirements of each physiological parameter. Marked
variation in climatic profiles and available time for optimal physiological functioning occurred between regions.
All factors considered, the climatic profile of the Coastal Region (Stellenbosch district) seemed to best satisfy the
climatic requirements of the physiological parameters studied.

INTRODUCTION et al., 2002; Hunter et al., 2004). All of these have an integrated
Soil and climate are the primary environmental factors to effect on physiological processes and the distribution of carbon
which the grapevine is subjected. For this reason, terroir-related in the grapevine (Hunter, 2000; Carbonneau & Deloire, 2001).
studies mainly focused on the effects of soil and climate on Grapevine growth is usually determined by the climatic
typicity and quality expression of wine (Saayman, 1977, 1992; potential of a region, calculated with different thermal indices
Saayman & Kleynhans, 1978; Noble, 1979; Conradie, 1988; for viticulture, such as the Winkler or Huglin indices (Winkler
Morlat, 1989, 1997; Falcetti, 1994; Falcetti & Iacono, 1996; et al., 1974; Huglin, 1978). These indices (heat summations
De Villiers, 1997; Vaudour, 2000; Conradie et al., 2002; Carey over the growing season) result in classification of climatic
et al., 2003; Bálo et al., 2010). The seasonal morphological regions broad enough to take short-term variation in climate into
development of bunches and eventual chemical composition account. Research on climatic suitability for vine cultivation
of the berry result from the interaction between the chosen usually focuses on these temperature analyses at monthly
soil and accompanying climate and the consequences of long or seasonal scales (Jones et al., 2010). Different climatic
term practices (e.g. establishment techniques, row orientation, parameters (temperature, wind, rainfall and relative humidity)
vine spacing, and trellising, training and pruning systems), are seldomly combined at global scale (Tonietto & Carbonneau,
short term practices (e.g. seasonal irrigation, fertilisation and 2004) or at regional and local scales (Pythoud, 2004; Knight,
canopy management) and harvest criteria applied by the grower 2006) and little consideration is given to finer temporal scales
(Jackson & Lombard, 1993; Hunter & Archer, 2001a,b; Deloire and specific periods during the growth season (for example an

Corresponding author: [email protected]

Acknowledgements: We would like to thank the Agricultural Research Council and the South African Wine Industry (through Winetech) for funding.

S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic., Vol. 32, No. 1, 2011

137
138 Suitability of Climatic Parameters for Vine Physiological Processes

hourly scale during pre- and post-véraison, respectively; Hunter temperature, wind speed and relative humidity profiles for
& Bonnardot, 2002), which would express the phytoclimate photosynthesis as well as other parameters of significance to
(Seguin, 2002). This becomes all the more important in the light grape and wine quality.
of a global climate change which may impact on growth, grape
composition, wine style and spatial distribution of grapevines
(Cyr & Shaw, 2010; Hunter et al., 2010; Jones, 2010; Ladányi Materials and Methods
et al., 2010; Tonietto et al., 2010). Daily and monthly temperature and rainfall data from three
Despite the dependence of proper physiological functioning mechanical weather stations located in the main town of each of
of the grapevine on climate, i.e. temperature (Kriedemann, three South African regions, namely the winter-rainfall Coastal
1968; Kliewer, 1971, 1977; Lakso & Kliewer, 1978; Coombe, Region (Stellenbosch), the semi-arid Breede River Valley
1987; Marais et al., 1999), humidity (Champagnol, 1984) and Region (Robertson) and the semi-arid Central Orange River
wind velocity (Freeman et al., 1982; Kobriger et al., 1984; Region (Upington) were used to describe the general climate of
Hamilton, 1989), threshold values of regions and terroirs for the regions (Fig. 1).
various physiological processes, such as photosynthesis of the The Winkler and Huglin indices (Winkler et al., 1974;
leaves as well as grape color development, sugar and organic Huglin, 1978) were calculated to assess the basic climatic
acid formation, mineral accumulation and flavor development, potential of the regions for viticulture. Hourly climatic data
were only briefly referred to in the past (Buttrose et al., 1971; from the automatic weather station network of the Institute for
Pirie, 1979; Coombe, 1987; Iland, 1989; Yamane et al., 2006; Soil, Climate and Water (ISCW) of the Agricultural Research
Mori et al., 2007). It is therefore necessary to assess at fine Council in the three grape growing regions were used (Table 1).
scale the climatic suitability (in terms of duration) of regions/ The Stellenbosch district (14 stations, S01 to S14), Robertson
environments for grapevine cultivation, and more specific, district (12 stations, R01 to R12) and Upington district (4
the physiological requirements of the grapevine, affecting stations, U01 to U04) are referred to as Stellenbosch, Robertson
the accumulation of components that are viticulturally and and Upington.
oenologically important. This is critical to optimise the The climatic requirements of the physiological processes
functioning of the grapevine in a specific environment and to were studied using hourly temperature, wind speed and relative
improve grape and wine quality. humidity data of five seasons (1999/2000 to 2003/2004) during
Temperature ranges for optimum photosynthetic activity pre- and post-véraison periods (November to December and
were previously studied in three wine producing districts of January to February, respectively). The mean hourly climatic
South Africa (Stellenbosch, Robertson and Upington) during profile of each location (mean hourly temperature, relative
the pre- and post-véraison growth periods (Hunter & Bonnardot, humidity and wind speed) was drawn. The period between
2002). In this paper, the profile suitability of some climatic 09:00 and 15:00 (time is expressed as for South African
parameters for optimal grapevine functioning and production of Standard Time: Greenwich Meridian Time +2) was taken as
high grape and wine quality is further elaborated by considering window for optimum photosynthetic activity. The temperature

FIGURE 1
Location of the three grape growing districts studied in South Africa (Stellenbosch, Robertson and Upington).

S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic., Vol. 32, No. 1, 2011

 Suitability of Climatic Parameters for Vine Physiological Processes 139

TABLE 1
List and characteristics of the automatic weather stations used in the study.
Weather station Altitude (m) Wine producing region Wine producing district
S1 146 Coastal Region Stellenbosch
S2 423 Coastal Region Stellenbosch
S3 147 Coastal Region Stellenbosch
S4 200 Coastal Region Stellenbosch
S5 250 Coastal Region Stellenbosch
S6 230 Coastal Region Stellenbosch
S7 235 Coastal Region Stellenbosch
S8 130 Coastal Region Stellenbosch
S9 225 Coastal Region Stellenbosch
S10 56 Coastal Region Stellenbosch
S11 33 Coastal Region Stellenbosch
S12 153 Coastal Region Stellenbosch
S13 260 Coastal Region Stellenbosch
S14 177 Coastal Region Stellenbosch
R1 300 Breede River Valley Robertson
R2 250 Breede River Valley Robertson
R3 180 Breede River Valley Robertson
R4 170 Breede River Valley Robertson
R5 110 Breede River Valley Robertson
R6 140 Breede River Valley Robertson
R7 180 Breede River Valley Robertson
R8 120 Breede River Valley Robertson
R9 180 Breede River Valley Robertson
R10 160 Breede River Valley Robertson
R11 340 Breede River Valley Robertson
R12 115 Breede River Valley Robertson
U1 690 Central Orange River Region Upington
U2 793 Central Orange River Region Upington
U3 881 Central Orange River Region Upington
U4 650 Central Orange River Region Upington

