Cambridge A Level Physics

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Equations ▼

Equations
An extended equation sheet for AS and A2 revision. Not all equations are provided in the booklet during exams.

Jump to sections:
[AS Chapters][A2 Chapters]

AS Ch1 Physical Units and Quantities

All 2D vectors can be broken down into two components, right angles to each other.

Horizontal vector component, Fx = F cos θ

Vertical vector component, Fy = F sin θ

To recombine vector components, F = √F x + F y

2 2

absolute uncertainty Δx
Fractional uncertainty = measurement
=
x

Δx
Percentage uncertainty = × 100 %
x

1
3
x y 2
1
If p =
4
, then percentage uncertainty p is ± (3Δx) + (
2
Δy) + (4Δz) %
7z

Δp Δx 1 Δy Δz
... and fractional uncertainty p
= 3
x
+
2 y
+ 4
z

AS Ch2 Kinematics
Displacement, s = area under v-t graph

Δs
Velocity, v = = gradient of s-t graph
Δt

Δv
Acceleration, a = = gradient of v-t graph
Δt

v = u + at

1
s = (u + v)t
2

1 2
s = ut + at
2

2 2
v = u + 2as

Projectile components if θ is elevation: Vx = v cos θ and Vy = v sin θ

2 2
u sin θ
Projectile max vertical height, H =
2g

2
u sin 2θ
Projectile max horizontal range, R =
g
AS Ch3 Dynamics
Momentum, p = mv

Δp
Force causes acceleration, ΣF = = ma (2nd law)
Δt

Impulse, F Δt = Δ(mv)

Total momentum, m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2

Elastic collisions u1 − u2 = v2 − v1 (leftward is negative, rightward is positive)

Weight, W = mg

AS Ch4 Forces, Density, Pressure

Gravitational force, Fg = mg

Electrostatic force, Fe = qE

Friction, Ff = μR

Drag or viscous force, FD ∝ v

2

Moment of force/torque = F × d⊥ = F ⊥ × d

m
mass
Density, ρ = =
volume V

F
Force
Pressure (Pa), P = =
Area
A

Pressure in fluids, ΔP = ρgΔh

Upthrust force, Fup = ρV g

Equilibrium in fluid ρV g = mg

AS Ch5 Work, Energy, Power

Work Done (J), W = f orce × distance = F s cos θ

Gravitational Potential Energy Ep = mgh

Kinetic Energy Ek
1 2
= mv
2

Elastic potential energy Ep

1 1 2
= Fx = kx
2 2

Electric potential energy in uniform electric field, Ep = qEd

Work done expanding gas, W = P ΔV

power or energy output

Efficiency (%), η =
power or energy input
× 100

work done or energy change W

Power (W), P = = = Fv
time taken
t

AS Ch6 Deformation of Solids

Restoring force (Hooke's Law), F = k Δx

Parallel springs effective constant k = k1 + k2 +. . .

Series springs effective constant

1 1 1
= + +. . .
k k1 k2

Elastic potential or strain energy Es

1 1 2
= Fx = kx
2 2
 Work done on spring W = ΔEs = area under F-x graph

force applied F
Stress (Pa), σ =
cross-section area
=
A

x
extension
Strain, ϵ =
original length
=
l0

stress
σ F l0
Young's modulus (Pa), E =
strain
= = = Gradient of linear stress-strain graph
ϵ Ax

Strain energy per unit volume = Area under stress-strain graph

AS Ch7 Waves
one cycle 1
Frequency (Hz), f =
period
=
T

Wave speed, v = fλ

Δt Δx Δθ
Phase difference ratios = =
T λ 2π

1
Wave intensity, I ∝ A
2
and I ∝ f
2
and I ∝ 2
r

f0 v
Doppler effect ratios, = (positive away, negative towards)
fs v ± vs

Malus' Law of Polarized intensity, I = Io cos

2
θ [2022 syllabus]

AS Ch8 Superposition of Waves

Path difference, ΔL = L2 − L1 = a sin θ

For constructive interference ΔL = 0, 1λ, 2λ, 3λ, . . . nλ

For destructive interference ΔL

1
= 0.5λ, 1.5λ, 2.5λ, . . . (n + )λ
2

λD
Young's double-slit fringe separation, x =
a

Multi-slit diffraction grating, nλ = d sin θ (observing maxima)

1
Grating slit separation, d = (e.g. N = 30000 lines/metre)
N

To find greatest number of maxima n, use nλ < d sin 90

AS Ch9 Current of Electricity

Total charge (C) of free electrons = Q = nALe

total charge Q naLq

Current (A), I = = = = nAvq
time taken
t t

energy W
Potential difference aka voltage (V), V = =
charge
Q

V
Resistance (Ω), R = = constant (if obeys Ohms's Law)
I

ρL
Resistance in wire (Ω m), R =
A

2
V
Power (W), P = IV = I
2
R =
R
 2
E R
Max Power Dissipated, Pmax =
2
(R + r)

AS Ch10 DC Circuits
e.m.f (V) from battery, E = IR + Ir = terminal p.d. + lost volts

Combined Series Resistance, R = R1 + R2 + R3 +. . .

