SQL Aggregate Functions

o SQL aggregation function is used to perform the calculations on multiple rows of

a single column of a table. It returns a single value.
o It is also used to summarize the data.

Types of SQL Aggregation Function

1. COUNT FUNCTION

o COUNT function is used to Count the number of rows in a database table. It can
work on both numeric and non-numeric data types.
o COUNT function uses the COUNT(*) that returns the count of all the rows in a
specified table. COUNT(*) considers duplicate and Null.

Syntax

1. COUNT(*)
2. or
3. COUNT( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
 Sample table:

PRODUCT_MAST

PRODUCT COMPANY QTY RATE COST

Item1 Com1 2 10 20

Item2 Com2 3 25 75

Item3 Com1 2 30 60

Item4 Com3 5 10 50

Item5 Com2 2 20 40

Item6 Cpm1 3 25 75

Item7 Com1 5 30 150

Item8 Com1 3 10 30

Item9 Com2 2 25 50

Item10 Com3 4 30 120

Example: COUNT()

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1. SELECT COUNT(*)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:

10

Example: COUNT with WHERE

1. SELECT COUNT(*)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
3. WHERE RATE>=20;
 Output:

Example: COUNT() with DISTINCT

1. SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT COMPANY)

2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:

Example: COUNT() with GROUP BY

1. SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*)

2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST
3. GROUP BY COMPANY;

Output:

Com1 5
Com2 3
Com3 2

Example: COUNT() with HAVING

1. SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*)

2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST
3. GROUP BY COMPANY
4. HAVING COUNT(*)>2;

Output:

Com1 5
Com2 3

2. SUM Function
 Sum function is used to calculate the sum of all selected columns. It works on numeric
fields only.

Syntax

1. SUM()
2. or
3. SUM( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example: SUM()

1. SELECT SUM(COST)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:

670

Example: SUM() with WHERE

1. SELECT SUM(COST)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST
3. WHERE QTY>3;

Output:

320

Example: SUM() with GROUP BY

1. SELECT SUM(COST)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST
3. WHERE QTY>3
4. GROUP BY COMPANY;

Output:

Com1 150
Com2 170

Example: SUM() with HAVING

1. SELECT COMPANY, SUM(COST)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST
3. GROUP BY COMPANY
4. HAVING SUM(COST)>=170;

Output:

Com1 335
Com3 170

3. AVG function
The AVG function is used to calculate the average value of the numeric type. AVG function
returns the average of all non-Null values.

Syntax

1. AVG()
2. or
3. AVG( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example:

1. SELECT AVG(COST)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:

67.00

4. MAX Function
MAX function is used to find the maximum value of a certain column. This function
determines the largest value of all selected values of a column.

Syntax
1. MAX()
2. or
3. MAX( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example:

1. SELECT MAX(RATE)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
30

5. MIN Function
MIN function is used to find the minimum value of a certain column. This function
determines the smallest value of all selected values of a column.

Syntax

1. MIN()
2. or
3. MIN( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example:

1. SELECT MIN(RATE)
2. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output:

10

SQL JOIN
As the name shows, JOIN means to combine something. In case of SQL, JOIN means "to
combine two or more tables".

In SQL, JOIN clause is used to combine the records from two or more tables in a database.
Types of SQL JOIN
1. INNER JOIN
2. LEFT JOIN
3. RIGHT JOIN
4. FULL JOIN

Sample Table
EMPLOYEE

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

PROJECT

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PROJECT_NO EMP_ID DEPARTMENT

 101 1 Testing

102 2 Development

103 3 Designing

104 4 Development

1. INNER JOIN
In SQL, INNER JOIN selects records that have matching values in both tables as long as
the condition is satisfied. It returns the combination of all rows from both the tables where
the condition satisfies.

Syntax

1. SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2, table2.column1,....

2. FROM table1
3. INNER JOIN table2
4. ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

Query

1. SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT

2. FROM EMPLOYEE
3. INNER JOIN PROJECT
4. ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;

Output

EMP_NAME DEPARTMENT

Angelina Testing

Robert Development

Christian Designing

Kristen Development

2. LEFT JOIN
The SQL left join returns all the values from left table and the matching values from the
right table. If there is no matching join value, it will return NULL.