of 25°C to 30°C, adapted from Kriedemann (1968, 1977), relative humidity and 1 to wind speed, due to temperature
wind speed of <4 m/s (Freeman et al., 1982; Hamilton, 1989) being assumed the most important climatic variable (Coombe,
and relative humidity of 60% to 70% (Champagnol, 1984) 1987), followed by relative humidity and then wind speed, to
requirements for optimal grapevine photosynthetic activity emphasise the proximity of the Ocean and the effect of local air
were superimposed onto the respective hourly mean climatic circulations such as sea-breezes (Bonnardot, 2002). It was also
profiles. The percentage of time, during the study period and assumed that the extremes (below and above optimum ranges)
within the diurnal window, with temperature, wind speed and were equal, although low temperature should actually be
relative humidity falling inside and outside (below and above) more detrimental than high temperature, the latter being more
the range for maximum photosynthetic activity, was also bearable (less stressful) when water is available (Kriedemann,
calculated for both periods. For the time falling inside the range, 1968). Light intensity was accepted as being sufficient.
and therefore suitable for maximum photosynthetic activity, In addition to photosynthesis, optimum temperature
interpretation also included the difference between the morning requirements for other physiological parameters were also
(before 12:00) and the afternoon (after 12:00) occurrences and investigated (based on Kliewer, 1971, 1977; Lakso & Kliewer,
whether the remaining time within the time window was above 1978; Pirie, 1979; Coombe, 1987; Iland, 1989; Marais et
or below the optimum range. al., 1999; Yamane et al., 2006; Mori et al., 2007). A diurnal
A mean cumulated time suitable (optimum climatic temperature range of 20°C to 25°C between 06:00 and 18:00 and
conditions) and unsuitable (extreme climatic conditions) for a night temperature range of 10°C to 15°C between 18:00 and
maximum photosynthetic activity was calculated. In this 06:00 for both colour and flavour were used. The temperature
calculation, a coefficient of 3 was given to temperature, 2 to range of 25°C to 30°C, as used for photosynthesis, was also

S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic., Vol. 32, No. 1, 2011

140 Suitability of Climatic Parameters for Vine Physiological Processes

applied to sugar and potassium accumulation, organic acid III of the Winkler categories, although some fall at the lower
formation and respiration. For photosynthesis, sugar, potassium limit of Region IV. According to the Huglin index, the type
and organic acid levels, a diurnal minimum/maximum of climate varied from temperate at the stations located in
temperature range of 20°C/35°C was used, below or above vineyards nearest to the coast to hot at further inland stations,
which levels in the leaves/berries would be seriously affected. especially those located on northwest-facing slopes.
For colour and flavour, a maximum night and maximum day
temperature range of 20°C and 30°C were used, above which Site assessment according to climatic parameters meeting
levels in the berries would decrease. physiological requirements
The stations were also classified (sorted) according to their Using the mean hourly climatic profiles of the three districts
potential for meeting the climatic requirements of each of the during pre- and post- véraison as well as the calculation of
physiological parameters as well as of all the physiological the duration within or outside optimum ranges for grapevine
parameters together, in order to assess the collective, spatial physiological processes, it clearly showed climatic details
suitability variation within regions. relevant to the physiological performance of the grapevine
An ANNOVA procedure (Waller grouping) using the (Fig. 3).
five seasons as replicates and performed with the Statistical
Analysis System 8.2 version, was used to determine whether the Photosynthesis
differences between the stations were statistically significant. Considering the optimum temperature range within the allocated
diurnal time period (09:00 to 15:00), the climatic suitability
for optimum photosynthesis differed markedly between the
Results and discussion three districts (Fig. 3a). During pre-véraison (Fig. 3a left),
General regional climates temperatures in the Stellenbosch district were below the
The three selected grape growing districts of South Africa, optimum range, with afternoon temperatures rising to just below
located between latitudes 28°4’S and 34°S, represent different the lower temperature limit. The Robertson district experienced
macroclimatic conditions for vine growing (Bonnardot, 2005). climatic conditions inside the range for optimal photosynthesis
The Stellenbosch district in the Western Cape (Coastal Region) in the afternoon, whereas the Upington district experienced
experiences a warm temperate climate (Fig. 2 a) with warm climatic conditions inside the range for optimal photosynthesis
summers (mean maximum February temperature of 28.1°C) and in the morning, where after vines experienced high temperature
winter rainfall (740 mm annually). The mean annual temperature stress during the whole afternoon. A similar situation occurred
is 17.2°C and the annual thermal amplitude is reduced due to in the districts during post-véraison (Fig. 3a right), except for
the maritime influence, which prevents high temperatures the Stellenbosch district where temperatures, albeit slightly
during summer and cold temperatures during winter as well lower than those in the Robertson district, were within the
as during the day and night. In the interior, the climate of the optimum temperature range in the afternoon. The distinction
Robertson district (Breede River Valley Region) is semi-arid: between the morning and afternoon values seemed relevant
hot and dry (Fig. 2b). The mean annual temperature is 17.8°C. within a climate change context as it may have a significant
It is situated at the eastern margin of the winter rainfall zone impact on the physiological processes of the grapevine. It was
and it receives much less rain than the Stellenbosch district, i.e. recently shown that with increasing temperatures (deduced
290 mm annually, mainly during winter. The annual amplitude from long term records) in the Robertson district, the optimum
is wider than in the Stellenbosch district, with a mean January temperature period for photosynthetic activity would shift to the
maximum temperature of 31°C (the warmest month of the year) morning and become noticeably shorter (Hunter et al., 2010).
and a mean July minimum temperature of 5.1°C (the coldest Considering only the duration with temperatures inside
month). The Upington district in the Northern Cape (Central the optimal range for photosynthesis, thermal conditions in
Orange River Region) has a semi-arid climate (Fig. 2c) with the Robertson and Upington districts are more often (28% to
very little rain (180 mm annually), convectional showers falling 35% of the time) suited for photosynthesis than those in the
in summer (January-March) and a mean annual temperature of Stellenbosch district (18% to 26% of the time) during pre-
19°C. The mean maximum temperature in January reaches 35°C, véraison (Fig. 4a). The Waller grouping (p=0.005) resulted in
while the mean minimum temperature in July is 1.7°C. Vines 16 different groups. During post-véraison, as the temperature
in this part of the country experience frost during the change increased, the warmest sites of the Stellenbosch district (S11,
of seasons (winter to spring) and extreme high temperatures in S03, S14 and S10) met the temperature requirements for
summer (>40°C). optimum photosynthesis as often (33% to 35% of the time) in
Using the mean seasonal climatic index of Winkler, the comparison to the coolest sites of the Robertson district (Fig. 4b).
three districts varied from Region III to Region V and, using Here, the Waller grouping resulted in 8 different groups only (2
the Huglin index, the Stellenbosch district was classified as in Upington, 3 in Robertson and 6 in Stellenbosch).
a “warm temperate”, the Robertson district as a “hot” and The Stellenbosch district, however, had more favourable
the Upington district as a “very hot” climate for viticulture relative humidity levels than the Robertson district (Figs 3b and
(Table 2). However, a variety of meso-climates exist within 5). In the Upington district, photosynthesis would be reduced
very short distances, especially in the Stellenbosch district, due to lower levels, due to very low pre- and post-véraison relative
to the complex topography in this district and the proximity of humidity and low wind speeds (Figs 3c, 5 and 6), the latter
the sea (Bonnardot, 2000; Carey, 2001; Bonnardot et al., 2002; which could reduce the transpiration efficiency and contribute
Conradie et al., 2002; Hunter & Bonnardot, 2004). Indeed, the to a rise in plant temperature.
stations in the Stellenbosch district mostly belong to Region In general, the Waller grouping performed on the durations

