Oral Anatomy Histology And Embryology 4th

International Edition Barry K B Berkovitz

download

https://ebookbell.com/product/oral-anatomy-histology-and-
embryology-4th-international-edition-barry-k-b-berkovitz-7043156

Explore and download more ebooks at ebookbell.com

Here are some recommended products that we believe you will be
interested in. You can click the link to download.

Oral Anatomy Histology And Embryology Paperback Bkb Berkovitz G R

Holland Bernard J Moxham

https://ebookbell.com/product/oral-anatomy-histology-and-embryology-
paperback-bkb-berkovitz-g-r-holland-bernard-j-moxham-7237426

Textbook Of Oral Anatomy Physiology Histology And Tooth Morphology 2nd

Edition Rajkumar

https://ebookbell.com/product/textbook-of-oral-anatomy-physiology-
histology-and-tooth-morphology-2nd-edition-rajkumar-11031592

Quick Review Of Oral Anatomy Histology Physiology And Tooth Morphology

Rajkumar Ramya

https://ebookbell.com/product/quick-review-of-oral-anatomy-histology-
physiology-and-tooth-morphology-rajkumar-ramya-232077954

Master Dentistry Volume 3 Oral Biology Oral Anatomy Histology

Physiology And Biochemistry 1e 3rd Edition Barry K B Berkovitz Bds Msc
Phd Fds Eng

https://ebookbell.com/product/master-dentistry-volume-3-oral-biology-
oral-anatomy-histology-physiology-and-biochemistry-1e-3rd-edition-
barry-k-b-berkovitz-bds-msc-phd-fds-eng-4139722
Essential Of Oral Biology Oral Anatomy Histology Physiology Embryology
2nd Edition Maji Jose

https://ebookbell.com/product/essential-of-oral-biology-oral-anatomy-
histology-physiology-embryology-2nd-edition-maji-jose-11114956

Clinical Oral Anatomy A Comprehensive Review For Dental Practitioners

And Researchers 1st Edition Thomas Von Arx

https://ebookbell.com/product/clinical-oral-anatomy-a-comprehensive-
review-for-dental-practitioners-and-researchers-1st-edition-thomas-
von-arx-5736314

Clinical Anatomy For Oral Implantology Second Louie Alfaraje

https://ebookbell.com/product/clinical-anatomy-for-oral-implantology-
second-louie-alfaraje-36512570

Atlas Of Oral And Maxillofacial Anatomy 1st Ed 2021 Iwanaga

https://ebookbell.com/product/atlas-of-oral-and-maxillofacial-
anatomy-1st-ed-2021-iwanaga-36139456

Surgical And Radiologic Anatomy For Oral Implantology 1st Louie

Alfaraje

https://ebookbell.com/product/surgical-and-radiologic-anatomy-for-
oral-implantology-1st-louie-alfaraje-38253074
Oral Anatomy,
Histology and
Embryology
Commissioning Editor: Alison Taylor
Development Editor: Lulu Stader
Project Manager: Jane Dingwall
Designers: Sarah Russell/Kirsteen Wright
Illustrator: Marion Tasker (new figures)
Illustration Manager: Merlyn Harvey
 Fourth Edition

Oral Anatomy,
Histology and
Embryology
B. K. B. Berkovitz BDS, MSc, PhD, FDS (Eng)
Emeritus Reader, Anatomy and Human Sciences, Biomedical and Health Sciences, King’s College, London, UK

G. R. Holland BSc, BDS, PhD, CERT ENDO

Professor, Department of Cariology, Restorative Sciences and Endodontics, School of Dentistry and Department of
Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA

B. J. Moxham BSc, BDS, PhD

Professor of Anatomy, Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK

EDINBURGH LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD PHILADELPHIA ST LOUIS SYDNEY TORONTO 2009
 Contents

Preface vii
Acknowledgements viii
1. In vivo appearance of the oral cavity 1
2. Dento-osseous structures 8
3. Regional topography of the mouth and related areas 62
4. Vasculature and innervation of the mouth 81
5. Sectional anatomy of the oral cavity and related areas 92
6. Functional anatomy 95
7. Enamel 105
8. Investing organic layers on enamel surfaces 123
9. Dentine 129
10. Dental pulp 152
11. Cementum 169
12. Periodontal ligament 179
13. Alveolar bone 205
14. Oral mucosa 223
15. Temporomandibular joint 253
16. Salivary glands 260
17. Development of the face 278
18. Development of the palate 283
19. Development of the jaws 293
20. Development of the tongue and salivary glands 297
21. Early tooth development 299
22. Amelogenesis 314
23. Dentinogenesis 329
24. Development of the dental pulp 339
25. Development of the root and periodontal ligament 342
26. Development of the dentitions 358
27. Ageing and archaeological and dental anthropological applications
of tooth structure 378
Further reading 383
Index 390

v
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface

This, the fourth edition of our book, follows the form and principles we established in the earlier third edition.
Thus, although in that third edition we changed the format of the book from a textbook and atlas to a textbook,
we retained the considerable number of illustrations, believing strongly that anatomical and histological text-
books must present information in a visual format. This fourth edition maintains this principle and we have
expanded the book considerably to incorporate nearly 1100 illustrations (over twenty percent of the illustra-
tions being new). This time, the expansion of the book has been accomplished without removing any of the
topics covered in the previous edition. On the contrary, we have added a chapter on ageing of orodental tissues,
because of the increased longevity of humans and the consequences of this to the types of patient seeking
dental treatment. This chapter also includes some information concerning forensic dentistry and dental archae-
ological material. As for the earlier editions of our book, we have preferred, wherever possible, to use photo-
graphs and photomicrographs for our illustrations rather than diagrams or drawings, however expertly and
artistically presented, as we wish to encourage students to look at ‘real’ material, warts and all!
As for the previous edition, we are adamant that dental students should not just learn basic (‘core’) material
for oral anatomy, histology and embryology. These are important subjects that provide essential scientific
material that should be appreciated by all dental surgeons who wish to consider themselves professionals (in
all senses of the term). Indeed, it seems to us that a book such as this that attempts to be encyclopaedic in
scope is increasingly necessary where there is a shortage of experienced teachers for the subjects covered!
Furthermore, because of the increasing shortage of teachers with clinical backgrounds in dentistry, we have
expanded the ‘clinical considerations’ section in most chapters of our book.
It is, unfortunately, increasingly difficult to obtain funding for basic dental research that involves significant
amounts of morphological investigation. And yet, such research does continue and considerable advances in
our knowledge of the microscopic anatomy and development of orodental tissues have occurred in recent
times. All chapters have been reviewed. In some (e.g. enamel integuments), only minor changes were deemed
necessary whereas in others (e.g. alveolar bone and the salivary glands) we have made significant additions.
We have also taken the opportunity to improve some of the illustrations where no changes in the text were
required. For example, all of the photographs relating to tooth morphology are new. Finally, we are, as ever,
grateful to those readers who have provided comments and criticisms. We do not pretend to be infallible and
would ask for indulgence if we have strayed from scientific rectitude!

2008
B. K. B. Berkovitz
G. R. Holland
B. J. Moxham

vii
 Acknowledgements

We are most grateful to the numerous colleagues who generously provided photographic material for our book
and these have been acknowledged in the text. In addition, we owe a debt of thanks to the following research-
ers for their constructive criticisms of draft chapters: Dr T. Arnett, Dr A. E. Barrett, Dr J. H. Bennett, Dr S. R.
Berkovitz, Dr R. Brooks, Dr M. Cobourne, Dr R. J. Cook, Professor M. C. Dean, Dr A. Grigoriadis, Dr J. D.
Harrison, Dr M. Ide, Professor R. W. A. Linden, Dr H. Liversidge, Professor F. McDonald, Dr T. A. Mitsiadis,
Professor P. R. Morgan, Dr I. Needleman, Professor R. G. Oliver, Dr C. Orr, Professor R. M. Palmer, Professor
T. Pitt-Ford, Dr G. D. Procter, Professor P. T. Sharpe, Dr A. Thexton, Professor T. J. Watson.
We are grateful to Ms K. Kirwan for much photographic help and for producing a number of the new line
diagrams. We also acknowledge photographic help from Mr G. Fox.

viii
 In vivo appearance of the oral cavity 1

B
E

CF A F

Fig. 1.2 The lips. A = tubercle; B = nasolabial groove; C = labiomarginal sulci;

D = labiomental groove; E = philtrum; F = labial commissure.

Fig. 1.1 The oral cavity.

The oral cavity (Fig. 1.1) extends from the lips and cheeks externally to Incompetent lips (Fig. 1.3) describe a situation where, at rest and with
the pillars of the fauces internally, where it continues into the oropharynx. the facial muscles relaxed, a lip seal is not produced. It is of some impor-
It is subdivided into the vestibule external to the teeth and the oral cavity tance that this is distinguished from conditions where the lips are merely
proper internal to the teeth. The palate forms the roof of the mouth and held apart habitually (as often occurs with ‘mouth breathers’). The lip
separates the oral and nasal cavities. The floor of the oral cavity consists posture illustrated in Figure 1.3 can be described as being ‘potentially
of mucous membrane covering the mylohyoid muscle and is occupied competent’, as the lips would be capable of producing a seal at rest if there
mainly by the tongue. The lateral walls of the oral cavity are defined by were no interference caused by the protruding incisors. Where the lips are
the cheeks and retromolar regions. The primary functions of the mouth are incompetent, the pattern of swallowing is often modified to produce an
concerned with the ingestion (and selection) of food, and with mastication
and swallowing. Secondary functions include speech and ventilation
(breathing).

LIPS

The lips (Fig. 1.2) are composed of a muscular skeleton (the orbicularis
oris muscle) and connective tissue, and are covered externally by skin and
internally by mucous membrane. The red portion of the lip (the vermilion)
is a feature characteristic of humans. The sharp junction of the vermilion
and the skin is termed the vermilion border. In the upper lip the vermilion
protrudes in the midline to form the tubercle. The lower lip shows a slight
depression in the midline corresponding to the tubercle. From the midline
to the corners of the mouth the lips widen and then narrow. Laterally, the
upper lip is separated from the cheeks by nasolabial grooves. Similar
grooves appear with age at the corners of the mouth to delineate the lower
lip from the cheeks (the labiomarginal sulci). The labiomental groove
separates the lower lip from the chin. In the midline of the upper lip runs
the philtrum. The corners of the lips (the labial commissures) are usually
located adjacent to the maxillary canine and mandibular first premolar
teeth. The lips exhibit sexual dimorphism; as a general rule, the skin of
the male is thicker, firmer, less mobile and hirsute. The lips illustrated are
lightly closed at rest and are described as being ‘competent’. Fig. 1.3 Incompetent lips.

1
 2 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

a b

Fig. 1.6 Midline diastema between upper central incisor teeth, produced by an
enlarged labial frenum.

Fig. 1.4 (a) Competent lips maintaining normal inclination of the incisors.
(b) Incompetent lips resulting in proclination of the upper incisors. teeth. When the teeth occlude, the vestibule is a closed space that com-
municates with the oral cavity proper only behind the last molars (the
retromolar regions). This provides a pathway for the administration of
anterior oral seal. Accordingly, an oral seal may be formed by contact nutrients in a patient whose jaws have been wired together following a
between the lower lip (or the tongue) and the palatal mucosa, and there fracture.
may even be a forcible tongue thrust. It has been estimated that in the UK The mucosa covering the alveolus is reflected on to the lips and cheeks,
and the USA about 50% of children at the age of 11 years have some forming a trough or sulcus called the vestibular fornix. In some regions of
degree of lip incompetence. the sulcus, the mucosa may show distinct sickle-shaped folds running from
The position and activity of the lips are important in controlling the the cheeks and lips to the alveolus. The upper and lower labial frena or
degree of protrusion of the incisors. With competent lips (Fig. 1.4a) the frenula are such folds in the midline. Other folds of variable dimensions
tips of the maxillary incisors lie below the upper border of the lower lip, may traverse the sulcus in the region of the canines or premolars. Such
this arrangement helping to maintain the ‘normal’ inclination of the inci- frena are said to be more pronounced in the lower sulcus. All folds contain
sors. With incompetent lips (Fig. 1.4b) the maxillary incisors may not be loose connective tissue and are neither muscle attachments nor sites of
so controlled and the lower lip may even lie behind them, thus producing large blood vessels.
an exaggerated proclination of these teeth. If there is tongue thrusting to The upper labial frenum should be attached well below the alveolar
provide an anterior oral seal, further forces that tend to protrude the inci- crest. A large frenum with an attachment near this crest may be associated
sors are generated. A tight, or overactive, lip musculature may be associ- with a midline diastema between the maxillary first incisors (Fig. 1.6).
ated with retroclined incisors. Prominent frena may also influence the stability of dentures.