−1
1 1 1
Combined Parallel Resistance, R = ( + + +. . . )
R1 R2 R3

Kirchoff I: At a junction, total current in = total current out

Kirchoff II: For loop in circuit, ∑ V = 0 or sum of e.m.f = sum of potential drops
V1 R1 V1 R1
Potential divider (ratio), = or =
V2 R2 Vcell Rtotal

Vo x
Potentiometre output p.d. (ratio), Vs
= ( )
l

x
E
Potentiometre to find emf (ratio), V0
= ( )
l

ΔR ΔL
Strain gauge ratio if no change in area = , but if changing area but constant volume then
R L
ΔR 2ΔL
=
R L

AS Ch11 Particle and Nuclear Physics

Alpha decay 100
10
X ⟶
96
8
Y +
4
2
α

Beta-minus decay 100

10
X ⟶
100
11
Y +
0
−1
β + νe
¯
¯¯

Beta-plus decay 100

10
X ⟶
100

9
Y +
0

1
β + νe

Gamma decay 100

10
X ⟶
100

10
Y + γ

Jump to sections:
[AS Chapters][A2 Chapters]

===================

A2 Practical Paper 5
1
General uncertainty, Δx = (xmax − xmin )
2

Absolute unc. gradient, Δm = |mbest − mworst |

Absolute unc. y-intercept ΔC = |Cbest − Cworst |

1 Δx
General log uncertainty, Δloga (x) = ( )
ln(a) x

1 Δx
Absolute uncertainty of lg, Δlg(x) = ( )
ln(10) x
 Δx
Absolute uncertainty of ln, Δln(x) =
x

A2 Ch12 Circular Motion

Arc length, s = rθ (definition of radian)

Δθ 2π
Angular velocity, ω = = = 2πf
Δt t

Average speed or linear/tangential velocity, v = rω

2π 2πr
Period of revolution, T = =
ω v

2
v
Centripetal acceleration, a = vw = rω
2
=
r

2
mv
Centripetal force, Fc = ma = mrω
2
=
r

A2 Ch13 Gravitation / Gravitational Fields (G-field)

GM m
Gravitational force of attraction, F =
2
r

GM
G-field strength, g =
2
r

GM
Gravitational potential, ϕ = −
r

GM m
G-potential energy, Eg = mϕ = −
r

GM
Orbital velocity, v = √
r

2πr r
3

Orbital period, T = = 2π√

GM
v

2GM
Escape velocity, vescape = √
R

A2 Ch14 Temperature & Thermal Properties

Conversion: T/K = T/°C + 273.15

Heat energy to raise liquid temperature, Q = mcΔθ + Qlost

Energy supplied by heater, Q = V It

Internal energy, U = sum of random distribution of K.E. and P.E of molecules

Change in internal energy, ΔU = q + W

where +q is heat supplied to system, +W is work done on system (V decrease).
3
Internal energy of ideal gas, U = Ek =
2
kT (no potential energy)

A2 Ch15 Ideal Gases

State for ideal gas P V = nRT = N kT

Number of Particles,N
Amount of gas (mol), n =
Avogadro Constant,NA

Molar gas constant,R

Boltzmann constant, k =
Avogadro constant,NA
 1
Boyle's Law P ∝ (constant T)
V

Charles' Law V ∝ T (constant P)

Pressure Law P ∝ T (constant V)

PV
Combined laws T
= constant

A2 Ch16 Thermodynamics
1 Nm 1
Pressure of gas P = ( ) ⟨c ⟩ =
2
ρ⟨c ⟩
2

3 V 3

NOTE: m is mass of a single particle!

3
Kinetic energy of gas molecule ⟨Ek ⟩ =
1

2
2
m⟨c ⟩ =
2
kT

3
Internal energy of ideal gas, U = Ek =
2
kT (no potential energy)

A2 Ch17 Oscillations / Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

2π
Angular frequency, ω = = 2πf
T

m
Period of a spring, T = 2π√
k

l
Period of a pendulum, T = 2π√
g

SHM acceleration, a = −ω x
2

Max acc. at max displacement (x=A), a = −ω A

2

SHM velocity, v = ±ω√A

2
− x
2

Max speed at equilibrium (x=0), vmax = ωA

E.g. if displacement is x = A sin ωt then velocity is v = ωA cos ωt

Total energy ET
1 2 1 2
= mv + kx
2 2

Trigonometric identity sin2 ωt + cos2 ωt = 1

A2 Ch18 Electric Fields (E-field)