S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic., Vol. 32, No. 1, 2011

 Suitability of Climatic Parameters for Vine Physiological Processes 141

35 200

(a) 30
180

160

25 140

Temperature (°C)
120

Rainfall (mm)
20
100
15
80

10 60

40
5
20

0 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Rainfall MinT MeanT MaxT

35 200

(b) 180
30
160

25 140
Temperature (°C)

120

Rainfall (mm)
20
100
15
80

10 60

40
5
20

0 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Rainfall MinT MeanT MaxT

35 200

(c) 180
30
160

25 140
Temperature (°C)

120
Rainfall (mm)

20
100
15
80

10 60

40
5
20

0 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Rainfall MinT MeanT MaxT

FIGURE 2
Mean monthly rainfall and temperature for (a) Stellenbosch (33°9’S/18°9’E) (Period 1967 to 2002), (b) Robertson (33°5’S/19°5’E)
(Period 1961 to 1997) and (c) Upington (28°5’S/21°25’E) (Period 1949 to 1995). Source: ARC-ISCW, AgroMet Division, Pretoria.

S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic., Vol. 32, No. 1, 2011

142 Suitability of Climatic Parameters for Vine Physiological Processes

40
Pre-véraison 40
Post-véraison
a) 35 35

30 30
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
25 25

20 20

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time of the day Time of the day

Robertson Stellenbosch Upington Robertson Stellenbosch Upington

100 100

b) 90 90
80 80
Relative Humidity (%)

Relative Humidity (%)

70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time of the day Time of the day

Robertson Stellenbosch Upington Robertson Stellenbosch Upington

6 6

c) 5 5
Windspeed (m/s)

Windspeed (m/s)

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time of the day Time of the day

Robertson Stellenbosch Upington Robertson Stellenbosch Upington

FIGURE 3
Hourly (a) mean temperature, (b) relative humidity and (c) windspeed during pre-véraison (Nov to Dec) and post-véraison (Jan to Feb) for
Stellenbosch, Robertson and Upington wine-producing districts. Average for 5 seasons (1999 to 2004). The superimposed dotted frames
represent the windows of temperature, wind speed and relative humidity requirements for optimal grapevine physiological activity.

with temperature, relative humidity and wind inside the optimal was therefore the least suited for photosynthesis. Only one
range for photosynthesis resulted in a higher occurrence of site in the Robertson district and two sites in the Stellenbosch
significant differences between locations during pre-véraison in district experienced more climatic stress than favourable
comparison to those identified during post-véraison. conditions for photosynthesis during pre-véraison. On average,
When the total duration within the optimum climatic the Stellenbosch district had more often favourable climatic
(temperature, relative humidity and wind speed) ranges for conditions than the Robertson and Upington districts, due to
photosynthesis was plotted versus the total duration outside the less time with stress. It is clear that climatic conditions for
ranges (i.e. under climatic stress) (Fig. 7), the sites monitored maximum photosynthetic activity in the Stellenbosch and
in the Upington district showed that climatic stress was more Robertson districts were met more often during the post-
often experienced by grapevines than favourable climatic véraison period than during the pre-véraison period. The
conditions (right of the dashed line in Fig. 7) and this district percentage of time with optimum climatic values increased and

S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic., Vol. 32, No. 1, 2011

 Suitability of Climatic Parameters for Vine Physiological Processes 143

TABLE 2
Winkler and Huglin indices and their corresponding climatic region or climate type. Average of five seasons (1999 to 2004) for each
of the Stellenbosch, Robertson and Upington districts. The stations are classified within their district by ascending Winkler index.
Winkler Winkler Huglin Climate type based on Huglin index as used by
District Station
Index Region Index Tonietto & Carbonneau (2004)
Stellenbosch S6 1701 III 2095 Temperate
Stellenbosch S8 1737 III 2154 Warm Temperate
Stellenbosch S5 1751 III 2179 Warm Temperate
Stellenbosch S2 1791 III 2222 Warm Temperate
Stellenbosch S7 1814 III 2155 Warm Temperate
Stellenbosch S1 1943 III 2379 Warm Temperate
Stellenbosch S12 1965 IV 2312 Warm Temperate
Stellenbosch S14 1982 IV 2498 Hot
Stellenbosch S10 1990 IV 2382 Warm Temperate
Stellenbosch S4 2008 IV 2485 Hot
Stellenbosch S3 2008 IV 2489 Hot
Stellenbosch S11 2019 IV 2403 Hot
Stellenbosch S9 2041 IV 2455 Hot
Stellenbosch S13 2051 IV 2402 Hot
Average for Stellenbosch district 1914 III 2329 Warm temperate
Robertson R11 1877 III 2447 Hot
Robertson R2 1926 III 2401 Hot
Robertson R9 1968 IV 2439 Hot
Robertson R1 1997 IV 2478 Hot
Robertson R5 2027 IV 2557 Hot
Robertson R10 2030 IV 2590 Hot
Robertson R8 2050 IV 2551 Hot
Robertson R4 2053 IV 2592 Hot
Robertson R7 2058 IV 2530 Hot
Robertson R12 2061 IV 2608 Hot
Robertson R3 2110 IV 2640 Hot
Robertson R6 2120 IV 2650 Hot
Average for Robertson district 2023 IV 2540 Hot
Upington U2 2901 V 3402 Very Hot
Upington U3 2968 V 3459 Very Hot
Upington U1 3114 V 3529 Very Hot
Upington U4 3273 V 3755 Very Hot
Average for Upington district 3064 V 3536 Very hot

