Biological oceanography

Mei-Fang Lin Dep. Marine Biotechnology and Resources

中山大學海洋生物科技暨資源學系 林梅芳
Room no. MB3016
Tel: 525-2000 ext. 5032
e-mail: [email protected]

網路資訊
 Chapter 4
Zooplankton 浮游動物 (動物性浮游生物)
Important terms and concepts:
Holoplankton
Copepods
Meroplankton
Diel vertical migration
Patchy distribution of zooplanktons

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xFQ_fO2D7f0
The secret life of plankton (6’02’’)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u1Vtdz4J7J8
The Power of Plankton (5’26’’)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ziGtmjiUlJQ
Ocean Drifters (16’30’’)
 Living organisms
• Trophic = feeding
• Autotroph: photosynthesis; chemosynthesis
• Heterotroph: animals and most bacteria
• Producer; consumer; decomposer
• Herbivore; omnivore; carnivore; detrivore
草食動物；雜食動物；肉食動物；食碎屑動物
 Zooplankton 浮游動物

• Suspension (filter) feeder (many)

• Holoplankton (永久性浮游生物)
Meroplankton (階段性浮游生物): both planktonic and
benthic life stages
Tychoplankton (暫時性浮游生物): affect by current
• Vertical migration 垂直洄游 (Diel vertical
migration 日夜垂直洄游, Seasonal vertical
migration)
 Holoplankton (永久性浮游生物)

豐年蝦卵
Brine shrimp Artemia

打氣，24小時孵化
Air pump, 24 hr hatch
Diel vertical migration
General representation of the vertical profiles of water
chemical parameters
Atlantic Ocean Basin

8
Oxygen minimum zone (OMZ，最少含氧區)
Oxygen-starved regions of the ocean
- Primary production (from photosynthesis)
- Aerobic respiration
- 200 to 1500 m, depending on local circumstances
normal range 4-6 mg/l
- Below 2 mg/l (OMZ)
- Oxygen-rich deep water from polar regions, as
cold water absorb oxygen
https://science.howstuffworks.com/environm
ental/earth/oceanography/ocean-current3.htm
Nitrogen cycle

OM: organic matter

Anaerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration
deep scattering layer (or DSL)
The DSL is an area of high concentration of marine
organisms that live suspended in the water column. Many
of these organisms, such as fish, have swim bladders that
can reflect sound. These swim bladders can reflect the
sound so strongly that a “false bottom” effect can be
created. When early sonar operators thought they were
seeing the seafloor, they were actually seeing a thick layer
of fish, squid, jellyfish, and other marine organisms. This
layer is typically seen around 300-500 meters (984-1,640
feet) and can be deeper during the day and portions of the
layer can get shallower at night. DSLs can be seen in ocean
basins all over the world and serve important ecological
roles in the open ocean.
Maurolicus sp. 暗光魚

Benthosema sp.
燈籠魚
 Unicellular zooplanktons
(Protozoan)
Foraminifera & Radiolaria
Ciliates: Tintinnids
Flagellates: Noctiluca
Foraminiferans are marine protozoans that usually have a shell
(test) made of CaCO3. They have long, thin, retractable
pseudopodia extensions of the cytoplasm and can be formed a
network used to trap diatoms and other organisms suspended in
the water.
Radiolarians are planktonic marine protozoans that secrete
elaborate and delicate skeletons made of silica and other
materials. Thin pseudopodia capture food, as in foraminiferans.
Foraminifera & Radiolaria

有孔蟲

放射蟲
放射蟲(benthic species)
Planktonic ciliates

Helicostomella subulata 鐘形旋口蟲

This is a tintinnid ciliate (有鐘繊毛蟲類)
found commonly in coastal waters of
Europe and elsewhere. The shell or lorica
which contains the ciliate cell is about
150um.
腔腸動物/刺絲胞動物
Cnidarians
Coelenterates
Jellyfish, Coral, Hydra
Life cycle of Obelia sp.
Pocillopora damicornis 細枝鹿角珊瑚

林科含 2003, 11
 Tubastraea aurea 圓管星珊瑚
相關圖片

林科含 2003, 11
Siphonophore 管水母 :
Colonial jellyfish

Portuguese man-of -war

 Class of Annelida 環節動物門
蛭綱: Marine, freshwater, terrestrial(mostly
are parasites on fish gills) 海洋-淡水, 陸地
(多為寄生, 如魚鰓上)

Ogawa et al. 2007

貧毛綱: Freshwater
and terrestrial (e.g.
earthworm, tubifex) 多毛綱: Marine,
淡水及陸地 (如蚯蚓, freshwater (few)
顫蚓)
海洋, 淡水(少數)