ORAL VESTIBULE GINGIVA

The oral vestibule (Fig. 1.5) is a slit-like space between the lips and cheeks, The gums or gingivae, the oral mucosa covering the alveolar bone
and the teeth and alveolus. At rest, or with the mouth open, (which supports the roots of the teeth) and the necks (cervical region) of
the vestibule and oral cavity proper directly communicate between the the teeth, are divided into two main components (Fig. 1.7). The portion
lining the lower part of the alveolus is loosely attached to the periosteum
via a diffuse submucosa and is termed the alveolar mucosa. It is delineated
from the gingiva (which covers the upper part of the alveolar bone and
the necks of the teeth) by a well defined junction, the mucogingival
C
junction. The alveolar mucosa appears red, the gingiva pale pink. These
C B
colour differences relate to differences in the type of keratinization and
the proximity to the surface of underlying blood vessels. Indeed, small
blood vessels may readily be seen coursing beneath the alveolar mucosa
(Fig. 1.7b). The gingiva may be further subdivided into the attached
gingiva and the free gingiva. The attached gingiva is firmly bound to the
periosteum of the alveolus and to the teeth, and the free gingiva lies un-
A
attached around the cervical region of the tooth. A groove (the free gingival
groove) may be seen between the free and attached gingiva. This groove
corresponds roughly to the floor of the gingival sulcus that separates the
inner surface of the attached gingiva from the enamel itself (see Fig.
14.36). The interdental papilla is that part of the gingiva that fills the space
between adjacent teeth. A feature of the attached gingiva is its surface
stippling. The degree of stippling varies from individual to individual and
Fig. 1.5 The oral vestibule. A = vestibular fornix; B = upper labial frenum; according to age, sex and the health of the gingiva. Unlike the attached
C = frenum in the region of the upper premolar teeth. gingiva, the free gingiva is not stippled. On the lingual surface of the lower
 IN VIVO APPEARANCE OF THE ORAL CAVITY 3

Fig. 1.7 Upper (a) and lower (b) gingivae.

G A C A = alveolar mucosa; B = gingiva; C = mucogin-
F gival junction, D = attached gingiva; E = free
D E gingiva; F = interdental papilla; G = labial
B B frenum.
D

E C
A G
G
F

a b

jaw the attached gingiva is sharply differentiated from the alveolar mucosa occurring singly or in clusters on the margin of the lips or the mucosa of
towards the floor of the mouth by a mucogingival line. On the palate, the cheeks (and other sites such as genital skin). They can be seen in the
however, there is no obvious division between the attached gingiva and majority of patients and are said to increase with age.
the rest of the palatal mucosa as this whole surface is keratinized mastica- Few structural landmarks are visible in the cheeks. The parotid duct
tory mucosa. drains into the cheek opposite the maxillary second molar tooth and its
opening may be covered by a small fold of mucosa termed the parotid
papilla (see Fig. 1.25). In the retromolar region, in front of the pillars of
CHEEKS the fauces, a fold of mucosa containing the pterygomandibular raphe
extends from the upper to the lower alveolus (Fig. 1.9). The pterygoman-
The cheeks extend intra-orally from the labial commissures anteriorly to dibular space, in which the lingual and inferior alveolar nerves run, lies
the ridge of mucosa overlying the ascending ramus of the mandible pos- lateral to this fold and medial to a ridge produced by the mandibular ramus.
teriorly. They are bounded superiorly and inferiorly by the upper and lower The groove lying between the ridges produced by the raphe and the ramus
vestibular fornices (Fig. 1.5). The mucosa is non-keratinized and, being of the mandible is an important landmark for insertion of a needle for local
tightly adherent to the buccinator muscle, is stretched when the mouth is anaesthesia of the lingual and inferior alveolar nerves (see page 88).
opened and wrinkled when closed. Ectopic sebaceous glands without any
associated hair follicles may be evident in the mucosa and are called
Fordyce spots (Fig. 1.8). They are seen as small, yellowish-white spots, PALATE

The palate forms the roof of the mouth and separates the oral and nasal
cavities. It is divided into the immovable hard palate anteriorly and the
movable soft palate posteriorly. As their names imply, the skeleton of the
hard palate is bony while that of the soft palate is fibrous.
The hard palate is covered by a masticatory, keratinized mucosa that is
firmly bound down to underlying bone and also contains some taste buds.
It shows a distinct prominence immediately behind the maxillary central
incisors, the incisive papilla (Fig. 1.10). This papilla overlies the incisive
fossa through which the nasopalatine nerves enter on to the palate. Extend-
ing posteriorly in the midline from the papilla runs a ridge termed the
palatine raphe. Here, the oral mucosa is attached directly to bone without
the presence of a submucous layer of tissue. Palatine rugae are elevated
ridges in the anterior part of the hard palate that radiate somewhat trans-
versely from the incisive papilla and the anterior part of the palatine raphe.
Fig. 1.8 Inner surface of the cheek, showing Fordyce spots as yellowish patches. Their pattern is unique to the individual and, like fingerprints, can be used
for forensic purposes to help identify individuals. At the junction of the

A
C
A

B
D
Fig. 1.9 Retromolar region. A = inner surface of cheek; B = ridge overlying ramus
of mandible; C = ridge overlying the pterygomandibular raphe. The arrow indicates
a landmark for the insertion of needle for local anaesthesia of the lingual and Fig. 1.10 The hard palate. A = incisive papilla; B = palatine raphe; C = palatine
inferior alveolar nerves. rugae; D = alveolus.
 4 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

C A C

A D B
B
C

Fig. 1.13 Floor of the mouth. A = lingual frenum; B = sublingual papilla;

C = sublingual folds.
Fig. 1.11 The soft palate and oropharyngeal isthmus. A = palatoglossal fold;
B = palatopharyngeal fold; C = palatine tonsil; D = uvula.
FLOOR OF THE MOUTH

palate and the alveolus lies a mass of soft tissue (submucosa) in which run The moveable floor of the mouth is a small, horseshoe-shaped region
the greater palatine nerves and vessels. The shape and size of the dome of above the mylohyoid muscle and beneath the movable part of the tongue
the palate varies considerably, being relatively shallow in some cases and (Fig. 1.13). It is covered by a lining of non-keratinized mucosa. In the
having considerable depth in others. midline, near the base of the tongue, a fold of tissue called the lingual
The boundary between the soft palate and the hard palate is readily frenum extends on to the inferior surface of the tongue. The sublingual
palpable and may be distinguished by a change in colour, the soft palate papilla, on to which the submandibular salivary ducts open into the mouth,
having a yellowish tint. Extending laterally from the free border of the soft is a large centrally positioned protuberance at the base of the tongue. On
palate on each side are the palatoglossal and palatopharyngeal folds (pillars either side of this papilla are the sublingual folds, beneath which lie the
of the fauces), the palatoglossal fold being more anterior (Fig. 1.11). These submandibular ducts and sublingual salivary glands.
folds cover the palatoglossus and palatopharyngeus muscles and between
them lies the tonsillar fossa that, in children, houses the palatine tonsil.
The palatine tonsil is a collection of lymphoid material of variable size TONGUE
that is likely to atrophy in the adult. It exhibits several slit-like invagina-
tions (the tonsillar crypts), one of which is particularly deep and named The tongue is a muscular organ with its base attached to the floor of the
the intratonsillar cleft. The free edge of the soft palate in the midline is mouth. It is attached to the inner surface of the mandible near the midline
termed the palatal uvula. The oropharyngeal isthmus is where the oral and gains support below from the hyoid bone. It functions in mastication,
cavity and the oropharynx meet. It is delineated by the palatoglossal swallowing and speech and carries out important sensory functions, par-
folds. ticularly those of taste. The lymphoid material contained in its posterior
Knowledge of the anatomy of the palate has clinical relevance when third has a protective role.
siting the posterior border (postdam) of an upper denture. The denture The inferior (ventral) surface of the tongue, related to the floor of the
needs to bed into the tissues at the anterior border of the soft palate (at a mouth, is covered by a thin lining of non-keratinized mucosa that is tightly
location sometimes referred to as the ‘vibrating line’ because the soft bound down to the underlying muscles. In the midline, extending on to
palate can be seen to move here on asking a patient to say ‘ah’). In most the floor of the mouth, lies the lingual frenum (Fig. 1.14). Rarely, this
individuals two small pits, the fovea palatini, may be seen (Fig. 1.12) on extends across the floor of the mouth to be attached to the mandibular
either side of the midline; these represent the orifices of ducts from some alveolus. Such an overdeveloped lingual frenum (ankyloglossia) may
of the minor mucous glands of the palate. The fovea palatini can also be restrict movements of the tongue. Lateral to the frenum lie irregular,
seen on impressions of the palate and a postdam may usually be safely fringed folds: the fimbriated folds. Also visible through the mucosa are the
placed a couple of millimetres behind the pits. deep lingual veins.
The upper (dorsal) surface of the tongue may be subdivided into an
anterior two-thirds (palatal part) and a posterior one-third (pharyngeal
part). The junction of the palatal and pharyngeal parts is marked by a

C
B

Fig. 1.14 Inferior surface of the tongue. A = lingual frenum; B = fimbriated fold;
Fig. 1.12 Oral surface of the soft palate showing the fovea palatini (arrows). C = deep lingual vein.
 IN VIVO APPEARANCE OF THE ORAL CAVITY 5

Fig. 1.15 Dorsum of the

tongue.
F A = sulcus terminalis
D B = foramen caecum
C = circumvallate papillae
E D = lingual follicles
B E = palatoglossal arches
F = palatine tonsil.
A
Pharyngeal part
Palatal part
C

a b

B
B

A
A

Fig. 1.16 Dorsum of the tongue, showing filiform Fig. 1.17 Dorsum of the tongue, showing circumval-
and fungiform (arrows) papillae. late papillae (A). B = lingual follicles.
Fig. 1.18 Side of the tongue, showing slit-like
appearance of foliate papillae.

shallow V-shaped groove, the sulcus terminalis (Fig. 1.15). The angle (or arches) extend from the soft palate to the sides of the tongue near the
‘V’) of the sulcus terminalis is directed posteriorly. In the midline, near circumvallate papillae.
the angle, may be seen a small pit called the foramen caecum. This is the
primordial site of development of the thyroid gland.
The mucosa of the palatal part of the dorsum of the tongue is mainly CLINICAL CONSIDERATIONS
keratinized and is characterized by an abundance of projections (papillae).
The most numerous are the filiform papillae appearing as whitish, conical There are a number of conditions in the mouth that can be inspected in
elevations (Fig. 1.16). Interspersed between the filiform papillae and the non-clinical environment. They provide examples of 1) normal varia-
readily seen at the tip of the tongue are isolated reddish prominences, the tion, 2) common benign disorders and 3) disorders that may highlight
fungiform papillae. The largest papillae on the palatal surface of the tongue normal features, which may be otherwise inconspicuous.
are the circumvallate papillae, which lie immediately in front of the sulcus As examples of normal variation, we can consider pigmentation, Fordyce
terminalis. There are about 10–15 circumvallate papillae (Fig. 1.17). They spots and black hairy tongue. In dark-skinned patients, patches of melanin
do not project beyond the surface of the tongue and are surrounded by a pigment may be seen in the mouth, particularly in the gingiva (Fig. 1.19).
circular ‘trench’. Foliate papillae (Fig. 1.18) appear as a series of parallel, This pigmentation is due to the extra melanosome granules present within
slit-like folds of mucosa on each lateral border of the tongue, near the the oral epithelium (see Fig. 14.22). Such pigmentation needs to be dis-
attachment of the palatoglossal fold. The foliate papillae are of variable tinguished from other forms of mucosal pigmentation and from increased
length in humans and are the vestige of large papillae found in many other melanin pigmentation associated with a range of inflammatory conditions,
mammals. Apart from the filiform papillae, the papillae are the site of taste such as lichen planus where melanin pigment is held within macrophages
buds. in the lamina propria (Figs 1.20, 1.21). Fordyce spots are seen in varying
The pharyngeal surface of the dorsum of the tongue is non-keratinized degrees as small, yellowish-white spots, occurring singly or in clusters on
and is covered with large rounded nodules termed the lingual follicles. the margin of the lips (Fig. 1.22) or in the mucosa of the cheeks (Fig. 1.8)
These follicles are composed of lymphatic tissue, collectively forming the (and other sites such as genital skin). They can be seen in the majority of
lingual tonsil. The posterior part of the tongue slopes towards the epiglot- patients and are said to increase with age. They represent collections of
tis, where three folds of mucous membrane are seen: the median and lateral sebaceous glands (Fig. 1.23) without any associated hair follicles. The
glossoepiglottic folds. The anterior pillars of the fauces (the palatoglossal range of variation in the filiform papillae on the dorsum of the tongue is
 6 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

Fig. 1.19 Patches of dark melanin pigment appearing Fig. 1.20 Area of increased pigmentation (arrowed)
in the region of the attached gingiva. Courtesy of associated with whitish patches due to lichen planus.
Courtesy of Professor P.R. Morgan. Fig. 1.21 Micrograph of biopsy taken from pig-
Professor P.R. Morgan.
mented area seen in Fig. 1.20, showing melanin
pigment within macrophages (arrows) lying within the
lamina propria. The epithelium is parakeratinized,
giving the whitish patches (H & E; ×100). Courtesy of
Professor P.R. Morgan.