the percentage of time with climatic stress decreased during Colour and flavour
post-véraison (Fig. 7). The calculation for colour expression and flavour development
A well-photosynthesising, sucrose-producing canopy and maintenance showed a clear distinction between sites in
during the pre-véraison period is important for the supply of the three districts. Indeed, the Waller grouping resulted in 10
precursors for various compounds such as organic acids, amino to 12 different groups during daytime (Fig. 8) and 17 to 18
acids and secondary compounds (De Freitas et al., 2000; Pastor different groups during night time (Fig. 9). The Stellenbosch
del Rio & Kennedy, 2006; Rodriquez Montealegre et al., district was the most suited. Considering the day temperature
2006). The latter include terpenoids (e.g. monoterpene flavour thresholds, at least 30% to 46% of the time during pre-véraison
compounds and carotenoids), flavonoids and non-flavonoids (Fig. 8a) and 33% to 43% of the time during post-véraison
[e.g. phenolic acids, polymeric flavan-3-ols (condensed (Fig. 8b) were suitable for colour and flavour requirements in
tannins), flavonols and colour (anthocyanin) compounds]. the Stellenbosch district. While daytime temperature stress was
During the post-véraison period conditions should be suited relatively limited during pre-véraison in the Stellenbosch (7%
to maintenance and further formation of compounds. High of the time) and Robertson (11% of the time) districts (Fig. 8a),
photosynthetic activity during the post-véraison period would the stations in the Upington district displayed highly limiting
largely buffer a decrease in organic acid content and an increase temperatures for colour and flavour requirements during both
in pH (Hunter & Ruffner, 2001). pre- and post-véraison (45% and 53% of the time, respectively;
Figs 8a and 8b). Considering the night temperature thresholds,

S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic., Vol. 32, No. 1, 2011

144 Suitability of Climatic Parameters for Vine Physiological Processes

60

55

50

45

40
Frequency of time (%)

35

30

25

20

15

10

5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
0
R12
R06

R05

R08
R03
R10
R01
R07
R04
R11
R09
R02
S14
S03
S04
S09
S11
S13
S01
S10
S02
S12
S05
S06
S07
S08
U01
U02

U04
U03

Robertson
Upington

Stellenbosch
Stations

25 to 30°C <20°C >35°C

FIGURE 4A
Time between 09:00 and 15:00 (in %) with temperature below 20°C, between 25°C and 30°C, and above 35°C, during pre-véraison
for the 30 stations and average for the three districts (1999 to 2004). Stations are grouped (Waller grouping p=0.005) and classified
according to descending (25°C to 30°C) frequency.
60

55

50

45

40
Frequency of time (%)

35

30

25

20

15

10

5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0
R12
R07
R08
R05
R01

R03
R04
R10

R02
R09
R11
R06

S11
S14
S03

S10
S04
S12
S13
S01
S09

S05
S02
S06
S07
S08
U03
U02

U04
U01

Robertson
Upington
Stellenbosch

Stations

25 to 30°C <20°C >35°C

FIGURE 4B
Time between 09:00 and 15:00 (in %) with temperature below 20°C, between 25°C and 30°C, and above 35°C, during post-véraison
for the 30 stations and average for the three districts (1999 to 2004). Stations are grouped (Waller grouping p=0.005) and classified
according to descending (25°C to 30°C) frequency.

S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic., Vol. 32, No. 1, 2011

 Suitability of Climatic Parameters for Vine Physiological Processes 145

stressful thermal conditions for colour and flavour development when vineyards are over-irrigated or when rain falls during this
and maintenance seemed to be a rule at night (Fig. 9), except for period. This is not feasible for obtaining high grape quality. In
the Stellenbosch district during pre-véraison (Fig. 9a). the semi-arid Robertson and Upington districts vineyards may
In the Upington district, temperatures increased to above react similarly; and with vineyards being intensively monitored
maximum levels for optimum sugar accumulation during both in these districts, variation in growth is probably less likely to
pre- and post-véraison periods, with locations experiencing occur because of potentially better control (albeit at high risk of
stressful thermal conditions during day and night for 53% to error) over the water status of soils (growth uniformity is also
73% of the time in total (Fig. 10). The negative effect of this largely dependent on, e.g. soil variation, soil preparation, plant
on organic acid formation and colour expression would be material quality, planting practices, plant spacing, rootstock
accentuated by the very favourable temperature conditions in selection and the accommodation of growth on a suitable trellis
this region for excessive respiration of malic acid during the system).
afternoons of both the pre- and post-véraison periods (Kliewer, Naturally, in either of the districts, variation in climate
1971; Lakso & Kliewer, 1978). In addition, tartaric acid salt conditions would occur, depending mainly on altitude,
formation in particular would most likely be favoured in the slope, aspect and prevailing wind. Vine performance would
berries during the whole season because of high temperatures be affected by the way in which growth is accommodated,
restricting photosynthesis and therefore sugar production, the soil water holding capacity, water deficit management,
and stimulating increased potassium distribution in order to canopy management, and fertilization programs. Under any
maintain osmotic potential (as explained by Hunter & Ruffner, circumstances, management neglect or injudicious execution
2001). All of these would eventually lead to an unbalanced of practices at any time (winter and summer) may lead to an
grape composition and a high pH, the latter further increasing under-exploitation of the regional and site potential for grape
during crushing in the winery (Iland, 1987). In the case of the growing and grape and wine quality.
Robertson district, temperature conditions were better suited Although the climatic requirements employed in this
for sugar and organic acid formation compared to the Upington study for optimum photosynthesis would seem to indicate that
district, with locations experiencing stressful thermal conditions conditions are, on average, best suited in the Robertson and
for 28% to 37% of the time only during post-véraison and more Stellenbosch districts, followed by the Upington district, vines
often optimum thermal conditions (25% to 30%) than thermal in the winter-rainfall Stellenbosch district (Schulze, 1997) are
stress (18% to 25%) during pre-véraison (Fig. 10). In the moderately vigorous and trained onto smaller trellises, whereas
Stellenbosch district, cool pre-véraison temperatures may limit those in the semi-arid inland districts, such as Robertson and
photosynthesis, sugar production and organic acid formation, Upington, are more vigorous and generally trained onto larger
but on the other hand, respiration of organic acid would probably trellises for growth accommodation (Hunter & Archer, 2001a).
be more restricted compared to the other regions. It is, however, Vines in the Coastal Region are also mostly low intensity
still likely that the berries under such circumstances may enter irrigated or grown under dry land conditions, whereas those in
the ripening period at lower organic acid concentrations than the inland regions are intensively irrigated, mostly because of a
required for high grape quality. As a result, an unbalanced grape combination of high temperature and low soil water availability
composition with a dominant sugar concentration (leading for the latter regions. This has a critical impact on growth and may
to wines high in alcohol) and lacking other oenologically enhance or repress physiological factors impacting on growth
important components, is also likely to be found at harvesting. and grape composition, and finally wine quality. In addition to
This situation may be worse if the water requirements of the climatic differences, application of the aforementioned regional
vine and canopy management to control vigour and canopy viticulture practices (as well as soil type/fertility, plant spacing,
microclimate (from the beginning of the growth period) are and row orientation), may also have a significant bearing on
neglected (Hunter, 2000; Hunter & Myburgh, 2001; Ojeda et microclimate conditions that are experienced by the grapevine,
al., 2002; Hunter et al., 2004). The temperature conditions in and thus on canopy photosynthesis (and eventual grape and
the Stellenbosch district nevertheless seemed best suited for wine quality) (Hunter & Visser, 1988; Hunter et al., 1995;
colour and flavour development, having the largest part of Riou, 1998; Hunter & Archer, 2001a,b). Moreover, the extent
the temperature profile inside the optimal range, particularly and timing of seasonal canopy management are critical for
during pre-véraison (28% to 38% of the time - Fig. 10), the interior-canopy photosynthetic active radiation, temperature,
latter period being important for the formation of precursors humidity, wind velocity and eventual photosynthetic efficiency
in either case. The temperature profile of the Robertson district of the leaves (Hunter, 2000; Hunter et al., 2004). A lack of
is similar to this (25% to 28% of the time within the optimum preventative measures in the Robertson and Upington districts
thermal range). During post-véraison, temperatures in both may therefore result in vigorous growth and most probably
Stellenbosch and Robertson districts were inside the optimum dense canopies with only a small portion of photosynthetic
range during the morning (Fig. 3a right), thereby favouring efficient leaf area and unfavourable conditions for bunch health,
colour development and flavour maintenance. In the Upington development and composition. This would largely nullify the
district, colour development and the maintenance of flavour potentially favourable effects of the temperature profiles for
may, in addition to the climatic temperature restrictions, be photosynthetic activity and growth in these districts. It would
negatively affected by potentially high pH levels (Iland, 1987; also further impact on colour and flavour development and
Hunter & Ruffner, 2001). maintenance.
Higher and more favourable temperatures in the
Stellenbosch district during the post-véraison period may Photosynthesis, colour and flavour combined
result in a continuation/re-start of vegetative growth, especially Considering the mean total percentage of time inside the