1
Constant k =
4πϵo

kQ
Electric potential (J/C), V =
r

dV kQ
E-field strength, E = − =
2
dr r

F V
E-field parallel plates, E = =
Q d

kQq
Electric force Fe = qE =
2
r

kQq
E-potential energy, U = − ∫ Fe dr = = qV
r

Work done (J) on charge, W = F d = ΔU = qΔV

 dV ΔV
Uniform E-field strength, E = −potential gradient = − = −
dr Δx

A2 Ch19 Capacitance
Q
Capacitance (F), C =
V

Combined Parallel Capacitance, C = C1 + C2 + C3 +. . .

−1
1 1 1
Combined Series Capacitance, C = ( + + +. . . )
C1 C2 C3

1 1
Energy stored in capacitors, E = QV = CV
2

2 2

total charge Q
Current (A), I =
time taken
=
t

t
−
Discharging capacitor charge, Q = Qo e RC

t
−
Charging capacitor charge, Q = Qo (1 − e RC
)

A2 Ch20 Magnetic Fields & Induction

μo I
Field from a straight wire, B =
2πr

μo N I
Field inside solenoid, B =
L

Force on wire in field, F = BI L sin θ

F μ o I1 I2
Force per unit length between two wires, =
L 2πx

Force on charged particle, F = Bqv sin θ

BI d BI
Hall voltage, VH = =
nAq ntq

total charge Q
Current (A), I = = = nAvq
time taken
t

Magnetic flux (Wb), Φ = BA

dA
Induced e.m.f, E = Blv = B
dt

dΦ ΔN Φ
Faraday's Law E = − = −
dt Δt

A2 Ch21 Alternating Currents (AC)

Io
Root-mean-square current, Irms =
√2

Vo
Root-mean-square voltage , Vrms =
√2

Max power, Pmax = Io V o

Average power, Pavg

1
= Irms Vrms = Io V o
2

Oscillating current. I = Io sin(2πf t) = Io sin ωt

Oscillating voltage, V = Vo sin(2πf t) = Vo sin ωt

 V o Io
Oscillating Power, P = IV = [1 − cos(4πf t)]
2

Vs Ns Ip
Ideal transformer = =
Vp Np Is

A2 Ch22 Quantum Physics

hc
Energy of a photon, E = hf =
λ

Max k.e. of photoelectrons EK(max) = hf − ϕ

hf N
Radiation intensity = so I ∝ fphotons Nphotons
At

hc
Work function energy, ϕ = hfo =
λo

ϕ
Threshold frequency, fo =
h

Threshold wavelength, λo
c
=
fo

h h
De Broglie wavelength, λ =
p
=
mv

Emitted photon energy, ΔE = E1 − E2 = hf

A2 Ch23 Nuclear Physics

Energy released. ΔE = (Δm)c
2

Mass excess = mass (in u) - nucleon number

Number of nuclei, N = No e
λt

Radioactivity, A = Ao e
−λt
=
dN
= −λN
dt

ln 2 0.693
Half-life duration, t1/2 = =
λ λ

Mass, m = moles × molecular weight

Number of particles, N = moles × NA

A2 Ch24 Medical: Ultrasound

Acoustic impedance, Z = ρc

2
IR (Z1 − Z2 )
Intensity reflection coefficient =
IO 2
(Z1 + Z2 )

Wave intensity in material, I = I0 e

−μx

I2
Decibel (dB) = 10 log10 ( )
I1

A2 Ch24 Medical: X-Ray

X-ray photon max frequency hfmax = eV

X-ray attenuation I = Io e
−μx

I2
Decibel (dB) = 10 log10 ( )
I1

A2 Ch25 Astronomy & Cosmology

 L
Radiant flux intensity, F =
2
4πd

1
Wien's blackbody radiation, λpeak ∝
T

Stefan-Boltzmann's stellar radii, L = 4πσr T

2 4

λstar v
Doppler Shift =
λlab c

Hubble's Law v = H0 d

Jump to sections:
[AS Chapters][A2 Chapters]

=================

Discontinued Chapters:

A2 Communications
Bandwidth = (fc + fs ) − (fc − fs ) = 2fs
NOTE: Maximum frequency of signal = fs

Bitrate = sample rate × bit depth

P1
Attenuation (dB) = 10 log10 ( )
P2

Pout
Gain (dB) = 10 log10 ( )
Pin

A2 Electronics (Op-Amp)
Vout
Gain, G =
Vin

Output voltage, Vout = G(V+ − V− )

Vout RF
Voltage gain (inverting), = −
Vin Rin

Vout Rf
Voltage gain (non-inverting), = 1 +
Vin Rin

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