Syntax

1. SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2, table2.column1,....

2. FROM table1
3. LEFT JOIN table2
4. ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

Query
1. SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT
2. FROM EMPLOYEE
3. LEFT JOIN PROJECT
4. ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;

Output

EMP_NAME DEPARTMENT

Angelina Testing

Robert Development

Christian Designing

Kristen Development

Russell NULL

Marry NULL

3. RIGHT JOIN
In SQL, RIGHT JOIN returns all the values from the values from the rows of right table and
the matched values from the left table. If there is no matching in both tables, it will return
NULL.

Syntax
1. SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2, table2.column1,....
2. FROM table1
3. RIGHT JOIN table2
4. ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

Query

1. SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT

2. FROM EMPLOYEE
3. RIGHT JOIN PROJECT
4. ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;

Output

EMP_NAME DEPARTMENT

Angelina Testing

Robert Development

Christian Designing

Kristen Development

4. FULL JOIN
In SQL, FULL JOIN is the result of a combination of both left and right outer join. Join
tables have all the records from both tables. It puts NULL on the place of matches not
found.
 Syntax

1. SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2, table2.column1,....

2. FROM table1
3. FULL JOIN table2
4. ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

Query

1. SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT

2. FROM EMPLOYEE
3. FULL JOIN PROJECT
4. ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;

Output

EMP_NAME DEPARTMENT

Angelina Testing

Robert Development

Christian Designing

Kristen Development
 Russell NULL

Marry NULL

SQL Set Operation

The SQL Set operation is used to combine the two or more SQL SELECT statements.

Types of Set Operation

1. Union
2. UnionAll
3. Intersect
4. Minus
 1. Union

o The SQL Union operation is used to combine the result of two or more SQL SELECT queries.
o In the union operation, all the number of datatype and columns must be same in both the
tables on which UNION operation is being applied.
o The union operation eliminates the duplicate rows from its resultset.

Syntax

1. SELECT column_name FROM table1

2. UNION
3. SELECT column_name FROM table2;

Example:

The First table

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ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

3 Jackson

The Second table

ID NAME

3 Jackson
 4 Stephan

5 David

Union SQL query will be:

1. SELECT * FROM First

2. UNION
3. SELECT * FROM Second;

The resultset table will look like:

ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David

2. Union All
Union All operation is equal to the Union operation. It returns the set without removing
duplication and sorting the data.

Syntax:

1. SELECT column_name FROM table1

2. UNION ALL
3. SELECT column_name FROM table2;
 Example: Using the above First and Second table.

Union All query will be like:

1. SELECT * FROM First

2. UNION ALL
3. SELECT * FROM Second;

The resultset table will look like:

ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

3 Jackson

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David

3. Intersect

o It is used to combine two SELECT statements. The Intersect operation returns the common
rows from both the SELECT statements.
o In the Intersect operation, the number of datatype and columns must be the same.
o It has no duplicates and it arranges the data in ascending order by default.

Syntax

1. SELECT column_name FROM table1

2. INTERSECT
3. SELECT column_name FROM table2;

Example:

Using the above First and Second table.

Intersect query will be:

1. SELECT * FROM First

2. INTERSECT
3. SELECT * FROM Second;

The resultset table will look like:

ID NAME

3 Jackson

4. Minus

o It combines the result of two SELECT statements. Minus operator is used to display the
rows which are present in the first query but absent in the second query.
o It has no duplicates and data arranged in ascending order by default.

Syntax:

1. SELECT column_name FROM table1

2. MINUS
3. SELECT column_name FROM table2;

Example

Using the above First and Second table.

Minus query will be:

1. SELECT * FROM First

2. MINUS
3. SELECT * FROM Second;

The resultset table will look like:

ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

PL/SQL Cursor
When an SQL statement is processed, Oracle creates a memory area known as context
area. A cursor is a pointer to this context area. It contains all information needed for
processing the statement. In PL/SQL, the context area is controlled by Cursor. A cursor
contains information on a select statement and the rows of data accessed by it.