S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic., Vol. 32, No. 1, 2011

 80
146 Suitability of Climatic Parameters for Vine Physiological Processes

70
100
Frequency of time (%)

60 90

50 80

40 70
Frequency of time (%)

60
30
50
20
40
10
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
0 20
S03
S10
S06
S07
S12
S04
S13
S05
S09
S02
S14

S01

U03
U01
U04
U02
R06
R04

R05
R12
R02
R08
R01
R09
R07
R11
R03
R10
S11
S08

Stellenbosch
Robertson
Upington
10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
0
S03
S10
S06
S07
S12
S04
S13
S05
S09
S02
S14

S01

U03
U01
U04
U02
S11
S08

R06
R04

R05
R12
R02
R08
R01
R09
R07
R11
R03
R10

Stellenbosch
Robertson
Upington
Stations
100
60 to 70% RH <50%RH >80%RH
90 Stations
FIGURE 5A
Time between 09:00 and 15:00 (in %) with relative humidity below 50%, between 60% and 70% and above 80%, during pre-véraison
60 to 70% RH <50%RH >80%RH
8030 stations and average for the three districts (1999 to 2004). Stations are grouped (Waller grouping p=0.005) and classified
for the
according to descending (60% to 70%) frequency.
70 100
Frequency of time (%)

60 90

50 80

70
40
Frequency of time (%)

60
30
50
20
40
10
130 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

0 20
S06
S08
S12
S10
S07
S03
S09
S02
S04
S05

S13

S14

U03
U01
U04
U02
R06

R04
R12

R02
R07

R09
R05
R08
R01

R10
R03
R11
S11

S01

Stellenbosch
Robertson
Upington

10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

0
S06
S08
S12
S10
S07
S03
S09
S02
S04
S05

S13

S14

U03
U01
U04
U02
S11
R06

R04
R12

R02
R07
S01
R09
R05
R08
R01

R10
R03
R11

Stellenbosch
Robertson
Upington

Stations

60 to 70% RH <50%RH >80%RH

Stations
FIGURE 5B
Time between 09:00 and 15:00 (in %) with relative humidity below 50%, between 60% and 70% and above 80%, during post-
60 to 70% RH <50%RH >80%RH
véraison for the 30 stations and average for the three districts (1999 to 2004). Stations are grouped (Waller grouping p=0.005) and
classified according to descending (60% to 70%) frequency.

S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic., Vol. 32, No. 1, 2011

 Suitability of Climatic Parameters for Vine Physiological Processes 147

FIGURE 6A
Time between 09:00 and 15:00 (in %) with wind speed above and below 4m/s, during pre-véraison for the 30 stations and average
for the three districts (1999 to 2004). Stations are grouped (Waller grouping p=0.005) and classified according to ascending (<4m/s)
frequency.

FIGURE 6B
Time between 09:00 and 15:00 (in %) with wind speed above and below 4m/s, during post-véraison for the 30 stations and average
for the three districts (1999 to 2004). Stations are grouped (Waller grouping p=0.005) and classified according to ascending (<4m/s)
frequency.

S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic., Vol. 32, No. 1, 2011

148 Suitability of Climatic Parameters for Vine Physiological Processes

46

44
Time within the optimum climatic ranges (%)
42

40

38

36

34

32

30

28
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46
Time under climatic stress (%)

Robertson Pre-Véraison Stellenbosch Pre-Véraison Upington Pre-Véraison

Robertson Post-Véraison Stellenbosch Post-Véraison Upington Post-Véraison

FIGURE 7
Cumulated time (%) within the optimum climatic ranges vs cumulated time (%) under climatic stress for photosynthesis during pre-
(open symbols) and post-véraison (closed symbols) using a coefficient of 3 for temperature, 2 for relative humidity and 1 for wind.
Average for the 30 stations and per district (larger symbols) over the 1999 to 2004 study period. A dashed line, below which stations
experienced more often climatic stress than favourable climatic conditions, is superimposed.

FIGURE 8A
Daytime (in %) with temperature below 15°C, between 20°C and 25°C and above 30°C for colour and flavour during pre-véraison
for the 30 stations and average for the three districts (1999 to 2004). Stations are grouped (Waller grouping p=0.005) and sorted by
descending % of time inside the optimum range (20°C to 25°C).

S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic., Vol. 32, No. 1, 2011

 Suitability of Climatic Parameters for Vine Physiological Processes 149

FIGURE 8B
Daytime (in %) with temperature below 15°C, between 20°C and 25°C and above 30°C for colour and flavour during post-véraison for
the 30 stations and average for the three districts (1999 to 2004). Stations are grouped (Waller grouping p=0.005) and sorted by descending
% of time inside the optimum range (20°C to 25°C).

FIGURE 9A
Night time (in %) with temperature below 5°C, between 10°C and 15°C and above 20°C for colour and flavour during pre-véraison for
the 30 stations and average for the three districts (1999 to 2004). Stations are grouped (Waller grouping p=0.005) and sorted by descending
% of time inside the optimum range (10°C to 15°C).

S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic., Vol. 32, No. 1, 2011

150 Suitability of Climatic Parameters for Vine Physiological Processes

FIGURE 9B
Night time (in %) with temperature below 5°C, between 10°C and 15°C and above 20°C for colour and flavour during post-véraison
for the 30 stations and average for the three districts (1999 to 2004). Stations are grouped (Waller grouping p=0.005) and sorted out
by descending % of time inside the optimum range (10°C to 15°C).