(Pechenik, 1996) what-when-how.com

Species diversity
Annelida – Ophelia limacina
Up to 50mm long
Chaetognatha 毛顎動物門 (Arrow worms)
毛顎動物總共只有50種，都是海洋生活的小型動
物。除鋤蟲屬毛顎動物為底棲生活之外，其餘的
都是浮游生活，它們在海洋浮游生物中占有重要
的地位。

The arrow worm is a voracious predator. They

immobilize their prey with neurotoxins.
Molluscs 軟體動物
Benthic molluscs
底棲性軟體動物 擔輪子幼蟲

面盤幼蟲
 的
「圖片搜尋
Peraclis 結果 」
reticulata

Planktonic molluscs 浮游性軟體動物

Mucus web

Winplate Pseudofeces
200mm

The pseudothecosome of Peraclis reticulate and its mucous

feeding web. MW, mucous web, PF, pseudofeces; WP,
wingplate (Lalli & Gilmer, 1989).
 Crustacean planktons:
• Insects vs. Crustaceans
• Dominant zooplankton
• FW: Daphnia, rotifer 水蚤、輪蟲
SW: Copepods 撓腳類
• 40000 spp.
甲殼綱動物(Crustacean) 大部份生活在水中，普遍分佈在海洋
及淡水域。
身體分為頭部、胸部、腹部三部分，許多種類頭、胸部愈合分
野不明顯，頭部有5對附肢，前2對為觸角，剩下的3 對分別是
大顎、第一小顎及第二小顎。胸部以下通常每一體節均具有一
對附肢明顯不同於昆蟲。
外骨骼含有大量機丁質。
Cladocera 枝角類(水蚤):
Calanoids哲水蚤
Copepods 橈腳類:
calanoid 哲水蚤
cyclopoid 劍水蚤

Illustration of the copepod life cycle

Huang et al. 2010 Patterns of zooplankton distribution along the marine,
estuarine, and riverine portions of the Danshuei ecosystem in northern
Taiwan. Zoological Studies 49:335-352.
哲水蚤 毛顎動物
劍水蚤
撓足幼生 水母
杯口水蚤
夜光蟲 幼生
尾海鞘
parasitic copepods
Life cycles of
parasitic copepods

R. Huys 2014
林科含 2003, 11
 脊索動物門(Chrodata)尾索動物亞門(Tunicata):脊索
(notochord)僅見於蝌蚪狀的浮游幼生期，成體脊索消失

Source: https://bioclass.cos.ncsu.edu/
海鞘(Tunicates): 成體行固著生活 (底棲性)
樽海鞘、火體蟲 Salp (planktonic tunicates) (浮游性)

Salp
海鞘 (底棲性)
核三場面海左側(灣內)

Bloom of P. atlanticum in Nanwan was caused by typhoon Tarmi (18–22 August, 2013).
 Roles of zooplankon in the ocean
• Secondary producer (1st consumer)
• High diversity
• Indicator species
Approximate spatial and temporal scales of some important processes
that cause patchy distribution of zooplankton
Persistence
Spatial length time scale
scale (Km) Physical process Biological processes (days)
Gyres (e.g. Sargasso Sea; Continental
upwelling (e.g. Peru Current); water mass Regional ecosystems defined by the
1000+ boundaries (e.g. Antarctic Convergence) water mass 1000+
Seasonal growth (e.g. spring blooms);
differential growth between phyto- and
Warm and cold core rings; tidal fronts; seasonal zooplankton; Lunar cycles (e.g. fish
100 coastal upwelling spawning) 100
Turbulence (e.g. estuarine mixing; island wake
10 effects) Reproductive cycles 10
Grazing/predation
1 Tidal mixing Diel events (e.g. vertical migration) 1
Physiological adaptation (e.g. buoyancy;
0.1 Wind-induced vertical mixing light adaptation) 0.1
0.01 Langmurie circulation; wave action 0.01
Chapter 5

Energy flow and

mineral cycling
Important terms:

Transfer efficiency
Food chain, food web, and trophic levels
Microbial loop
Production to biomass (P/B) ratio
Energy flow in marine ecosystems
 Energy
• Non-cyclic, unidirectional flow
• Losses at each transfer from one
trophic level to another
- Losses as heat from respiration
- Inefficiencies in processing
• Total energy declines from one transfer
to another
- Limits number of trophic levels
 Energy is not recycled !!!

在生物的食物鏈中，每經一級的食物轉換，
就會導致一部份能量散失，使得能量依次
減少。能量從生產者到各級消費者，再傳
至分解者，能量便愈來愈少，成為金字塔
形，稱為能量塔 Energy flow
Material flow in the ocean
• Between organic & inorganic world
• Cycle within large particle → small particle
→ dissolved nutrients → small particle
(bacteria) → large particle
• Energy from primary production drives the
cycle
• Most of the cycle occurs in photic zone;
material sink and biological pump work
across the boundary
Formation of particles (POM)
• Particulate organic matter
• POM: 5% of all organic matter; 10 billion
tones
• Particle sizes are essentially important in
marine food web
• Marine snow: tail worm’s house
• We treat organisms as living particles, or
living POM
 Marine snow
Marine snow is mostly biological debris that originates
from the top layers of the ocean and drifts to the seafloor,
providing a primary source of energy for animals in the
deep ocean.