A cursor is used to referred to a program to fetch and process the rows returned by the
SQL statement, one at a time. There are two types of cursors:

o Implicit Cursors
o Explicit Cursors

1) PL/SQL Implicit Cursors

The implicit cursors are automatically generated by Oracle while an SQL statement is
executed, if you don't use an explicit cursor for the statement.

These are created by default to process the statements when DML statements like INSERT,
UPDATE, DELETE etc. are executed.
Orcale provides some attributes known as Implicit cursor's attributes to check the status
of DML operations. Some of them are: %FOUND, %NOTFOUND, %ROWCOUNT and
%ISOPEN.

For example: When you execute the SQL statements like INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE then
the cursor attributes tell whether any rows are affected and how many have been affected.
If you run a SELECT INTO statement in PL/SQL block, the implicit cursor attribute can be
used to find out whether any row has been returned by the SELECT statement. It will return
an error if there no data is selected.

The following table soecifies the status of the cursor with each of its attribute.

Attribute Description

%FOUND Its return value is TRUE if DML statements like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE affect at least on
row or more rows or a SELECT INTO statement returned one or more rows. Otherwise it return
FALSE.

%NOTFOUND Its return value is TRUE if DML statements like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE affect no row, or
SELECT INTO statement return no rows. Otherwise it returns FALSE. It is a just opposite o
%FOUND.

%ISOPEN It always returns FALSE for implicit cursors, because the SQL cursor is automatically closed afte
executing its associated SQL statements.

%ROWCOUNT It returns the number of rows affected by DML statements like INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE o
returned by a SELECT INTO statement.

PL/SQL Implicit Cursor Example

Create customers table and have records:

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 Ramesh 23 Allahabad 20000

 2 Suresh 22 Kanpur 22000

3 Mahesh 24 Ghaziabad 24000

4 Chandan 25 Noida 26000

5 Alex 21 Paris 28000

6 Sunita 20 Delhi 30000

Let's execute the following program to update the table and increase salary of each
customer by 5000. Here, SQL%ROWCOUNT attribute is used to determine the number of
rows affected:

Create procedure:

1. DECLARE
2. total_rows number(2);
3. BEGIN
4. UPDATE customers
5. SET salary = salary + 5000;
6. IF sql%notfound THEN
7. dbms_output.put_line('no customers updated');
8. ELSIF sql%found THEN
9. total_rows := sql%rowcount;
10. dbms_output.put_line( total_rows || ' customers updated ');
11. END IF;
12. END;
13. /
 Output:

6 customers updated
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Now, if you check the records in customer table, you will find that the rows are updated.

1. select * from customers;

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 Ramesh 23 Allahabad 25000

2 Suresh 22 Kanpur 27000

3 Mahesh 24 Ghaziabad 29000

4 Chandan 25 Noida 31000

5 Alex 21 Paris 33000

6 Sunita 20 Delhi 35000

2) PL/SQL Explicit Cursors

The Explicit cursors are defined by the programmers to gain more control over the context
area. These cursors should be defined in the declaration section of the PL/SQL block. It is
created on a SELECT statement which returns more than one row.

Following is the syntax to create an explicit cursor:

Syntax of explicit cursor

 Following is the syntax to create an explicit cursor:

1. CURSOR cursor_name IS select_statement;;

Steps:
You must follow these steps while working with an explicit cursor.

1. Declare the cursor to initialize in the memory.

2. Open the cursor to allocate memory.
3. Fetch the cursor to retrieve data.
4. Close the cursor to release allocated memory.

1) Declare the cursor:

It defines the cursor with a name and the associated SELECT statement.

Syntax for explicit cursor decleration

1. CURSOR name IS
2. SELECT statement;

2) Open the cursor:

It is used to allocate memory for the cursor and make it easy to fetch the rows returned
by the SQL statements into it.

Syntax for cursor open:

1. OPEN cursor_name;

3) Fetch the cursor:

It is used to access one row at a time. You can fetch rows from the above-opened cursor
as follows:

Syntax for cursor fetch:

1. FETCH cursor_name INTO variable_list;

4) Close the cursor:

It is used to release the allocated memory. The following syntax is used to close the above-
opened cursors.