40
Time within the optimum thermal ranges (%)

35

30

25

20

15

10

5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
Time under thermal stress (%)

Robertson Pre-Véraison Stellenbosch Pre-Véraison Upington Pre-Véraison

Robertson Post-Véraison Stellenbosch Post-Véraison Upington Post-Véraison
FIGURE 10
Mean cumulated time (%) within the day and night optimum temperature ranges vs mean cumulated time (%) under thermal stress
for colour and flavour during pre- (open symbols) and post-véraison (closed symbols). Average for the 30 stations and per district
(larger symbols) over the 1999 to 2004 study period. A dashed line, below which stations experienced more often climatic stress than
favourable climatic conditions, is superimposed.

S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic., Vol. 32, No. 1, 2011

 Suitability of Climatic Parameters for Vine Physiological Processes 151

40

38
Time within the optimum climatic ranges (%)

36

34

32

30

28

26

24

22

20
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time under climatic stress (%)

Robertson Pre-Véraison Stellenbosch Pre-Véraison Upington Pre-Véraison

Robertson Post-Véraison Stellenbosch Post-Véraison Upington Post-Véraison
FIGURE 11
Mean cumulated time (%) within optimum climatic ranges vs mean cumulated time (%) under climatic stress for photosynthesis,
colour and flavour during pre- (open symbols) and post-véraison (closed symbols). Average for the 30 stations and per district (larger
symbols) over the 1999 to 2004 study period. A dashed line, below which stations experienced more often climatic stress than
favourable climatic conditions, is superimposed.

optimal climatic ranges versus the mean total percentage of abiotic impact factors on the grapevines are accommodated in
time under climatic stress for photosynthesis, colour and flavour such a way that the climatic profiles of the regions and terroirs
parameters in combination, pre- and post-véraison (Fig. 11) within are used to maximum advantage in terms of growth,
and for the whole season (Fig. 12), the Stellenbosch district grape composition and wine quality/style.
featured more sites in the top range and should be considered
the best of the three districts in satisfying the requirements of
the grapevine for expression of the measured parameters for Conclusions
32% of the time on average (Fig. 12). The Stellenbosch district The results showed different climatic profiles available for
has a more complex topography and a cooler climate due to key grapevine physiological processes in South Africa and a
a moderating effect of the sea along the coast compared to significant spatial variation of these profiles within the regions
the interior (SAWB, 1996). The occurrence of the sea breeze investigated. Considering the relationships between climate and
in the Stellenbosch district (Bonnardot et al., 2002, 2004), grapevine physiological behaviour, these climatic differences
which results in increasing wind velocity, intake of humidity may have serious implications for the physiological functioning
and decreasing temperature, explains the earlier and lower of grapevines. Mean climatic data and indices are seemingly not
maximum temperature, higher minimum relative humidity and sufficient to properly understand variation in climatic conditions
earlier and stronger winds in this district compared to the other and, consequently, to quantify the impact on grapevine
two districts (Fig. 3c). Along with the topographical variation, physiological behaviour at a particular location. This may lead
this also explains the larger site climatic heterogeneity in this to the selection and zoning of only apparently homogeneous
district. The sea breeze in the Stellenbosch district seems to be terroirs, resulting in heterogeneous grapevine response. In this
a restrictive factor for optimal photosynthesis as far as wind regard, the duration inside and outside an optimum range, and
is concerned, but the moderate temperature seems positive including extreme climatic conditions, would add value to
regarding colour development and the maintenance of flavour climatic profile quantification aimed at grapevine physiological
in this district. The Robertson district experienced almost as requirements and behaviour. The impact of potential climatic
much climatic stress than favourable conditions (27% and 30% stress (direct and indirect) on grapevine physiological processes,
of the time, respectively), while vines in the Upington district growth, and grape development and quality should be further
clearly experienced excessive climatic stress (52%) (Fig. 12). quantified.
Special care should be taken to ensure that other biotic and On a macro-scale, climatic indices used to classify different

S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic., Vol. 32, No. 1, 2011

152 Suitability of Climatic Parameters for Vine Physiological Processes

40

38
Time within the optimum climatic ranges (%)

36

34

32

30

28

26

24

22

20
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time under climatic stress (%)

Stellenbosch Robertson Upington

FIGURE 12
Averaged (pre- and post-véraison) cumulated time (%) within optimum climatic ranges vs averaged cumulated time (%) under
climatic stress for photosynthesis, colour and flavour. Average for the 30 stations and per district (larger symbols) over the 1999 to
2004 study period. A dashed line, below which stations experienced more often climatic stress than favourable climatic conditions,
is superimposed.

terroirs and which are applied for zoning, seem to be only an Literature cited
indication of what in reality is experienced between vine
Anon, 1998. Wine of Origin. The Wine and Spirit Board, Stellenbosch, 24p.
rows and by the root system and canopy in particular. The
more macro-, meso-, micro- and even nano- (e.g. inside the Bálo, B., Szilágyi, Z., Szücs, E., Marschall, M., Simon, Z. & Zsófi, Zs., 2010.
bunches and at soil-root interface level) climate conditions and Tools for terroir classification for the grape variety Kékfrankos. In: VIIIth
cultivating conditions in a particular region and at a particular International Terroir Congress, June 2010, Soave, Italy, pp. 2-159-2-165.
site favour physiological requirements of the cultivar-rootstock Bonnardot, V., 2000. Étude préliminaire des brises de mer pendant la période
combination to the benefit of grapevine functioning and de maturation dans la région viticole du Cap en Afrique du Sud. Pub. Ass. Int.
grape development/composition, the better expression of site Clim. 12, 26-33.
potential and the less seasonal variation in grape and wine
Bonnardot, V., 2005. Some climatic characteristics of the South African wine
quality would be obtained. Conversely, failure to successfully producing regions. In: Proc. Bacchus in Bourgogne, IInd Interdisciplinary and
marry these concepts would result in an under-exploitation of International Wine Conference, November 2005, Beaune-Dijon, France, pp.
the real potential of the chosen grapevine cultivar and site and 144-167.
would only result in an apparent zoning. In order to understand
Bonnardot, V., Planchon, O., Carey, V.A., & Cautenet, S., 2002. Diurnal
the behaviour of the grapevine within a particular terroir and wind, relative humidity and temperature variation in the Stellenbosch- Groot
to facilitate future terroir selection and zoning, these concepts Drakenstein wine growing area. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 23 (2), 62-71.
must be studied in concert.
The novel methodology in linking climatic profiles and Bonnardot, V., 2002. The sea breeze: a significant climatic factor for viticultural
zoning in coastal wine growing areas. In: Proc. IVth Int. Sym. Viticultural
physiological processes, as explained in this paper, can be zoning, June 2002, Avignon, France. pp. 339-348.
adapted and applied at any scale between and within wine
regions. Further research that includes correlation between Bonnardot, V., Planchon, O. & Cautenet, S., 2004. The sea breeze development
annual/seasonal variability of climatic profiles and wine quality under an offshore synoptic wind in the South Western Cape and implications for
the Stellenbosch wine producing area. Theor. Appl. Clim. 81, 203-218.
(e.g. colour and flavour in particular) should be done to add
further value. Buttrose, M. S., Hale, C. R. & Kliewer, W. M., 1971. Effect of the temperature
on the composition of Cabernet Sauvignon berries. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 22, 71-
75.