Fig. 1.24 Black hairy tongue. Courtesy of Professor P.R. Morgan.

Fig. 1.22 Fordyce spots appearing as yellow spots on the vermilion (red zone) of
the lip. The black spots below represent hair follicles on the surface of the adjacent
skin of the chin. Courtesy of Professor P.R. Morgan.

Fig. 1.25 View of buccal mucosa showing a linea alba adjacent to the molar teeth
(A) at the level of the occlusal plane. In front of this line, the white patches on the
cheek represent more diverse cheek chewing. Arrow shows the parotid papilla.
Courtesy of Professor P.R. Morgan.

to accumulate and, together with retained pigments of dietary or microbial

origin, may colour the surface of the tongue black. The condition may be
associated with the administration of antibiotics or mouthwashes that may
Fig. 1.23 Micrograph of a Fordyce spot, showing it to be a sebaceous gland
alter the normal bacterial population. It has a frequency of about 5% of
(H & E;. ×50). Courtesy of Professor P.R. Morgan.
the population.
Examples of common benign disorders are linea alba and tori. On the
well illustrated by black hairy tongue (lingua villosa nigra), a benign inside of the cheek and level with the occlusal plane, a linear, slightly
condition in which there is hypertrophy of these papillae (Fig. 1.24). raised whitish ridge may be seen, the linea alba (Fig. 1.25). It is commonly
Instead of being about 1 mm in length, the filiform papillae may reach up the result of low-grade, intermittent trauma due to folds of cheek mucosa
to 15 mm, giving the dorsum an appearance of being covered in fine hairs. being trapped between the teeth. More active trauma associated with cheek
This provides a suitable environment for bacteria (and sometimes fungi) chewing produces a much larger, irregular white patch (Fig. 1.25). The
 IN VIVO APPEARANCE OF THE ORAL CAVITY 7

Fig. 1.26 Section of buccal mucosa showing the linea

alba to be parakeratinized compared with the normal
non-keratinized state of the buccal mucosa (H & E;
×50). Courtesy of Professor P.R. Morgan.

Fig. 1.27 Upper jaw showing a relatively small torus

palatinus as an overgrowth of bone along the midline
of the palate. Courtesy of Dr C. Dunlap.

Fig. 1.28 Upper jaw showing a large torus palatinus Fig. 1.29 Isolated palate showing torus palatinus as Fig. 1.30 Unilateral torus mandibularis (arrow) on the
as an overgrowth of bone along the midline of the an overgrowth of bone along the midline. Courtesy of lingual surface of the mandible. Courtesy of Professor
palate. Courtesy of Dr C. Dunlap. the Royal College of Surgeons of England. P.R. Morgan.

Fig. 1.31 Bilateral torus mandibularis (arrows) on Fig. 1.32 Torus mandibularis on the buccal surface of Fig. 1.33 The palate of a heavy smoker presenting
the lingual surface of the mandible. Courtesy of the mandible. Courtesy of Dr C. Dunlap. with an overall whitish appearance to the mucosa that
Dr C. Dunlap. highlights the orifices of the mucous glands as red
spots. Courtesy of Professor P.R. Morgan.

constant irritation converts the surface epithelium from its normal non- with age. Tori may be related to functional adaptations, as there is
keratinized state into a parakeratinized layer (Fig. 1.26). some evidence that their incidence is decreased in association with fewer
Individual variation in the shape of the jaws is recognized by anato- teeth being present in the jaws. They require no treatment unless they
mists and pathologists. Such variations blend with benign conditions. As interfere with the construction of satisfactory removable dentures. Their
an example, tori are benign localized overgrowths of bone found in incidence varies from about 0.5% to over 65%, being less frequent in
both the upper (torus palatinus) and lower (torus mandibularis) jaws, Caucasians and more frequent in Eskimos, Mongoloids and other Asian
resulting in an increased radiopacity in the region. In the upper jaw, the groups.
enlargement is typically seen in the midline (Figs 1.27–1.29), while in As an example of a disorder that highlights normal features that may
the lower jaw it is usually on the lingual aspect in the canine/premolar be otherwise inconspicuous, one can inspect the palate of a patient who
region and may be unilateral (Fig. 1.30) or bilateral (Fig. 1.31). However, smokes heavily, revealing a whitish appearance that highlights numerous
a torus mandibularis may also affect the buccal surface of the mandible reddish spots (Fig. 1.33). The white appearance is the result of a pro-
(Fig. 1.32). Torus palatinus is more common in females, while torus nounced orthokeratinized layer being present due to chronic irritation and
mandibularis is slightly more common in males. Tori vary in size from this highlights the orifices of the ducts (as red spots) associated with the
small to very large and there is a tendency for them to increase in size numerous mucous salivary glands present.
 2 Dento-osseous structures

a b

Fig. 2.1 Front (a) and side (b) views of the skull, showing the relationship between the jaws and the remainder of the skull. The black line describes the boundaries of a
maxillary bone.

A
JAWS

The jaws are the tooth-bearing bones. They comprise three bones. The two
F
maxillary bones form the upper jaw. The lower jaw is a single bone, the
mandible (Fig. 2.1).
B
The skull is the most complex osseous structure in the body. It protects
the brain, the organs of special sense and the cranial parts of the respiratory
and digestive systems. The skull is divided into the neurocranium (which D
houses and protects the brain and the organs of special sense) and the G
viscerocranium (which surrounds the upper parts of the respiratory and E
digestive tracts). The jaws contribute the major part of the viscerocranium, C C
comprising about 25% of the skull. The jaws have evolved from the gill C
arch elements of early agnathan vertebrates. It is probable that one or two
anterior gill arches gradually disappeared with the expansion of the mouth
cavity, so that the gill arch that developed phylogenetically into the jaws
of ancestral gnathostomes was not the first of the series. Note that the upper Fig. 2.2 Lateral aspect of the maxilla. A = frontal process; B = zygomatic process;
jaw not only contains teeth but also contributes to the skeleton of the nose, C = alveolar process; D = site of anterior nasal spine; E = canine fossa; F = orbital
plate; G = jugal crest. The infra-orbital foramen is arrowed.
orbit, cheek and palate.

MAXILLA
meet at the intermaxillary suture whence they diverge laterally to form the
The maxilla consists of a body and four processes: the frontal, zygomatic, opening into the nasal fossae (the piriform aperture). At the lower border
alveolar and palatine processes. Only the palatine process cannot be seen of the piriform aperture, in the midline, lies the bony projection termed
from the lateral aspect of the maxilla (Fig. 2.2). The anterolateral surface the anterior nasal spine. The malar surface of the body of the maxilla is
of the maxilla (the malar surface) forms the skeleton of the anterior part concave, forming the canine fossa. Superiorly, the malar surface is con-
of the cheek. In the midline, the alveolar processes of the two maxillae tinuous with the orbital plate of the maxilla and forms the floor of the orbit.

8
 DENTO-OSSEOUS STRUCTURES 9

A
B

Fig. 2.5 Lateral view of the maxilla, showing close relationship of roots of the
cheek teeth to the floor of the maxillary sinus (red outline).

Fig. 2.3 Medial aspect of the maxilla. A = lacrimal groove; B = palatine groove;
C = palatine process of maxilla. Note the large opening into the maxillary sinus.

vertical groove called the lacrimal groove. This groove meets the lower
edge of the lacrimal bone to form the nasolacrimal canal. Behind the
antrum lies the palatine groove, which is converted into a canal carrying
the greater palatine nerve and artery by the perpendicular plate of the
palatine bone. The maxillary palatine process extends horizontally from
the medial surface of the maxilla where the body meets the alveolar
2 process.
1 3 The lateral wall of the nasal fossa consists mainly of the medial surface
of the maxilla. This surface of the isolated bone is occupied mainly by the
large maxillary hiatus (Fig. 2.3). To reduce the size of this space in vivo,
6 4 the hiatus is overlapped by the lacrimal bone and the ethmoid bone above,
5 the palatine bone behind and the inferior concha below (Fig. 2.4).

Maxillary sinus
The maxillary sinus (antrum) is the largest of the paranasal sinuses and is
situated in the body of the maxilla. It is pyramidal in shape. The base
(medial wall) forms part of the lateral wall of the nose. The apex extends
Fig. 2.4 Osteology of the maxillary air sinus showing adjacent bones reducing the into the zygomatic process of the maxilla. The roof of the sinus is part of
size of the ostium. 1 = lacrimal groove of maxilla; 2 = lacrimal groove; 3 = lacrimal the floor of the orbit and the floor of the sinus is formed by the alveolar
bone; 4 = ethmoid bone; 5 = palatine bone; 6 = inferior nasal concha. Courtesy of
process and part of the palatine process of the maxilla. The anterior wall
Professor R.M.H. McMinn.
of the sinus is the facial surface of the maxilla and the posterior wall is
the infratemporal surface of the maxilla. Running in the roof of the sinus
is the infra-orbital nerve and vessels. The anterior superior alveolar nerve
and vessels run in the anterior wall of the sinus. The posterior superior
Anterior to the orbital plate, the frontal process extends above the piriform alveolar nerve and vessels pass through canals in the posterior surface of
aperture to meet the nasal and frontal bones. Below the infra-orbital rim the sinus. The medial wall of the maxillary sinus contains the opening
lies the infra-orbital foramen through which the infra-orbital branch of the (ostium) of the sinus that leads into the middle meatus of the nose. As this
maxillary nerve and the infra-orbital artery from the maxillary artery opening lies well above the floor of the sinus, its position is unfavourable
emerge on to the face. The posterolateral surface of the maxilla (the for drainage (see Fig. 5.4a). Infections of the maxillary sinus may therefore
infratemporal surface) forms the anterior wall of the infratemporal fossa. require surgical intervention, creating a more favourable drainage channel
The malar and infratemporal surfaces meet at a bony ridge extending from closer to the floor of the sinus.
the zygomatic process to the alveolus adjacent to the first molar tooth. This The roots of the cheek teeth are related to the floor of the maxillary
ridge is called the zygomatico-alveolar, or jugal, crest. The posterior con- sinus (Fig. 2.5). The most closely related are the roots of the second per-
vexity of the infratemporal surface is termed the maxillary tuberosity and manent maxillary molar, especially the apex of its palatal root; the roots
presents several small foramina associated with the posterior superior of the first and third molars and the second premolar are only slightly
alveolar nerves (which supply the posterior maxillary teeth). The zygo- further away. Sometimes, only mucosa separates the roots from the sinus.
matic process extends from both the malar and the infratemporal surfaces Care must be taken (particularly when extracting fractured roots in this
of the maxilla. From the entire lower surface of the body arises the alveo- region) to avoid creating an oro-antral fistula, when an epithelium-lined
lar process, which supports the maxillary teeth. channel exists between the oral cavity and maxillary sinus.
The medial aspect of the maxilla is illustrated in Figure 2.3. This part The maxillary air sinus is lined by respiratory epithelium (a ciliated
of the maxilla forms the lateral wall of the nose. In the specimen illustrated, columnar epithelium), with numerous goblet cells. The sinus is innervated
the central hollow of the body of the maxilla (the maxillary air sinus or by the infra-orbital nerve and superior alveolar branches of the maxillary
antrum) is divided by a bony septum. In front of the antrum lies a deep nerve.
 10 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

Fig. 2.6 Oral surface of the hard palate.