Syntax for cursor close:

1. Close cursor_name;

PL/SQL Explicit Cursor Example

Explicit cursors are defined by programmers to gain more control over the context area.
It is defined in the declaration section of the PL/SQL block. It is created on a SELECT
statement which returns more than one row.

Let's take an example to demonstrate the use of explicit cursor. In this example, we are
using the already created CUSTOMERS table.

Create customers table and have records:

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 Ramesh 23 Allahabad 20000

 2 Suresh 22 Kanpur 22000

3 Mahesh 24 Ghaziabad 24000

4 Chandan 25 Noida 26000

5 Alex 21 Paris 28000

6 Sunita 20 Delhi 30000

Create procedure:

Execute the following program to retrieve the customer name and address.

1. DECLARE
2. c_id customers.id%type;
3. c_name customers.name%type;
4. c_addr customers.address%type;
5. CURSOR c_customers is
6. SELECT id, name, address FROM customers;
7. BEGIN
8. OPEN c_customers;
9. LOOP
10. FETCH c_customers into c_id, c_name, c_addr;
11. EXIT WHEN c_customers%notfound;
12. dbms_output.put_line(c_id || ' ' || c_name || ' ' || c_addr);
13. END LOOP;
14. CLOSE c_customers;
15. END;
16. /

Output:

1 Ramesh Allahabad
2 Suresh Kanpur
3 Mahesh Ghaziabad
4 Chandan Noida
5 Alex Paris
6 Sunita Delhi
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PL/SQL Trigger
Trigger is invoked by Oracle engine automatically whenever a specified event
occurs.Trigger is stored into database and invoked repeatedly, when specific condition
match.

Triggers are stored programs, which are automatically executed or fired when some event
occurs.

Triggers are written to be executed in response to any of the following events.

o A database manipulation (DML) statement (DELETE, INSERT, or UPDATE).

o A database definition (DDL) statement (CREATE, ALTER, or DROP).
o A database operation (SERVERERROR, LOGON, LOGOFF, STARTUP, or SHUTDOWN).

Triggers could be defined on the table, view, schema, or database with which the event is
associated.

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Advantages of Triggers
These are the following advantages of Triggers:
 o Trigger generates some derived column values automatically
o Enforces referential integrity
o Event logging and storing information on table access
o Auditing
o Synchronous replication of tables
o Imposing security authorizations
o Preventing invalid transactions

Creating a trigger:
Syntax for creating trigger:

1. CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name

2. {BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF }
3. {INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}
4. [OF col_name]
5. ON table_name
6. [REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n]
7. [FOR EACH ROW]
8. WHEN (condition)
9. DECLARE
10. Declaration-statements
11. BEGIN
12. Executable-statements
13. EXCEPTION
14. Exception-handling-statements
15. END;

Here,
 o CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER trigger_name: It creates or replaces an existing trigger
with the trigger_name.
o {BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF} : This specifies when the trigger would be executed. The
INSTEAD OF clause is used for creating trigger on a view.
o {INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}: This specifies the DML operation.
o [OF col_name]: This specifies the column name that would be updated.
o [ON table_name]: This specifies the name of the table associated with the trigger.
o [REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n]: This allows you to refer new and old values for
various DML statements, like INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE.
o [FOR EACH ROW]: This specifies a row level trigger, i.e., the trigger would be executed for
each row being affected. Otherwise the trigger will execute just once when the SQL
statement is executed, which is called a table level trigger.
o WHEN (condition): This provides a condition for rows for which the trigger would fire. This
clause is valid only for row level triggers.