S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic., Vol. 32, No. 1, 2011

 Suitability of Climatic Parameters for Vine Physiological Processes 153

Carbonneau, A. & Deloire, A., 2001. Plant organization based on source-sink Hunter, J.J., Ruffner, H.P., Volschenk, C.G. & Le Roux, D.J., 1995. Partial
relationships: New findings on developmental, biochemical and molecular defoliation of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Cabernet Sauvignon/99 Richter: Effect on
responses to environment. In: Roubelakis-Angelakis, K.A. (ed.), Molecular root growth, canopy efficiency, grape composition and wine quality. Am. J.
Biology & Biotechnology of the Grapevine, pp. 263–280. Enol. Vitic. 46, 306–314.

Carey, V.A., 2001. Spatial characterisation of terrain units in the Bottelaryberg Hunter, J.J. & Archer, E., 2001a. Long-term cultivation strategies to improve
/Simonsberg/Helderberg winegrowing area. MSc Agric (Viticulture), Univ. of grape quality. In: Proc. VIIIth Viticulture and Enology Latin-American
Stellenbosch. Private Bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa. Congress, November 2001, Montevideo, Uruguay.

Carey, V.A., Bonnardot, V., Schmidt, A. & Theron, J.C.D., 2003. The Hunter, J.J. & Archer, E., 2001b. Short-term cultivation strategies to improve
interaction between vintage, vineyard site (mesoclimate) and wine aroma of grape quality. In: Proc. VIIIth Viticulture and Enology Latin-American
Vitis vinifera L. cvs. Sauvignon blanc, Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon in Congress, November 2001, Montevideo, Uruguay.
the Stellenbosch-Klein Drakenstein wine producing area. OIV Bull. 76 (863-
864), 4-29. Hunter, J.J., Archer, E. & Volschenk, C.G., 2010. Vineyard management for
environment valorisation. In: VIIIth International Terroir Congress, June 2010,
Champagnol, F., 1984. Eléments de physiologie de la vigne et de viticulture Soave, Italy, pp. 7-3-7-15.
générale. François Champagnol, Saint-Gely-du-Fesc, France. 351p.
Hunter, J.J. & Bonnardot, V., 2002. Climatic requirements for optimal
Conradie, W.J, 1988. Effect of soil acidity on grapevine root growth and the physiological processes: A factor in viticultural zoning. In: Proc. IVth
role of roots as a source of nutrient reserves. In: Van Zyl, J.L. (Compiler). The International Symposium on Viticultural Zoning, June 2002, Avignon, France,
Grapevine Root and its Environment. Technical communication, Department of pp. 553-565.
Agriculture and Water Supply, Pretoria 215, 16-29.
Hunter, J.J. & Bonnardot, V., 2004. Final Report Research Project no WW 12/22.
Conradie, W.J., Carey, V.A., Bonnardot, V., Saayman, D. & Van Schoor, L.H., Potential evaluation of different climatic regions for vine cultivation by using
2002. Effect of Natural “Terroir” Units on the Performance of Sauvignon temperature ranges for key physiological processes. ARC-Infruitec/Nietvoorbij.
Blanc Grapevines in the Stellenbosch/Durbanville Districts of South Africa. I. 44 p.
Geology, Soil, Climate, Phenology and Grape Composition. S. Afr. J. Enol.
Vitic. 23(2), 78-91. Hunter, J.J. & Myburgh, P., 2001. Ecophysiological basis for water management of
vineyards in South Africa, with particular reference to environmental limitations.
Coombe, B.G., 1987. Influence of temperature on composition and quality of In: Proc. 12th GESCO Meeting, July 2001, Montpellier, France. pp. 23-43.
grapes. Acta Hort. 206, 23-35.
Hunter, J.J., Pisciotta, A., Voschenk, C.G., Archer, E., Novello, V., Deloire, A.
Cyr, D. & Shaw, T.B., 2010. The impact of global warming on Ontario’s & Nadal, M., 2004. Role of harvesting time/optimal ripeness in zone/terroir
icewine industry. In: VIIIth International Terroir Congress, June 2010, Soave, expression. In: Proc. Joint Conference (SASEV, OIV, GESCO) on Viticultural
Italy, pp. 3-9-3-16. Zoning, 15–19 November 2004, Cape Town, South Africa, pp. 466-478.

De Freitas, V.A.P., Glories, Y. & Monigue, A., 2000. Developmental changes Hunter, J.J. & Ruffner, H.P., 2001. Assimilate transport in grapevines – effect of
of procyanidins in grapes of red Vitis vinifera varieties and their composition in phloem disruption. Aust. J. Grape and Wine Res. 7, 118–126.
respective wines. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 51, 397-403.
Hunter, J.J., Volschenk, C.G. & Bonnardot, V., 2010. Linking grapevine row
Deloire, A., Lopez, F. & Carbonneau, A., 2002. Réponses de la vigne et terroir. orientation to a changing climate in South Africa. In: Proc. Intervitis Interfructa
Eléments pour une méthode d’étude. Progrès Agric. Vitic. 119, 78–86. International Congress (Cultivation methods in a changing climate), March
2010, Stuttgart, Germany, pp. 60-70.
De Villiers, F., 1997. The use of Geographic Information System (GIS) in the
selection of wine cultivars for specific areas by using temperature climatic Iland, P.G., 1987. Interpretation of acidity parameters in grapes and wine. Austr.
models. In: Proc. XXIIth Congress of the OIV, December 1997, Buenos Aires, Grapegrower Winemaker 4, 81-85.
Argentina.
Iland, P., 1989. Grape berry composition – the influence of environmental and
Falcetti, M., 1994. Le terroir. Qu’est-ce qu’un terroir? Pourquoi l’étudier? viticultural factors. Austr. Grapegrower Winemaker 2, 13-15.
Pourquoi l’enseigner? OIV Bull. 67, 246–275.
Jackson, D.I. & Lombard, P.B., 1993. Environmental and management practices
Falcetti, M. & Iacono, F., 1996. Ecophysiological description of sites and wine affecting grape composition and wine quality – a review. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 44,
sensory properties as a tool for zoning in viticulture. Acta Hort. 427, 395–404. 409–430.

Freeman, B.M., Kliewer, W.M. & Stern, P., 1982. Influence of windbreaks Jones, G., 2010. Climate, grapes, and wine: structure and suitability in a
and climatic region on diurnal fluctuation of leaf water potential, stomatal variable and changing climate. In: VIIIth International Terroir Congress, June
conductance, and leaf temperature of grapevines. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 33, 233– 2010, Soave, Italy, pp. 3-3-3-8.
236.
Jones, G., Duff, A., Hall, A.A. & Myers, J.W., 2010. Spatial analysis of climate
Hamilton, R.P., 1989. Wind and its effects on viticulture. Austr. Grapegrower in winegrape growing regions in the Western United States. Am. J. Enol. Vitic.
and Winemaker 303, 16–17. 61(3), 313-326.