A = palatine processes of maxillae
B = horizontal plates of the palatine bones
C = median palatine suture
D = incisive fossa
D E = transverse palatine suture
F = greater palatine foramina
G = lesser palatine foramen
A A H = posterior nasal spine.
C A

C B
E
D
B B F
F

H
Fig. 2.7 View of the maxilla following removal of
G teeth to show the disposition of the roots in the
alveolus.
A = buccal alveolar plate
B = palatal alveolar plate
C = interdental bony septa between the second
premolar and first permanent molar
D = interradicular septum between the buccal roots of
first permanent molar.

An inferior view of the maxillae shows their important contributions to

the hard palate (Fig. 2.6). The four major bones contributing to the hard G
palate are the palatine processes of the maxillae and the horizontal plates
of the palatine bones. The maxillary palatine processes arise as horizontal
plates at the junction of the bodies and alveolar processes of the maxillae. H
The boundary between the palatine and alveolar processes is well defined
in its posterior aspect only; anteriorly, the angle between the two is less B
well defined. The junction between the palatine processes in the midline
is termed the median palatine suture. Anteriorly, behind the central inci- C
F
sors, this junction is incomplete, thus forming the incisive fossa, through D
A
which pass the nasopalatine nerves. Unlike the nasal surface, the oral E
I
surface of the palatine process is rough and irregular. The posterior edges
of the palatine processes articulate with the horizontal plates of the two
palatine bones to form the transverse palatine suture. Laterally, this junc-
Fig. 2.8 Lateral aspect of the mandible. A = Body; B = ramus; C = incisive fossa;
tion is incomplete, forming the greater palatine foramina, through which D = mental foramen; E = angle; F = external oblique line; G = coronoid process;
pass the greater palatine nerves and vessels. Behind the greater palatine H = condyle; I = mental protuberance.
foramina lie the lesser palatine foramina, through which pass the lesser
palatine nerves and vessels. The junction of the two palatine bones in the
midline completes the median palatine suture. The posterior borders of the
horizontal palatine plates are concave and, in the midline, form a sharp The apical regions of the sockets of anterior teeth are closely related to
ridge of bone called the posterior nasal spine. To the posterior edge of the the nasal fossae, while those of posterior teeth are closely related to the
hard palate is attached the fibrous palatine aponeurosis of the soft palate, maxillary air sinuses. The positions of the sockets in relation to the buccal
which is formed by the tendons of the tensor veli palatini muscles. and palatal alveolar plates are shown in Figure 2.12.

MAXILLARY ALVEOLUS MANDIBLE

The maxillary alveolar processes extend inferiorly from the bodies of the The mandible consists of a horizontal, horseshoe-shaped component, the
maxillae and support the teeth within bony sockets (Fig. 2.7). Each maxilla body of the mandible, and two vertical components, the rami. The rami
can contain a full quadrant of eight permanent teeth or five deciduous teeth. join the body posteriorly at obtuse angles. The body of the mandible carries
The form of the alveolus is related to the functional demands put upon the the mandibular teeth and their associated alveolar processes. Before birth,
teeth. When the teeth are lost the alveolus resorbs. the body consists of two lateral halves that meet in the midline at a sym-
Essentially, the alveolar process consists of two parallel plates of corti- physis. As viewed laterally (Fig. 2.8), on either side of the midline, close
cal bone, the buccal and palatal alveolar plates, between which lie the to the inferior margin of the body lies a distinct prominence called the
sockets of individual teeth. Between each socket lie interalveolar or inter- mental tubercle. These tubercles constitute the mental protuberance or
dental septa. The floor of the socket has been termed the fundus, its rim chin. Above the mental protuberance lies a shallow depression termed the
the alveolar crest. The form and depth of each socket is defined by the incisive fossa. Behind this fossa, the canine eminence overlies the root of
form and length of the root it supports, and thus shows considerable vari- the mandibular canine. Midway in the height of the body of the mandible,
ation. In multirooted teeth, the sockets are divided by interradicular septa. related to the premolar teeth, is the mental foramen. The mental branches
 DENTO-OSSEOUS STRUCTURES 11

E
D

G A

F
B
A H C A

I
Fig. 2.10 Lateral view of the mandible, showing the roots of the teeth and the
Fig. 2.9 Inner (medial) surface of the mandible. A = genial spines (tubercles); relationship to the mandibular canal (A). B = mandibular foramen.
B = internal oblique ridge (mylohyoid ridge); C = attachment area for medial
pterygoid muscle; D = temporal crest; E = retromolar triangle; F = mandibular
foramen; G = lingula; H = mylohyoid groove; I = digastric fossa.

of the inferior alveolar nerve and artery pass on to the face through this
foramen. The most common position for the mental foramen is on a verti-
cal line passing through the mandibular second premolar. During the first
and second years of life, as the prominence of the chin develops, the direc-
tion of the opening of the mental foramen alters from facing forwards to
facing upwards and backwards. Rarely, there may be multiple mental
foramina. The inferior margin of the mandibular body meets the posterior
margin of the ramus at the angle of the mandible. This area is irregular,
being the site of insertion of the masseter muscle and stylomandibular
ligament. The alveolus forms the superior margin of the mandibular body.
The junction of the alveolus and ramus is demarcated by a ridge of bone,
the external oblique line, which continues downwards and forwards across
the body of the mandible to terminate below the mental foramen. As this
line progresses upwards, it becomes the anterior margin of the ramus and Fig. 2.11 The mandibular alveolus and the arrangement of the tooth sockets. Note
ends as the tip of the coronoid process. The coronoid and condylar proc- that the left second permanent mandibular molar has previously been extracted
and the socket has healed.
esses form the two processes of the superior border of the ramus. The
coronoid process provides attachment for the temporalis muscle. The con-
dylar process has a neck supporting an articular surface, which fits into of bone called the temporal crest runs down the anterior surface of the
the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone to form a moveable synovial ramus to end behind the mandibular molars at the retromolar triangle. In
joint (the temporomandibular joint). The concavity between the coronoid the centre of the medial surface of the ramus lies the mandibular foramen,
and condylar processes is called the mandibular notch. through which the inferior alveolar nerve and artery pass into the man-
Several important features are seen on the internal (medial) surface dibular canal. A bony process, the lingula, extends from the anterosuperior
of the mandible (Fig. 2.9). Close to the midline, on the inferior surface of surface of the foramen. The lingula is the site of attachment of the
the mandibular body, lie two shallow depressions called the digastric sphenomandibular ligament (see page 64). The mylohyoid groove may be
fossae, into which are inserted the anterior bellies of the digastric muscles. seen running down from the posteroinferior surface of the foramen.
Above the fossae, in the midline, are the genial spines or tubercles. There The mandibular canal, that transmits the inferior alveolar nerve, artery
are generally two inferior and two superior spines, which serve as and veins, begins at the mandibular foramen and extends to the region of
attachments for the geniohyoid muscles and the genioglossus muscles, the premolar teeth, where it bifurcates into the mental and incisive canals
respectively. Passing upwards and backwards across the medial surface of (Fig. 2.10). The course of the mandibular canal and its relationship with
the body of the mandible is a prominent ridge. This is termed the mylo- the teeth is variable; this variation is illustrated in connection with the
hyoid or internal oblique ridge. From this ridge, the mylohyoid muscle course of the inferior alveolar nerve (Fig. 4.6).
takes origin. The mylohyoid ridge arises between the genial spines and
digastric fossa and increases in prominence as it passes backwards to end
MANDIBULAR ALVEOLUS
on the anterior surface of the ramus. Because the mylohyoid muscle forms
the floor of the mouth, the bone above the mylohyoid ridge forms the As for the maxilla, the mandibular alveolus consists of buccal and lingual
anterior wall of the oral cavity proper, while that below the ridge forms alveolar plates joined by interdental and interradicular septa (Fig. 2.11).
the lateral wall of the submandibular space (see page 78). The following In the region of the second and third molars, the external oblique line is
features may be seen on the medial surface of the ramus. Around the angle superimposed upon the buccal alveolar plate. The form and depth of the
of the mandible, the bone is roughened for the attachment of the medial tooth sockets are related to the morphology of the roots of the mandibular
pterygoid muscle. Commencing at the tip of the coronoid process, a ridge teeth and the functional demands placed upon them.
 12 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

B
B

a b c d

A A
A

e f g h

Fig. 2.12 Buccolingual sections through the maxilla and mandible demonstrating the distribution of alveolar bone in relation to the roots of the teeth. (a) Maxillary incisor
region. (b) Maxillary canine region. (c) Maxillary premolar region. (d) Maxillary molar region. (e) Mandibular incisor region. (f) Mandibular canine region. (g) Mandibular
premolar region. (h) Mandibular molar region. Note the relationship of the mandibular cheek teeth to the mandibular canal (A) and of the maxillary cheek teeth to the
maxillary sinus (B). Courtesy of the Royal College of Surgeons of England.

Figure 2.12 illustrates buccolingual sections through the teeth and jaws, (molars and premolars) are grinding teeth possessing a number of cusps
demonstrating the directional axes and bony relationships of the teeth and on an otherwise flattened biting surface. Premolars are bicuspid teeth; they
their alveoli and the relative thickness of the buccal and lingual alveolar are peculiar to the permanent dentition and replace the deciduous molars.
plates. The relationships of the mandibular teeth to the mandibular canal, Table 2.1 gives definitions of terms used for the descriptions of tooth
and the maxillary teeth to the maxillary sinus have clinical significance. form.
Thus, the thickness of bone may determine the direction in which teeth
are levered during extractions and explain why local infiltration techniques
DENTAL NOTATION
can be used for anaesthetizing anterior mandibular teeth but not mandibu-
lar molar teeth. Care must be taken when exploring for fractured roots in The types and numbers of teeth in any mammalian dentition can be
the maxillary region in order to avoid an oro-antral fistula, due to the pres- expressed using dental formulae. The type of tooth is represented by its
ence of the maxillary sinus in close relationship to the maxillary molar initial letter – I for incisors, C for canines, P for premolars, M for
teeth, while the presence of the inferior alveolar nerve and its branches molars. The deciduous dentition is indicated by the letter D. The formula
requires care when placing dental implants in the mandibular region. for the deciduous human dentition is DI2_2 DC1_1 DM2_2 = 10, and for the per-
manent dentition I2_2 C1_1 PM2_2 M3_3 = 16, where the numbers following each
letter refer to the number of teeth of each type in the upper and lower jaws
TOOTH MORPHOLOGY on one side only. Identification of teeth is made not only according to the
dentition to which they belong and basic tooth form but also according
Humans have two generations of teeth: the deciduous (or primary) denti- to their anatomical location within the jaws. The tooth-bearing region of
tion and the permanent (or secondary) dentition. No teeth are erupted into the jaws can be divided into four quadrants: the right and left maxillary
the mouth at birth but, by the age of 3 years, all the deciduous teeth have and mandibular quadrants. A tooth may thus be identified according to
erupted. By 6 years, the first permanent teeth appear and thence the the quadrant in which it is located – e.g. a right maxillary deciduous incisor
deciduous teeth are exfoliated one by one to be replaced by their perma- or a left mandibular permanent molar. In both the permanent and deciduous
nent successors. A complete permanent dentition is present at or around dentitions, the incisors may be distinguished according to their relationship
the age of 18 years. Thus, given the average life of 75 years, the functional to the midline. Thus, the incisor nearest the midline is the central (or first)
lifespan of the deciduous dentition is only 5% of this total while, with care incisor and the more laterally positioned incisor the lateral (or second)
and luck, that of the permanent dentition can be over 90%. In the complete incisor. The permanent premolars and the permanent and deciduous molars
deciduous dentition there are 20 teeth – 10 in each jaw; in the complete can also be distinguished according to their mesiodistal relationships
permanent dentition there are 32 teeth – 16 in each jaw. (see Fig. 2.13). The molar most mesially positioned is designated the
In both dentitions, there are three basic tooth forms: incisiform, canini- first molar, the one behind it being the second molar. In the permanent
form and molariform. Incisiform teeth (incisors) are cutting teeth, with dentition, the tooth most distally positioned is the third molar. The mesial
thin, blade-like crowns. Caniniform teeth (canines) are piercing or tearing premolar is the first premolar, the premolar behind it being the second
teeth, having a single, stout, pointed, cone-shaped crown. Molariform teeth premolar.
 DENTO-OSSEOUS STRUCTURES 13