Video clip of marine snow in the deep Gulf of Alaska. Video courtesy of
Pelagic-benthic
coupling
 Food Chains
• Total number of levels in a food chain
depends upon locality and number of
species

• Highest trophic levels occupied by adult

animals with no predators of their own

• Secondary Production (heterotrophic

production): total amount of biomass
produced in all higher trophic levels
Types of food chain and food webs
• Grazing food chain 草食食物鏈 : primary
producers (plants) being eaten by herbivores
and the herbivores then being eaten by
carnivores.
• Detritus supports the detritus food chain 碎
屑食物鏈 of bacteria and deposit feeders
which feed on dead organic matter.
(如腐爛海草 → 螃蟹 → 魚)
 Microbial loop 微生物迴圈

微生物迴圈

草食食物鏈
草食食物鏈

碎屑食物鏈
Microbial loop
• Bacteria use DOM vs. algae use nitrate
• Bacteria use DOM to increase biomass
(bacterial production); The biomass is
taken by microzooplankton (protozoan
flagellates and ciliates)
• Bacteria production is not primary
• Microbial loop allows dissolving
nutrients to return to food chain without
plant
 Jellyfish blooms result in a major microbial
respiratory sink of carbon in marine systems
The “jelly carbon shunt.” Hypothetical
heterotrophic
nanoflagellates changes in C pathways within the
planktonic food web (A) before and (B)
after (present) increases in jellyfish blooms.
Green arrows indicate flows reincorporating
C into the planktonic food web and
potential transfer to higher trophic levels.
Red arrows signify C pathways impacted by
jellyfish. The size of the arrow
indicates relative magnitude of C flow, and
the size of the text indicates
relative size of C pool. The direct link and
increased influence of jellyfish
heterotrophic and microbial pathways are emphasized by
nanoflagellates
(i ) the shunting of C away from
fish production, (ii ) the conversion of C
into jellyfish biomass and subsequent
release in excretia jelly-C, and (iii )
utilization of jellyfish material
for bacterial metabolism, especially
respiration. The “jelly loop” involves
the cycling of C between jellyfish, bacteria,
heterotrophic nanoflagellates
(HNF), and ciliates. (Condon et al., PNAS,
York River estuary, Chesapeake Bay 2011, 108: 10225–10230)
 多樣化的台灣海洋生態系
沙 / 泥灘地 河口

岩礁海岸

珊瑚礁 / 海草床
紅樹林(林澤) / 草澤

沙洲潟湖
深海大洋

？ 深海熱泉

台灣四周海岸之生物棲地概況既複雜又多樣，
可謂各種不同的海洋生態系應有盡有
20000707
The transfer efficiency (ET)

ET = Pt/Pt-1

Pt: the annual production at trophic level t

Pt-1:the annual production in the preceding trophic level t-1

The transfer efficiency between phytoplankton and

herbivorous zooplankton in a marine community.
Primary productivity: 150 gC/m2 yr
Annual production of herbivorous copepods: 25 gC/m2

ET = 25/150 = 0.17 (17%)

 Productivity P/B
(g C/m2 yr)

Marine pelagic environment 50-600 100-300

Terrestrial tropical rainforest 3500 0.5-2.0

*Annual P/B (production/biomass) ratio

的
「圖片搜尋結shelf
continental 果 」

Food chains in different marine habitats

 excretion_rate

foodweb1x
攝食生態－食物網結構分析 (δ13C & δ15N)

Turtle Island
 Nutrients
• Inorganic nutrients incorporated
into cells during photosynthesis
- e.g. N, P, C, S

• Cyclic flow in food chains

• Decomposers release inorganic

forms that become available to
autotrophs again
 The carbon cycle

Fig. 10. 20
Nitrogen fixation is
the conversion of
atmospheric nitrogen
into a form that
organisms can use.

Fig. 10.21
Fig. 10.22
The phosphorus
cycle
Carbon cycle (Gt=1012kg；億噸)
 Before fishing Coral Reefs After fishing

Biodiversity Loss induces cascade effects (瀑布效應、瀉流效應、階梯效應):

The loss of a species can have various effects on the remaining species in an
ecosystem–what kind and how many depends upon the characteristics of the
ecosystem and upon the species’ role in its structure. Cascade effects occur
when the local extinction of one species significantly changes the population
sizes of other species, potentially leading to other extinctions. Such cascade
effects are particularly likely when the lost species is a “keystone predator,” a
“keystone mutualist,” or the prey of a “specialist predator.”
(Jackson et al., 2001).