Huglin, P., 1978. Nouveau mode d’évaluation des possibilités héliothermiques Kliewer, W.M., 1971. Effect of day temperature and light intensity on
d’un milieu viticole. C. R. Acad. Agr. France, 1117-1126. concentration of malic and tartaric acids in Vitis vinifera L. grapes. J. Amer.
Soc. Hort. Sci. 96, 372-377.
Hunter, J.J., 2000. Implications of seasonal canopy management and growth
compensation in grapevine. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 21(2), 81-91. Kliewer, W.M., 1977. Grape coloration as influenced by temperature, solar
radiation, nitrogen and cultivar. In: Proc. Int. Symp. on the Quality of the Vintage,
Hunter, J.J., Volschenk, C.G., Marais, J. & Fouché, G.W., 2004. Composition of 14–21 Feb. 1977, Cape Town. pp. 89–105.
Sauvignon blanc grapes as affected by pre-véraison canopy manipulation and
ripeness level. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 25(1), 13-18. Knight, F., 2006. A macro scale analysis of the vineyard production potential of
the RSA. Wynboer November 2006, 71-74.
Hunter, J.J. & Visser, J.H., 1988. The effect of partial defoliation, leaf position
and developmental stage of the vine on the photosynthetic activity of Vitis Kobriger, J.M., Kliewer, W.M. & Lagier, S.T., 1984. Effects of wind on water
vinifera L. cv. Cabernet Sauvignon. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 9(2), 9–15. relations of several grapevine cultivars. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 35, 164–169.

S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic., Vol. 32, No. 1, 2011

154 Suitability of Climatic Parameters for Vine Physiological Processes

Kriedemann, P.E., 1968. Photosynthesis in vine leaves as a function of light Riou, C., 1998. Facteurs explicatifs des critères de qualité de la récolte: application
intensity, temperature, and leaf age. Vitis 7, 213–220. au réseau modèles qualité en viticulture. Progrès Agric. Vitic. 115, 247–252.

Kriedemann, P.E., 1977. Vineleaf photosynthesis. In: Proc. Int. Symp. on the Rodriguez Montealegre, R., Romero Peces, R., Chacón Vozmediano, J.L.,
Quality of the Vintage, 14–21 Feb. 1977, Cape Town. pp. 67-87. Martinez Gascuena, J. & Garcia, E., 2006. Phenolic compounds in skins and
seeds of ten grape Vitis vinifera varieties Brown in a warm climate. J. Food
Ladányi, M., Hlaszny, E., Pernesz, Gy. & Bisztray, Gy., 2010. Climate change Composition and Analysis 19, 687-693.
impact study based on grapevine phenology modelling. In: VIIIth International
Terroir Congress, June 2010, Soave, Italy, pp. 3-65-3-71. Saayman, D., 1977. The effect of soil and climate on wine quality. In: Int. Symp.
Quality of the vintage, 14-21 Feb. 1977, Cape Town, South Africa, pp. 197-206.
Lakso, A.N. & Kliewer, W.M., 1978. The influence of temperature on malic
acid metabolism in grape berries. II. Temperature responses of net dark CO2 Saayman, D., 1992. Natural influences and wine quality Part 2. The role of soil.
fixation and malic acid pools. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 29, 145–149. Wynboer August 1992, 49-51.

Marais, J., Hunter, J.J. & Haasbroek, P.D., 1999. Effect of canopy microclimate, Saayman, D. & Kleynhans, P.H., 1978. The effect of soil on wine quality. In:
season and region on Sauvignon blanc grape composition and wine quality. S. Afr. Proc. SASEV, October 1978, Stellenbosch, South Africa, pp. 105-119.
J. Enol. Vitic. 20, 19–30.
Schulze, R.E., 1997. South African Atlas of Agrohydrology and Climatology.
Mori, K., Goto-Yamamoto, N., Kitayama, M. & Hashizume, K., 2007. Loss Water Research Commission Report, Pretoria, Report TT82/96.
of anthocyanins in red-wine grape under high temperature. J. Exp. Bot. 58(8),
1935–1945. Seguin, B., 2002. Relation entre climat et terroirs a differentes echelles spatiales:
Apport de nouveaux outils methodologiques. In: Proc. IVth International
Morlat, R., 1989. Le terroir viticole: contribution à l’étude de sa caractérisation Symposium on Viticultural Zoning, June 2002, Avignon, France. pp. 265-276.
et de son influence sur les Vins; application aux vignobles rouges de la moyenne
Vallée de la Loire. Doctorat thesis, Bordeaux II, Vol I, 289p; Vol II, 129p. South African Weather Bureau, 1996. The weather and climate of the extreme
South Western Cape. Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Pretoria,
Morlat, R., 1997. Terroirs d’Anjou: objectifs et premiers résultats d’une étude 39p.
spatialisée à l’échelle régionale. OIV Bull., 567–591.
Tonietto, J. and co-authors, 2010. L’effet du climat viticole sur la typicité des vin
Noble, A.C., 1979. Evaluation of Chardonnay wines from sites with different soils rouges. In: VIIIth International Terroir Congress, June 2010, Soave, Italy, pp.
compositions. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 30(3), 214-217. 3-17-3-22.

Ojeda, H., Andary, C., Kraeva, E., Carbonneau, A. & Deloire, A., 2002. Tonietto, J. & Carbonneau, A., 2004: A multicriteria climatic classification
Influence of pre- and post véraison water deficit on synthesis and concentration system for grape-growing regions worldwide. Agricultural and Forestry
of skin phenolic compounds during berry growth of Vitis vinifera cv. Shiraz. Meteorology, 124/1-2, 81-97.
Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 53, 261-267.
Vaudour, E., 2000. Zonage viticole d’envergure macro-régionale: démarche et
Pastor del Rio, J.L. & Kennedy, J., 2006. Development of proanthocyanidins in mise en oeuvre dans les Côtes du Rhône méridionales. Progrès Agric. Vitic. 117,
Vitis vinifera L. cv. Pinot noir grapes and extraction into wine. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 7–16.
57, 125-132.
Winkler, A.J., Cook, J.A., Kliewer, W.M. & Lider, L.A., 1974 (2nd ed). General
Pirie, A., 1979. Red pigment content of wine grapes. Austr. Grapegrower viticulture. Univ. of California Press, California, 710p.
Winemaker 189, 10–12.
Yamane, T., Jeong, S. T., Goto-Yamamoto, N., Koshita, Y. & Kobayashi, S.,
Pythoud, K., 2004. Etude des terroirs viticoles vaudois: modélisation des 2006. Effects of temperature on anthocyanin biosynthesis in grape berry skins.
paramètres climatiques. Revue suisse Vitic. Arboric. Hortic. 36 (4), pp. 10-14. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 57(1), 54-59.

S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic., Vol. 32, No. 1, 2011

View publication stats