PL/SQL Trigger Example

Let's take a simple example to demonstrate the trigger. In this example, we are using the
following CUSTOMERS table:

Create table and have records:

ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 Ramesh 23 Allahabad 20000

2 Suresh 22 Kanpur 22000

3 Mahesh 24 Ghaziabad 24000

4 Chandan 25 Noida 26000

5 Alex 21 Paris 28000

 6 Sunita 20 Delhi 30000

Create trigger:

Let's take a program to create a row level trigger for the CUSTOMERS table that would
fire for INSERT or UPDATE or DELETE operations performed on the CUSTOMERS table.
This trigger will display the salary difference between the old values and new values:

1. CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER display_salary_changes

2. BEFORE DELETE OR INSERT OR UPDATE ON customers
3. FOR EACH ROW
4. WHEN (NEW.ID > 0)
5. DECLARE
6. sal_diff number;
7. BEGIN
8. sal_diff := :NEW.salary - :OLD.salary;
9. dbms_output.put_line('Old salary: ' || :OLD.salary);
10. dbms_output.put_line('New salary: ' || :NEW.salary);
11. dbms_output.put_line('Salary difference: ' || sal_diff);
12. END;
13. /

After the execution of the above code at SQL Prompt, it produces the following result.

Trigger created.

Check the salary difference by procedure:

Use the following code to get the old salary, new salary and salary difference after the
trigger created.
1. DECLARE
2. total_rows number(2);
3. BEGIN
4. UPDATE customers
5. SET salary = salary + 5000;
6. IF sql%notfound THEN
7. dbms_output.put_line('no customers updated');
8. ELSIF sql%found THEN
9. total_rows := sql%rowcount;
10. dbms_output.put_line( total_rows || ' customers updated ');
11. END IF;
12. END;
13. /

Output:

Old salary: 20000

New salary: 25000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 22000
New salary: 27000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 24000
New salary: 29000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 26000
New salary: 31000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 28000
New salary: 33000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 30000
New salary: 35000
Salary difference: 5000
6 customers updated

Note: As many times you executed this code, the old and new both salary is incremented
by 5000 and hence the salary difference is always 5000.
After the execution of above code again, you will get the following result.

Old salary: 25000

New salary: 30000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 27000
New salary: 32000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 29000
New salary: 34000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 31000
New salary: 36000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 33000
New salary: 38000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 35000
New salary: 40000
Salary difference: 5000
6 customers updated

Important Points
Following are the two very important point and should be noted carefully.

o OLD and NEW references are used for record level triggers these are not avialable for table
level triggers.
o If you want to query the table in the same trigger, then you should use the AFTER keyword,
because triggers can query the table or change it again only after the initial changes are
applied and the table is back in a consistent state.

PL/SQL Exception Handling

What is Exception
An error occurs during the program execution is called Exception in PL/SQL.

PL/SQL facilitates programmers to catch such conditions using exception block in the
program and an appropriate action is taken against the error condition.

There are two type of exceptions:

o System-defined Exceptions
 o User-defined Exceptions

PL/SQL Exception Handling

Syntax for exception handling:.7K

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Following is a general syntax for exception handling:

1. DECLARE
2. <declarations section>
3. BEGIN
4. <executable command(s)>
5. EXCEPTION
6. <exception handling goes here >
7. WHEN exception1 THEN
8. exception1-handling-statements
9. WHEN exception2 THEN
10. exception2-handling-statements
11. WHEN exception3 THEN
12. exception3-handling-statements
13. ........
14. WHEN others THEN
15. exception3-handling-statements
16. END;

Example of exception handling

Let's take a simple example to demonstrate the concept of exception handling. Here we
are using the already created CUSTOMERS table.

SELECT* FROM COUSTOMERS;

 ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

1 Ramesh 23 Allahabad 20000

2 Suresh 22 Kanpur 22000

3 Mahesh 24 Ghaziabad 24000

4 Chandan 25 Noida 26000

5 Alex 21 Paris 28000

6 Sunita 20 Delhi 30000

1. DECLARE
2. c_id customers.id%type := 8;
3. c_name customers.name%type;
4. c_addr customers.address%type;
5. BEGIN
6. SELECT name, address INTO c_name, c_addr
7. FROM customers
8. WHERE id = c_id;
9. DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Name: '|| c_name);
10. DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Address: ' || c_addr);
11. EXCEPTION
12. WHEN no_data_found THEN
13. dbms_output.put_line('No such customer!');
14. WHEN others THEN
15. dbms_output.put_line('Error!');
16. END;
17. /

After the execution of above code at SQL Prompt, it produces the following result:

No such customer!
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

The above program should show the name and address of a customer as result whose ID
is given. But there is no customer with ID value 8 in our database, so the program raises
the run-time exception NO_DATA_FOUND, which is captured in EXCEPTION block.