Table 2.1 Some terms used for the description of tooth form

Crown Clinical crown – that portion of a tooth visible in the oral

cavity
Anatomical crown – that portion of a tooth covered with
enamel
Root Clinical root – that portion of a tooth which lies within
the alveolus
Anatomical root – that portion of a tooth covered by
cementum
Cervical margin The junction of the anatomical crown and the anatomical
root
Occlusal surface The biting surface of a posterior tooth (molar or
premolar)
Cusp A pronounced elevation on the occlusal surface of a
tooth
Incisal margin The cutting edge of anterior teeth, analogous to the
occlusal surface of the posterior teeth
Tubercle A small elevation on the crown
Cingulum A bulbous convexity near the cervical region of a tooth
Ridge A linear elevation on the surface of a tooth
Marginal ridge A ridge at the mesial or distal edge of the occlusal
surface of posterior teeth. Some anterior teeth have
equivalent ridges
Fissure A long cleft between cusps or ridges
Fossa A rounded depression in a surface of a tooth
Buccal Towards, or adjacent to, the cheek. The term buccal
surface is reserved for that surface of a premolar or molar
which is positioned immediately adjacent to the cheek
Labial Towards, or adjacent to, the lips. The term labial surface
is reserved for that surface of an incisor or canine which
is positioned immediately adjacent to the lips
Palatal Towards, or adjacent to, the palate. The term palatal
surface is reserved for that surface of a maxillary tooth
which is positioned immediately adjacent to the palate
Lingual Towards, or adjacent to, the tongue. The term lingual
surface is reserved for that surface of a mandibular tooth
which lies immediately adjacent to the tongue
Mesial Towards the median. The mesial surface is that surface
which faces towards the median line following the curve
of the dental arch
Distal Away from the median. The distal surface is that surface
which faces away from the median line following the
curve of the dental arch

Fig. 2.13 Terminology employed for the identification of teeth according to their
location in the jaws.
A dental shorthand may be used in the clinic to simplify tooth identifi-
cation. The permanent teeth in each quadrant are numbered 1–8 and the
deciduous teeth in each quadrant are lettered A–E. The symbols for the Figure 2.13 summarizes some of the terminology employed for the
quadrants are derived from an imaginary cross, with the horizontal bar identification of teeth according to their location in the jaws.
placed between the upper and lower jaws and the vertical bar running
between the upper and lower central incisors. Thus, the maxillary right
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TEETH OF THE DECIDUOUS
first permanent molar is allocated the symbol _ 6| and the mandibular
AND PERMANENT DENTITIONS
left deciduous canine |–c. This system of dental shorthand is termed the
Zsigmondy system. An alternative scheme has been devised by the 1. The dental formula for the deciduous dentition is:
Federation Dentaire Internationale, in which the quadrant is represented DI2_2 DC1_1 DM2_2 = 10
by a number: That of the permanent dentition is:
I2_2 C1_1 PM2_2 M3_3 = 16.
1 = maxillary right quadrant
2 = maxillary left quadrant
3 = mandibular left quadrant
4 = mandibular right quadrant
5 = maxillary right quadrant
}Permanent
2. The deciduous teeth are smaller than their corresponding permanent
successors although the mesiodistal dimensions of the permanent
premolars are generally less than those for the deciduous
molars.
6 = maxillary left quadrant
7 = mandibular left quadrant
8 = mandibular right quadrant
}Deciduous
3. Deciduous teeth have a greater constancy of shape than permanent
teeth.
4. The crowns of deciduous teeth appear bulbous, often having pro-
nounced labial or buccal cingula.
In this system, the quadrant number prefixes a tooth number. Thus, the 5. The cervical margins of deciduous teeth are more sharply demar-
maxillary right first permanent molar is symbolized as 1,6 and the man- cated and pronounced than those of the permanent teeth, the enamel
dibular left deciduous canine as 7,3. bulging at the cervical margins rather than gently tapering.
 14 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

e Table 2.2 Average dimensions of the permanent teeth

a c
Tooth Crown height Length of root Mediodistal Labiolingual
(mm) (mm) crown crown
diameter diameter
(mm) (mm)

Maxillary
1 10.5 13.0 8.5 7.0
2 9.0 13.0 6.5 6.0
3 10.0 17.0 7.5 8.0
b d f
4 8.5 14.5 7.0 9.0
5 8.5 14.0 7.0 9.0
6 7.5 12.5 10.5 11.0
7 7.0 11.5 9.5 11.0
8 6.5 11.0 8.5 10.0

Mandibular
1 9.0 12.5 5.0 6.0
2 9.5 14.0 5.5 6.5
3 11.0 15.5 7.0 7.5
4 8.5 14.0 7.0 7.5
Fig. 2.14 Models of deciduous (a) and permanent (b) dental arches and some 5 8.0 14.5 7.0 8.0
examples of deciduous and permanent teeth. (c) Deciduous canine. (d) Permanent 6 7.5 14.0 11.0 10.0
canine. (e) Deciduous second molar. (f) Permanent first molar. 7 7.0 12.0 10.5 10.0
8 7.0 11.0 10.0 9.5

6. The cusps of newly erupted deciduous teeth are more pointed than
those of the corresponding permanent teeth.
7. The crowns of deciduous teeth have a thinner covering of enamel
Table 2.3 Average dimensions of the deciduous teeth
(average width 0.5–l.0 mm) than the crowns of permanent teeth
(average width 2.5 mm). Tooth Crown height Length of root Mediodistal Labiolingual
8. The enamel of deciduous teeth, being more opaque than that of per- (mm) (mm) crown crown
manent teeth, gives the crown a whiter appearance. diameter diameter
(mm) (mm)
9. The enamel of deciduous teeth is softer than that of permanent teeth
and is more easily worn. Maxillary
10. Enamel of deciduous teeth is more permeable than that of permanent A 6.0 10.0 6.5 5.0
teeth. B 5.6 10.2 5.2 4.0
11. The aprismatic layer of surface enamel (see pages 111–112) is wider C 6.5 13.0 6.8 7.0
in deciduous teeth. D 5.1 10.0 7.1 8.5
12. The enamel and dentine of all deciduous teeth exhibit neonatal lines E 5.7 11.7 8.4 10.0

(see pages 115, 142). Mandibular

13. The roots of deciduous teeth are shorter and less robust than those of A 5.0 9.0 4.0 4.0
permanent teeth. B 5.2 9.8 4.5 4.0
14. The roots of deciduous incisors and canines are longer in proportion C 6.0 11.2 5.5 4.9
to the crown than those of their permanent counterparts. D 6.0 9.8 7.7 7.0
E 5.5 12.5 9.7 8.7
15. The roots of deciduous molars are widely divergent, extending be-
yond the dimensions of the crown.
16. The pulp chambers of deciduous teeth are proportionally larger in
relation to the crowns than those of the permanent teeth. The pulp
horns in deciduous teeth are more prominent.
phology of the external surfaces of the teeth on pages 28–33. For the
17. The root canals of deciduous teeth are extremely fine.
chronology of the developing dentitions see page 365, for the average
18. The dental arches for the deciduous dentition are smaller.
dimensions of the teeth see Tables 2.2 and 2.3, and for ethnic variations
Some of these differences are illustrated in Figure 2.14. in tooth morphology see pages 24–28.
The following descriptions of individual teeth will be considered accord-
ing to tooth class (incisors, canines, premolars and molars) rather than by
INCISORS
membership of the permanent or deciduous dentition. For each class, the
permanent teeth will be described before the deciduous teeth. This arrange- Human incisors have thin, blade-like crowns that are adapted for the
ment allows emphasis of the basic features common to each class to be cutting and shearing of food preparatory to grinding. Viewed mesially or
made. distally, the crowns of the incisors are roughly triangular in shape, with
To help visualize the tooth as a three-dimensional object, the illustra- the apex of the triangle at the incisal margin of the tooth (Fig. 2.15). This
tions of each tooth are arranged according to the ‘third angle projection shape is thought to facilitate the penetration and cutting of food. Viewed
technique’, which aligns each side of a tooth to its occlusal or incisal buccally or lingually, the incisors are trapezoidal, the shortest of the uneven
aspect. The morphology of the pulp is treated independently of the mor- sides being the base of the crown cervically.
 DENTO-OSSEOUS STRUCTURES 15

Fig. 2.15 Schematic drawings of incisor crown form, illustrating the relationship
between the anatomical and geometrical forms. Redrawn after Dr R.C. Wheeler.

Fig. 2.17 Maxillary second (lateral) permanent incisor. A = incisal surface; B = labial
surface; C = palatal surface; D = mesial surface; E = distal surface.

distal marginal ridges. Near the cervical margin lies a prominent cingu-
lum. The cingulum may be single, divided or replaced by prominent
portions of the marginal ridges. Occasionally, a slight ridge of enamel
may run towards the incisal margin, dividing the palatal surface into
two shallow depressions. The mesial and distal views of the crown illus-
trate the fundamental wedge-shaped or triangular crown form of the
incisor.
The sinuous cervical margin is concave towards the crown on the palatal
and labial surfaces and convex towards the crown on the mesial and distal
surfaces, the curvature on the mesial surface being the most pronounced
of any tooth in the dentition. The single root of the first incisor tapers
towards the apex. The root is conical in cross-section and appears narrower
Fig. 2.16 Maxillary first (central) permanent incisor. A = incisal surface; B = labial from the palatal than from the labial aspect.
surface; C = palatal surface; D = mesial surface; E = distal surface.

Maxillary second (lateral) permanent incisor

Maxillary first (central) permanent incisor
Shown in Figure 2.17, this is one of the most variable teeth in the dentition,
This tooth (Fig. 2.16) is the widest mesiodistally of all the permanent incisors although generally it is morphologically a diminutive form of the maxil-
and canines, the crown being almost as wide as it is long. Like all incisors, lary central incisor with slight modifications. The crown is much narrower
it is basically wedge- or chisel-shaped and has a single conical root. and shorter than that of the first incisor, although the crown : root length
From the incisal view, the crown and incisal margin are centrally posi- ratio is considerably decreased.
tioned over the root of the tooth. The incisal margin presents as a narrow, From the incisal aspect, the crown has a more rounded outline than the
flattened ridge rather than as a fine, sharp edge. The incisal margin may adjacent first incisor. Viewed labially, the mesioincisal and distoincisal
be grooved by two troughs, the labial lobe grooves, which correspond to angles and the mesial and distal crown margins are more rounded than
the divisions between three developmental lobes (or mamelons) seen on those of the first incisor. The palatal aspect of the crown is similar to that
newly erupted incisors. The mamelons are lost by attrition soon after of the first incisor, although the marginal ridges and cingulum are often
eruption. From the incisal aspect, the crown outline is bilaterally sym- more pronounced. Consequently, the palatal concavity appears deeper.
metrical, being triangular. However, the mesial profile may appear slightly Lying in front of the cingulum is a pit (foramen caecum) that may extend
larger than the distal profile. From the labial view, the crown length can some way into the root. The mesial and distal aspects of the second incisor
be seen to be almost as great as the root length. The crown has a smooth, differ little from those of the first incisor. A common morphological vari-
convex labial surface. It may be marked by two faint grooves that run ation is the so-called ‘peg-shaped’ lateral incisor, which has a thin root
vertically towards the cervical margin and are extensions of the labial surmounted by a small conical crown (see Fig. 2.47).
lobe grooves. The convexity of the labial surface is especially marked The course of the cervical margin and the shape of the root are similar
cervically, the labial surface sometimes being flat at its middle and incisal to those of the first incisor. However, the root is often slightly compressed
regions. The mesial surface is straight and approximately at right angles and grooved on the mesial and distal surfaces.
to the incisal margin. The distoincisal angle, however, is more rounded
and the distal outline more convex. A line drawn through the axial centre The mandibular incisors have the smallest mesiodistal dimensions of any
of the tooth lies roughly parallel to the mesial outline of the crown and teeth in the permanent dentition. They can be distinguished from the max-
root. Viewed palatally, the crown is more irregular, its middle and incisal illary incisors not only by their size but also by the marked lingual inclina-
regions being concave, giving a slightly shovel-shaped appearance to tion of the crowns over the roots, the mesiodistal compression of their
the incisor. The palatal surface of the crown is bordered by mesial and roots and the poor development of the marginal ridges and cingula.
 16 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