Note: You get the result "No such customer" because the customer_id used in the
above example is 8 and there is no cutomer having id value 8 in that table.

If you use the id defined in the above table (i.e. 1 to 6), you will get a certain result. For a
demo example: here, we are using the id 5.

1. DECLARE
2. c_id customers.id%type := 5;
3. c_name customers.name%type;
4. c_addr customers.address%type;
5. BEGIN
6. SELECT name, address INTO c_name, c_addr
7. FROM customers
8. WHERE id = c_id;
9. DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Name: '|| c_name);
10. DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Address: ' || c_addr);
11. EXCEPTION
12. WHEN no_data_found THEN
13. dbms_output.put_line('No such customer!');
14. WHEN others THEN
15. dbms_output.put_line('Error!');
16. END;
17. /

After the execution of above code at SQL prompt, you will get the following result:

Name: alex
Address: paris
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Raising Exceptions
In the case of any internal database error, exceptions are raised by the database server
automatically. But it can also be raised explicitly by programmer by using command RAISE.

Syntax for raising an exception:

1. DECLARE
2. exception_name EXCEPTION;
3. BEGIN
4. IF condition THEN
5. RAISE exception_name;
6. END IF;
7. EXCEPTION
8. WHEN exception_name THEN
9. statement;
10. END;

PL/SQL User-defined Exceptions

PL/SQL facilitates their users to define their own exceptions according to the need of the
program. A user-defined exception can be raised explicitly, using either a RAISE statement
or the procedure DBMS_STANDARD.RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR.
 Syntax for user define exceptions

1. DECLARE
2. my-exception EXCEPTION;

PL/SQL Pre-defined Exceptions

There are many pre-defined exception in PL/SQL which are executed when any database
rule is violated by the programs.

For example: NO_DATA_FOUND is a pre-defined exception which is raised when a

SELECT INTO statement returns no rows.

Following is a list of some important pre-defined exceptions:

Exception Oracle SQL Description

Error Code

ACCESS_INTO_NULL 06530 -6530 It is raised when a NULL object is

automatically assigned a value.

CASE_NOT_FOUND 06592 -6592 It is raised when none of the choices in

the "WHEN" clauses of a CASE statement
is selected, and there is no else clause.

COLLECTION_IS_NULL 06531 -6531 It is raised when a program attempts to

apply collection methods other than
exists to an uninitialized nested table or
varray, or the program attempts to
 assign values to the elements of an
uninitialized nested table or varray.

DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX 00001 -1 It is raised when duplicate values are

attempted to be stored in a column with
unique index.

INVALID_CURSOR 01001 -1001 It is raised when attempts are made to

make a cursor operation that is not
allowed, such as closing an unopened
cursor.

INVALID_NUMBER 01722 -1722 It is raised when the conversion of a

character string into a number fails
because the string does not represent a
valid number.

LOGIN_DENIED 01017 -1017 It is raised when s program attempts to

log on to the database with an invalid
username or password.

NO_DATA_FOUND 01403 +100 It is raised when a select into statement

returns no rows.

NOT_LOGGED_ON 01012 -1012 It is raised when a database call is issued

without being connected to the
database.

PROGRAM_ERROR 06501 -6501 It is raised when PL/SQL has an internal

problem.

ROWTYPE_MISMATCH 06504 -6504 It is raised when a cursor fetches value in

a variable having incompatible data
type.

SELF_IS_NULL 30625 -30625 It is raised when a member method is

invoked, but the instance of the object
type was not initialized.
STORAGE_ERROR 06500 -6500 It is raised when PL/SQL ran out of
memory or memory was corrupted.

TOO_MANY_ROWS 01422 -1422 It is raised when a SELECT INTO

statement returns more than one row.

VALUE_ERROR 06502 -6502 It is raised when an arithmetic,

conversion, truncation, or size-
constraint error occurs.

ZERO_DIVIDE 01476 1476 It is raised when an attempt is made to

divide a number by zero.