Mandibular first (central) permanent incisor From the incisal view, the straight incisal margin appears to be centred
over the bulk of the crown. Unlike the permanent teeth, no mamelons are
Viewed incisally, this tooth has a bilaterally symmetrical triangular shape
seen on the incisal margin of the newly erupted deciduous incisor. The
(Fig. 2.18). The incisal margin in the specimen shown in the figure has
labial surface is slightly convex in all planes and unmarked by grooves,
been worn and appears flat, although the newly erupted tooth has three
lobes or depressions. The mesioincisal angle is sharp and acute, while the
mamelons. The incisal margin is at right angles to a line bisecting the tooth
distoincisal angle is more rounded and obtuse. On the palatal surface, the
labiolingually. Viewed labially, the crown of the incisor is almost twice as
cingulum is a very prominent bulge that extends some way up the crown
long as it is wide. The unworn incisal margin is straight and approximately
(sometimes to the incisal margin to form a ridge). Unlike those of its
at right angles to the long axis of the tooth. The mesioincisal and distoin-
permanent successor, the marginal ridges are poorly defined and the con-
cisal angles are sharp and the mesial and distal surfaces are approximately
cavity of the palatal surface is shallow. Mesial and distal views show the
at right angles to the incisal margin. The profiles of the mesial and distal
typical incisal form of the crown. There is a low, rounded cingulum at the
surfaces appear very similar, being convex in their incisal thirds and rela-
margin of the labial surface.
tively flattened in the middle and cervical thirds. The lingual surface is
As with all deciduous teeth, the cervical margins are more pro-
smooth and slightly concave, the lingual cingulum and mesial and distal
nounced but less sinuous than those of their permanent successors. The
marginal ridges appearing less distinct than those of the maxillary incisors.
fully formed root is conical in shape, tapering apically to a rather blunt
The mesial and distal views show the characteristic wedge shape of the
apex. Compared with the corresponding permanent tooth, the root is
incisor and the inclination of the crown lingually over the root.
longer in proportion to the crown.
The cervical margins on the labial and lingual surfaces show their
maximum convexities midway between the mesial and distal borders of
the root. The cervical margin on the distal surface is said to be less curved Maxillary second (lateral) deciduous incisor
than that on the mesial surface. The root is narrow and conical, although
This is similar in shape to the maxillary first deciduous incisor, although
flattened mesiodistally. It is frequently grooved on the mesial and distal
smaller (Fig. 2.21). One obvious difference is the more acute mesioincisal
surfaces, the distal groove being more marked and deeper.
angle and the more rounded distoincisal angle. The palatal surface is more
concave and the marginal ridges more pronounced. Viewed incisally, the
Mandibular second (lateral) permanent incisor crown appears almost circular (in contrast to the first incisor, which appears
diamond-shaped). As with the first deciduous incisor, there is a rounded
The mandibular second incisor (Fig. 2.19) closely resembles the man- labial cingulum cervically. The palatal cingulum is generally lower than
dibular first incisor. However, it is slightly wider mesiodistally and is more that of the first deciduous incisor.
asymmetrical in shape. The distal surface diverges at a greater angle from The course of the cervical margin and the shape of the root are similar
the long axis of the tooth, giving it a fan-shaped appearance, and the dis- to those of the first deciduous incisor.
toincisal angle is more acute and rounded. Another distinguishing charac-
teristic is the angulation of the incisal margin relative to the labiolingual
axis of the root: in the first incisor the incisal margin forms a right angle Mandibular first (central) deciduous incisor
with the labiolingual axis, whereas that of the second incisor is ‘twisted’ The mandibular first incisor (Fig. 2.22) is morphologically similar to its
distally in a lingual direction. permanent successor. However, it is much shorter and has a low labial
cingulum. The mesioincisal and distoincisal angles are sharp right angles
and the incisal margin is straight in the horizontal plane. The lingual cin-
Maxillary first (central) deciduous incisor
gulum and the marginal ridges are poorly defined.
This is similar morphologically to the corresponding permanent tooth (Fig. The single root is more rounded than that of the corresponding
2.20). However, because the width of the crown of the deciduous incisor permanent tooth and, when complete, tapers and tends to incline
nearly equals the length it appears plumper than its permanent successor. distally.

Fig. 2.18 Mandibular first (central) right permanent incisor. A = incisal surface; Fig. 2.19 Mandibular second (lateral) right permanent incisor. A = incisal surface;
B = labial surface; C = lingual surface; D = mesial surface; E = distal surface. B = labial surface; C = lingual surface; D = mesial surface; E = distal surface.
 DENTO-OSSEOUS STRUCTURES 17

Fig. 2.20 Maxillary first (central) right deciduous Fig. 2.21 Maxillary second (lateral) right deciduous Fig. 2.22 Mandibular first (central) right deciduous
incisor. A = incisal surface; B = labial surface; incisor. A = incisal surface; B = labial surface; incisor. A = incisal surface; B = labial surface;
C = palatal surface; D = mesial surface; E = distal C = palatal surface; D = mesial surface; E = distal C = lingual surface; D = mesial surface; E = distal
surface. surface. surface.

Fig. 2.23 Mandibular second (lateral) right deciduous

incisor. A = incisal surface; B = labial surface;
C = lingual surface; D = mesial surface; E = distal
surface.
Fig. 2.24 Schematic drawings of canine crown form, illustrating the relationship
between the anatomical and geometrical forms. Redrawn after Dr R.C. Wheeler.

Mandibular second (lateral) deciduous incisor

This is a bulbous tooth (Fig. 2.23) that resembles its permanent successor.
It is wider than the mandibular first deciduous incisor and is asymmetrical.
The mesioincisal angle is more obtuse and rounded than that of the man-
dibular first deciduous incisor and the incisal margin slopes downwards
distally. Should the distoincisal angle be markedly rounded, the tooth may
be difficult to distinguish from a maxillary second deciduous incisor.
Unlike the permanent tooth, the root is rounded. When complete, it is
longer than the root of the mandibular first deciduous incisor.

CANINES
Canines are the only teeth in the dentition with a single cusp. Morpho-
logically, they can be considered transitional between incisors and premo-
lars. As for the incisors, the crowns of canines are essentially triangular in
shape when viewed mesially or distally and trapezoidal buccally and
lingually (Fig. 2.24).

Maxillary permanent canine

This is a stout tooth (Fig. 2.25) with a well developed cingulum and the
longest root of any tooth. Viewed from its incisal aspect, it appears asym-
metrical. If a plane is envisaged passing through the apex of the cusp to Fig. 2.25 Maxillary right permanent canine. A = incisal surface; B = labial surface;
the cingulum on the palatal surface then the distal portion of the crown C = palatal surface; D = mesial surface; E = distal surface.
 18 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

is much wider than the mesial portion. It is thought that the pointed shape acutely to each other, whereas the labial surface merges gradually into the
of the canine tooth is related to an increase in size of a central mamelon distal surface. On the lingual surface, the cingulum, marginal ridges and
at the expense of mesial and distal mamelons. Prominent longitudinal fossae are indistinct. The lingual surface is flatter than the corresponding
ridges pass from the cusp tip down both the labial and the palatal surfaces. palatal surface of the maxillary permanent canine and simulates the lingual
A relatively frequent variation in the morphology of the incisal ridge is surface of the mandibular incisors. Viewed mesially and distally, the
the development of an accessory cusp on its distal arm. The labial surface wedge-shaped appearance of the canine is clear. These proximal surfaces
of the canine is marked by the longitudinal ridge, which extends from the are longer than those of the maxillary canine. The labiolingual diameter
cusp towards the cervical margin. The incisal part of the crown occupies of the crown near the cervix is less than the corresponding labiopalatal
at least one-third of the crown height. Note that, from this view, the mesial diameter of the maxillary canine.
arm of the incisal margin is shorter than the distal arm and the distoincisal The cervical margin of this tooth follows a course similar to that of the
angle is more rounded than the mesioincisal angle. The profiles of the incisors. The crownward convexity on the mesial surface is generally more
mesial and distal surfaces converge markedly towards the cervix of the marked than that on the distal surface. The root is normally single, though
tooth. The mesial profile is slightly convex, the distal profile markedly occasionally it may bifurcate. In cross-section, the root is oval, being flat-
convex. The mesial surface of the crown forms a straight line with the tened mesially and distally. The root is grooved longitudinally on both its
root, the distal surface meets the root at an obtuse angle. The palatal mesial and its distal surfaces.
surface shows distinct mesial and distal marginal ridges and a well defined
cingulum. The longitudinal ridge from the tip of the cusp meets the cin-
Maxillary deciduous canine
gulum and is separated from the marginal ridges on either side by distinct
grooves or fossae. Viewed mesially or distally, the distinctive feature is This tooth has a fang-like appearance and is similar morphologically to its
the stout character of the crown and the great width of the cervical third permanent successor, though more bulbous (Fig. 2.27). It is generally
of both the crown and the root. symmetrical but, where there is asymmetry, it is usual for the mesial slope
The cervical margin of this tooth follows a course similar to that of the of the cusp to be longer than the distal slope. Bulging of the tooth gives
incisors but the curves are less pronounced. The curvature of the cervical the crown a diamond-shaped appearance when viewed labially or palatally,
margin on the distal surface is less marked than that on the mesial surface. with the crown margins overhanging the root profiles. The width of the
The root is the largest and stoutest in the dentition and is triangular in crown is greater than its length. On the labial surface, there is a low cin-
cross-section (its labial surface being wider than its palatal surface). The gulum cervically, from which runs a longitudinal ridge up to the tip of the
mesial and distal surfaces of the root are often grooved longitudinally. cusp. A similar longitudinal ridge also runs on the palatal surface. This
ridge extends from the cusp apex to the palatal cingulum and divides the
palatal surface into two shallow pits. The marginal ridges on the palatal
Mandibular permanent canine
surface are low and indistinct.
This is similar to the maxillary canine but smaller, more slender and more The root is long compared with the crown height and is triangular in
symmetrical (Fig. 2.26). The cusp is generally less well developed: indeed, cross-section.
with attrition, the low cusp may be lost and the tooth may resemble a
maxillary second permanent incisor.
Mandibular deciduous canine
From the incisal aspect, there are no distinct longitudinal ridges from
the tip of the cusp on to the labial and lingual surfaces. Viewed labially, This is more slender than the maxillary deciduous canine (Fig. 2.28). The
the incisal margin occupies only one-fifth of the crown height and the cusp crown is asymmetrical and the cusp tip displaced mesially. Consequently,
is less pointed. The crown is narrower mesiodistally than that of the max- the mesial arm is shorter and more vertical than the distal arm. On the
illary canine so it appears longer, narrower and more slender. The mesial labial surface, there is a low, labial cingulum. On the lingual surface, the
and distal profiles tend to be parallel or only slightly convergent towards cingulum and marginal ridges are less pronounced than the corresponding
the cervix. The labial and mesial surfaces are clearly defined, being inclined structures on the palatal surface of the maxillary deciduous canine. The

Fig. 2.26 Mandibular right

permanent canine.
A = incisal view
B = labial surface
C = lingual surface
D = mesial surface
E = distal surface.

Fig. 2.27 Maxillary right deciduous

canine.
A = incisal view
B = labial surface
C = palatal surface
D = mesial surface
E = distal surface.
 DENTO-OSSEOUS STRUCTURES 19

Fig. 2.28 Mandibular right deciduous canine. A = incisal view; B = labial surface; Fig. 2.30 Maxillary first right premolar. A = occlusal surface; B = buccal surface;
C = lingual surface; D = mesial surface; E = distal surface. C = palatal surface; D = mesial surface; E = distal surface.

lars, however, are roughly rhomboidal in shape. The rhomboidal outline

is inclined lingually, thus allowing correct intercuspal contact with the
maxillary antagonists. Viewed buccally or lingually, all the premolars are
trapezoidal, the shortest of the uneven sides being the bases of the crowns
cervically.

Maxillary first premolar

When viewed occlusally, this tooth has a crown that appears ovoid, being
broader buccally than palatally (Fig. 2.30). Thus, the profiles of the mesial
and distal surfaces converge palatally. The mesiobuccal and distobuccal
corners are less rounded than the mesiopalatal and distopalatal corners.
The mesial and distal borders of the occlusal surface are marked by distinct
ridges, the mesial and distal marginal ridges. The buccal and palatal cusps
are separated by a central occlusal fissure that runs in a mesiodistal direc-
Fig. 2.29 Schematic drawings of premolar crown form, illustrating the relationship tion. The occlusal fissure crosses the mesial marginal ridge on to the mesial
between the anatomical and geometrical forms. Redrawn after Dr R.C. Wheeler.
surface. On the distal side, the fissure terminates in a fossa before the distal
marginal ridge. Supplementary grooves from the central fissure are rare.
Viewed buccally, the first premolar bears a distinct resemblance to the
adjacent canine. A longitudinal ridge may be seen passing down the buccal
cusp. The mesial and distal ridges of the buccal cusp each form a 30° slope
longitudinal ridges on both the labial and the lingual surfaces are poorly and the mesio- and disto-occlusal angles are prominent, giving the crown
developed. The width of the crown is less than the length. a ‘bulging-shouldered’ ovoid appearance. The mesial slope is generally
The root is single and tends to be triangular in cross-section. longer than the distal slope.
Viewed palatally, the buccal part of the crown appears larger in all
dimensions than the palatal part so that the entire buccal profile of the
PREMOLARS crown is visible from the palatal aspect. The palatal cusp is lower and its
Premolars are unique to the permanent dentition. They are sometimes tip lies more mesially than the tip of the buccal cusp.
referred to as ‘bicuspids’ because they have two main cusps – a buccal From the mesial aspect, the unequal height of the cusps is clearly seen.
and a palatal (or lingual) cusp – separated by a mesiodistal occlusal fissure. Note the canine groove extending across the marginal ridge from the
The buccal surface of the buccal cusp is similar in shape to the cusp of a occlusal surface. The cervical third of the mesial surface is marked by a
canine, to which it may be considered analogous, while the palatal or distinct concavity, the canine fossa.
lingual cusp corresponds developmentally to the cingulum of the anterior The distal aspect of the crown differs from the mesial aspect in that it
teeth. Thus, premolars are considered to be transitional between canines lacks a canine groove and a canine fossa.
and molars. The cervical margin follows a fairly level course around the crown,
Viewed mesially or distally, the maxillary premolars are trapezoidal in deviating slightly towards the root on the buccal and palatal surfaces and
shape, the longest side of the trapezoid being the base of the crown at the away from the root on the mesial and distal surfaces. There are usually
cervical margin (Fig. 2.29). It is thought that, because the occlusal surface two roots, a buccal and palatal root, although sometimes there is only a
is not as wide as the base of the crown, the tooth can penetrate the food single root. However, even a single root is deeply grooved on its mesial
more easily while minimizing the occlusal forces. The mandibular premo- and distal surfaces.
 20 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

Fig. 2.31 Maxillary second right premolar. A = occlusal surface; B = buccal surface; Fig. 2.32 Mandibular first right premolar. A = occlusal surface; B = buccal surface;
C = palatal surface; D = mesial surface; E = distal surface. C = lingual surface; D = mesial surface; E = distal surface.

Maxillary second premolar

This tooth (Fig. 2.31) is similar in shape to the maxillary first premolar,
except for the following features. Viewed occlusally, the mesiobuccal and
distobuccal corners are more rounded and the mesial and distal profiles do
not converge lingually, being nearly parallel. The occlusal surface appears
more compressed, the mesiodistal dimension of the crown being smaller.
The central fissure appears shorter and does not cross the mesial marginal
ridge. From the buccal aspect, the mesio- and disto-occlusal angles are
less prominent. These features give the crown a ‘narrow-shouldered’
appearance. The two cusps are smaller and more equal in size than those
of the first premolar. The height of the buccal cusp is one-quarter of the
height of the crown measured from the base of the occlusal fissure, while
the height of the buccal cusp of the first premolar is up to one-half the
height of the crown. Viewed palatally, less of the buccal profile is visible.
Mesially and distally, the tooth appears similar to the first premolar but
there is no canine fossa or canine groove on the mesial surface.
The cervical margin appears similar to that of the maxillary first premo- Fig. 2.33 Mandibular second right premolar. A = occlusal surface; B = buccal
lar but is slightly less undulating. The root is single. surface; C = lingual surface; D = mesial surface; E = distal surface.

profile is more curved than the distal. The buccal surface is markedly
The mandibular premolars differ from the maxillary premolars in that
convex in all planes. From the lingual aspect, the entire buccal profile and
occlusally the crowns appear rounder and the cusps are of unequal size,
the occlusal surface are visible. Thus, the mandibular first premolar differs
the buccal cusp being the most prominent. Furthermore, the first and
from other premolars in that the occlusal plane does not lie perpendicular
second premolars differ more markedly from each other than do the max-
to the long axis of the tooth but is inclined lingually. The tilt of the occlu-
illary premolars.
sal plane can also be appreciated from the mesial and distal aspects.
The cervical line follows an almost level course around the tooth. The
Mandibular first premolar
root is single, conical, and oval to nearly round in cross-section. The root
This is the smallest premolar (Fig. 2.32). As it comprises a dominant is grooved longitudinally both mesially and distally, the mesial groove
buccal cusp and a very small lingual cusp that appears not unlike a cingu- being the more prominent.
lum, some consider it to be a modified canine. From the occlusal aspect,
Mandibular second premolar
more than two-thirds of the buccal surface is visible, although only a small
portion of the lingual surface can be seen. The occlusal outline is diamond- The mandibular second premolar (Fig. 2.33) differs from the mandibular
shaped and the occlusal table, outlined by the cusps and marginal ridges, first premolar in a number of respects. Its crown is generally larger. The
is triangular. The buccal cusp is broad with its apex approximately overly- lingual cusp is better developed, although it is not quite as large as the
ing the midpoint of the crown. The lingual cusp is less than half the size buccal cusp. From the occlusal aspect, its outline appears round or square,
of the buccal cusp. The buccal and lingual cusps are connected by a blunt, the mesial and distal profiles being straight and parallel. The mesiodistal
transverse ridge that divides the poorly developed mesiodistal occlusal occlusal fissure between the cusps is well defined. However, like the first
fissure into mesial and distal fossae. The mesial fossa is generally smaller premolar, the fissure ends in mesial and distal fossae, the distal fossa being
than the distal fossa. A canine groove often extends from the mesial fossa generally larger than the mesial. Unlike the first premolar, a transverse
over the mesial marginal ridge on to the mesiolingual surface of the crown. ridge does not usually join the apices of the cusps. Accessory cusplets are
Viewed buccally, the crown is nearly symmetrical, although the mesial common on both buccal and lingual cusps. The lingual cusp is usually
 DENTO-OSSEOUS STRUCTURES 21

Fig. 2.34 Schematic drawings of molar crown form, illustrating the relationship Fig. 2.35 Maxillary first right permanent molar. A = occlusal surface; B = buccal
between the anatomical and geometrical forms. Redrawn after Dr R.C. Wheeler. surface; C = palatal surface, D = mesial surface; E = distal surface.

subdivided into mesiolingual and distolingual cusps, the mesiolingual cusp An accessory cusplet of variable size may be seen on the palatal surface
being wider and higher than the distolingual. The groove separating the of the mesiopalatal cusp. This cusplet is termed the tubercle of Carabelli
mesiolingual and distolingual cusps lies opposite the tip of the buccal cusp. and is found on about 60% of maxillary first permanent molars. The
From the buccal aspect, the crown of the second premolar is symmetrical. trigone has a central fossa from which a fissure extends mesially to termi-
From this view, the buccal cusp generally appears shorter and more nate in a mesial pit before the mesial marginal ridge. Another fissure
rounded than that of the mandibular first premolar. Lingually, little if any extends buccally from the central fossa to pass on to the buccal surface of
of the occlusal surface and buccal profile is visible. From the mesial and the crown between the two buccal cusps. The distopalatal cusp of the talon
distal aspects, the occlusal surface appears horizontal to the long axis of is generally the smallest cusp of the tooth and is separated from the
the tooth, unlike the mandibular first premolar. The crown is wider buc- mesiopalatal cusp by a distopalatal fissure, which curves distally to end in
colingually than that of the first premolar and the buccal cusp does not a distal pit before the distal marginal ridge. The oblique ridge may be
incline as far over the root. The mesial marginal ridge is higher than the crossed by a shallow fissure, which connects the central fossa of the trigone
distal marginal ridge. with the distopalatal fissure and distal pit of the talon, completing the H-
The cervical margin follows an almost level course around the tooth. shaped fissure pattern. That the tips of the palatal cusps are situated nearer
The root is single, conical, and nearly round in cross-section. the mid-mesiodistal diameter of the crown than those of the buccal cusps
is characteristic of maxillary molars.
MOLARS From the buccal aspect, the buccal cusps are seen to be approximately
equal in height, although the mesiobuccal cusp is wider than the distobuc-
Molars present the largest occlusal surfaces of all teeth. They have three
cal cusp. The buccal surface is convex in its cervical third but relatively
to five major cusps (although the maxillary first deciduous molar has only
flat in its middle and occlusal thirds. The buccal groove extends from the
two). Molars are the only teeth that have more than one buccal cusp.
occlusal table, passing between the cusps to end about halfway up the
Generally, the lower molars have two roots while the upper have three.
buccal surface. The mesial profile is convex in its occlusal and middle
The permanent molars do not have deciduous predecessors.
thirds but flat, or even concave, in the cervical third. The distal profile, on
As for the premolars, the maxillary molars are approximately trapezoi-
the other hand, is convex in all regions.
dal when viewed mesially and distally, while the mandibular molars are
Viewed palatally, the disproportion in size between the mesiopalatal and
rhomboidal. Viewed buccally or lingually, the molars are trapezoidal (Fig.
distopalatal cusps is most evident. The mesiopalatal cusp is blunt and
2.34).
occupies approximately three-fifths of the mesiodistal width of the palatal
surface. The palatal surface is more or less uniformly convex in all regions.
Maxillary first permanent molar
A palatal groove extends from the distal pit on to the occlusal surface
This is usually the largest molar in each quadrant (Fig. 2.35). Viewed between the palatal cusps to terminate approximately halfway up the
occlusally, the crown is rhomboid in outline. The mesiopalatal and disto- palatal surface.
buccal angles are obtuse. The longest diameter of the crown runs from the From the mesial and distal aspects, the maximum buccopalatal dimen-
mesiobuccal to the distopalatal corners. It has four major cusps separated sion is at the cervica1 margin, from which the buccal and palatal profiles
by an irregular H-shaped occlusal fissure. The occlusal table may be converge occlusally. The mesial marginal ridge is more prominent than the
divided into two distinct components (the trigone and talon) by an oblique distal ridge and may have a number of distinct tubercles, although such
ridge, which passes diagonally across the occlusal table from the mesio- tubercles are rare on the distal marginal ridge.
palatal cusp to the distobuccal cusp. The trigone bears the mesiobuccal, The cervical margin follows a fairly even contour around the tooth.
mesiopalatal and distobuccal cusps and the talon bears the distopalatal There are three roots, two buccal and one palatal, arising from a common
cusp. The trigone is characteristically triangular in shape, the apex of the root stalk. The palatal root is the longest and strongest and is circular
triangle being directed palatally. The mesiopalatal cusp is the largest, the in cross-section. The buccal roots are more slender and are flattened
buccal cusps being smaller and of approximately equal size. The buccal mesiodistally; the mesiobuccal root is usually the larger and wider of the
cusps form the base of the trigone. The mesial marginal ridge forms the two. At the root stalk, the palatal root is more commonly related to the
mesial side of the trigone and its distal side is formed by the oblique ridge. distobuccal root than to the mesiobuccal root.
 22 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

Fig. 2.36 Maxillary second right permanent molar. A = occlusal surface; B = buccal
surface; C = palatal surface; D = mesial surface; E = distal surface.
Fig. 2.37 Mandibular first right permanent molar. A = occlusal surface; B = buccal
surface; C = lingual surface; D = mesial surface; E = distal surface.
Maxillary second permanent molar
This closely resembles the maxillary first permanent molar but shows
3. The crowns of the lower molars are oblong, being broader mesio-
some reduction in size and slightly different cusp relationships (Fig. 2.36).
distally than buccolingually.
Viewed occlusally, the rhomboid form is more pronounced than in the first
4. The fissure pattern is cross-shaped.
molar and the oblique ridge is smaller. The talon (distopalatal fissure cusp)
5. The lingual cusps are of more equal size.
is considerably reduced. The occlusal fissure pattern is similar to that of
6. The tips of the buccal cusps are shifted lingually so that, from the
the first molar but is more variable, and supplemental grooves are more
occlusal view, the whole of the buccal surface is visible.
numerous. Two features of the buccal surface differentiate the second
molar: the smaller size of the crown and the distobuccal cusp. From the
palatal view, the reduction in size of the distopalatal cusp is more visible. Mandibular first permanent molar
A tubercle of Carabelli is not usually found on the mesiopalatal cusp. The
The crown of this tooth, when viewed occlusally, is somewhat pentagonal
mesial and distal surfaces differ little from those of the first molar, except
in outline (Fig. 2.37). It is broader mesiodistally than buccolingually. The
that the tubercles on the mesial marginal ridge are less numerous and less
occlusal surface is divided into buccal and lingual parts by a mesiodistal
pronounced.
occlusal fissure, which arises from a deep central fossa. The buccal side
As for the maxillary first molar, the second molar has three roots, two
of the occlusal table has three distinct cusps: mesiobuccal, distobuccal and
buccal and one palatal. However, they are shorter and less divergent than
distal. Each cusp is separated by a groove, which joins the mesiodistal
those of the first molar and may be partly fused. The apex of the mesiobuc-
fissure. On the lingual side are two cusps: mesiolingual and distolingual.
cal root is generally in line with the centre of the crown, unlike that of the
The fissure separating the lingual cusps joins the mesiodistal fissure in the
first molar, which generally lies in line with the tip of the mesiobuccal
region of the central fossa. The lingual cusps tend to be larger and more
cusp.
pointed, although they are not disproportionately larger than the mesio-
Variations in morphology of the maxillary second permanent molar are
buccal and distobuccal cusps. The tips of the buccal cusps are displaced
quite common. Total reduction of the distopalatal cusp such that only the
lingually, are rounded, and are lower than the lingual cusps. The smallest
trigone remains is frequent. Less frequently, the crown may appear com-
cusp is the distal cusp, which is displaced slightly towards the buccal
pressed because of fusion of the mesiopalatal and distobuccal cusps, result-
surface. In 90% of cases, the mesiolingual cusp is joined to the distobuc-
ing in an oval crown possessing three cusps in a straight line.
cal cusp across the floor of the central fossa. This feature, and the five-
cusped pattern, is termed the Dryopithecus pattern. This ‘primitive’ pattern
Maxillary third permanent molar
is characteristic of all the lower molars of the anthropoid apes and their
Being the most variable in the dentition, this tooth is not illustrated. Its early ancestors, the dryopithecines. Because of the resulting Y-shaped
morphology may range from that characteristic of the adjacent maxillary fissure pattern and the five cusps, the Dryopithecus pattern is sometimes
permanent molars to a rounded, triangular crown with a deep central fossa referred to as a ‘Y5’ pattern. In the 10% of cases where the mesiobuccal
from which numerous irregular fissures radiate outwards. Most commonly, and distolingual cusps meet, a more cruciate system of fissures is pro-
the crown is triangular in shape, having the three cusps of the trigone but duced: this is sometimes referred to as a ‘+5’ pattern.
no talon. The roots are often fused and irregular in form. Third permanent From the buccal aspect, three cusps are seen, the distal cusp being the
molars are the teeth most often absent congenitally. smallest. The fissure separating the mesiobuccal and distobuccal cusps
arises from the central fossa on the occlusal surface and terminates halfway
Differences between maxillary and mandibular molars up the buccal surface in a buccal pit. The buccal surface appears markedly
convex, especially at the cervical third of the crown. This convexity is
The mandibular molars differ from the maxillary molars in the following
associated with the characteristic lingual inclination of the buccal cusps.
respects.
From the lingual aspect, although the two lingual cusps are nearly equal
1. The mandibular molars have two roots, one mesial and one distal. in size, the mesiolingual cusp appears slightly larger. The fissure between
2. They are considered to be derived from a five-cusped form. the lingual cusps arises from the central fossa on the occlusal surface but
 DENTO-OSSEOUS STRUCTURES 23

Fig. 2.39 Maxillary first right deciduous molar. A = occlusal surface; B = buccal
Fig. 2.38 Mandibular second right permanent molar. A = occlusal surface; surface; C = palatal surface; D = mesial surface; E = distal surface.
B = buccal surface; C = lingual surface; D = mesial surface; E = distal surface.

does not extend a significant way down the lingual surface. The lingual
Mandibular third permanent molar
surface is convex in its occlusal and middle thirds but is flat or concave
cervically. Part of the buccal profiles and proximal surfaces may be seen. This has a variable morphology, although not as variable as that of the
Viewed mesially, the mesial marginal ridge joining the mesiobuccal and maxillary third permanent molar. Its clinical significance lies in the fact
mesiolingual cusps is V-shaped, being notched at its midpoint. The mesial that it is commonly impacted. It is the smallest of the mandibular molars
surface is flat or concave cervically and convex in its middle and occlusal but can be as large as the mandibular first molar. The crown usually has
thirds. four or five cusps. In shape, it is normally a rounded rectangle or circular.
From the distal aspect, the distal marginal ridge joining the distal and Its occlusal fissure pattern is generally very irregular. As a rule, the roots
distolingual cusps also appears V-shaped. The cervical third of the distal are greatly reduced in size and are fused. They show a marked distal
surface is relatively flat, the middle and occlusal thirds highly convex. inclination.
Thus, the distal surface is more convex than the mesial surface because of
the distal cusp. The proximal views of the illustration highlight the greater
Maxillary first deciduous molar
convex slope of the buccal surface compared with the lingual surface.
The cervical margin follows a uniform contour around the tooth. The This is the most atypical of all molars, deciduous or permanent (Fig. 2.39).
two roots, one mesial and one distal, arise from a common root stalk. They In form it appears intermediate between a premolar and a molar. It is the
are both markedly flattened mesiodistally and the mesial root is usually smallest molar.
deeply grooved. Both roots curve distally. Viewed occlusally, the crown is an irregular quadrilateral with the
buccal and palatal surfaces lying parallel to one another. However, the
mesiobuccal corner is extended to produce a prominent bulge, the molar
Mandibular second permanent molar
tubercle. If crowns are to be fitted, this bulge may have to be smoothed
When viewed occlusally, the crown exhibits a regular, rectangular shape over because of the undercut. The mesiopalatal angle is markedly obtuse.
(Fig. 2.38); the buccal profile is thus nearly equal in length to the lingual The tooth is generally bicuspid; the buccal (more pronounced) and palatal
profile, unlike the mandibular first permanent molar. There are four cusps, cusps are separated by an occlusal fissure that runs mesiodistally. A shallow
the mesiobuccal and mesiolingual cusps being slightly larger than the disto- buccal fissure may extend from the central mesiodistal fissure to divide
buccal and distolingual cusps. The cusps are separated by a cross-shaped the buccal cusp into two, the mesial part being the larger. The lingual cusp
occlusal fissure pattern, which may be complicated by numerous suppl- also may be subdivided into two. The tips of the cusps converge towards
emental grooves. From the buccal aspect, the crown appears smaller than the midline, reducing the occlusal surface of the tooth. From the buccal
that of the first molar. A fissure extends between the buccal cusps from the aspect, the crown appears squat, its height being less than its width. On
occlusal surface and terminates approximately halfway up the buccal the mesial side lies the buccal cingulum, which extends to the molar
surface. Like that of the mandibular first molar, the buccal surface is highly tubercle. From the palatal aspect, the palatal surface appears shorter mesi-
convex. From the lingual aspect the buccal profiles and proximal surfaces odistally than the buccal surface, the profile of which can be seen from
are not visible and the crown is noticeably shorter than the first molar. The this view. The mesial and distal views show the cervical bulbosity of the
mesial and distal aspects of the second molar resemble those of the first buccal and palatal surfaces. Note the prominent molar tubercle mesially.
molar although, because there is no distal cusp, the proximal surfaces are Marginal ridges link the buccal and palatal cusps. No fissure crosses the
more equal in terms of their convexity. The mesial and distal marginal ridges marginal ridges.
do not converge and are not as markedly notched at their midpoint. The tooth has three roots (two buccal and one palatal), which arise from
The mesial and distal roots are flattened mesiodistally and are smaller a common root stalk. The mesiobuccal root is flattened mesiodistally, the
and less divergent than those of the first molar. They may be partly fused. distobuccal root is smaller and more circular, and the palatal root is the
The mesial root is not as broad as that of the first molar and the distal largest and is round in cross-section. The distobuccal and palatal roots may
inclination of the roots is usually more marked. be partly fused.
 24 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

Fig. 2.40 Maxillary second right deciduous molar. A = occlusal surface; B = buccal Fig. 2.42 Mandibular second right deciduous molar. A = occlusal surface;
surface; C = palatal surface; D = mesial surface; E = distal surface. B = buccal surface; C = lingual surface; D = mesial surface; E = distal surface.

cusp occupies at least two-thirds of the crown area and projects higher
occlusally than the distobuccal cusp. The distal slopes of the buccal cusps
are longer than the mesial. The profile of the mesial surface appears flat,
whereas that of the distal surface is convex. The molar tubercle on the
mesial corner of the buccal surface can be seen in this view. From the
lingual aspect, the cusps are conical in shape. The distolingual cusp appears
only as a bulging protuberance on the distal margin. Mesially and distally,
the buccal and lingual aspects converge towards the midline of the crown.
The mesial marginal ridge is more prominent than the distal marginal
ridge. Note the bulge associated with the buccal cingulum near the cervi-
cal margin of the mesiobuccal cusp.
The mandibular first deciduous molar has two divergent roots, mesial and
distal, which are flattened mesiodistally. The mesial root is often grooved.

Mandibular second deciduous molar

Fig. 2.41 Mandibular first right deciduous molar. A = occlusal surface; B = buccal This is a smaller version of the mandibular first permanent molar (see
surface; C = lingual surface; D = mesial surface; E = distal surface.
Fig. 2.37), although it is narrower, whiter and has widely diverging roots
(Fig. 2.42). Other distinguishing features are the cingulum on the mesiobuc-
cal corner of the crown, the greater convexity of the mesial and distal
Maxillary second deciduous molar surfaces and the more extensive central fossa on the occlusal surface. The
mesiolingual and distobuccal cusps are not usually joined to give the
The maxillary second deciduous molar (Fig. 2.40) closely resembles the
Dryopithecus pattern.
maxillary first permanent molar (see Fig. 2.35), although its size, whiteness,
widely diverging roots and low buccal cingulum ought to distinguish it. A
The average dimensions of the permanent and deciduous teeth are listed
tubercle of Carabelli on the mesiopalatal cusp is often well developed.
in Tables 2.2 and 2.3.

Mandibular first deciduous molar SOME ASPECTS OF DENTAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Unlike the maxillary first deciduous molar, this is molariform but has a Dental anthropology relates to the study of teeth and how such information
number of unique features (Fig. 2.41). From the occlusal aspect the crown can shed light on human development and relationships of both past and
appears elongated mesiodistally and is an irregular quadrilateral with par- present populations. This topic involves detailed descriptions of the normal
allel buccal and lingual surfaces. The mesiobuccal corner is extended, development and morphology of the crowns and their roots and of the type
forming a molar tubercle, and the mesiolingual angle markedly obtuse. of variation found. Additional important information may be gleaned about
The occlusal table can be divided into buccal and lingual parts by a living conditions from features such as the presence of dental mutilations
mesiodistal fissure. The buccal part consists of two cusps, the mesiobuccal (altering tooth form for cultural purposes), the nature of tooth wear (both
cusp being larger than the distobuccal cusp. The lingual part of the tooth attrition and abrasion) and the types and degrees of pathologies such as
is narrower than the buccal part and has two cusps separated by a lingual periodontal disease and dental caries. Even more specialized information
fissure, the mesiolingual cusp being larger than the distolingual cusp. The relating to diet and climate can further be gleaned by the nature of radio-
buccal cusps are larger than the lingual cusps. A transverse ridge may isotopes in the enamel and dentine (see pages 381, 382).
connect the mesial cusps, dividing the mesiodistal fissure into a distal A particular aim of dental anthropology is to use the morphology of
fissure and a mesial pit. Often a distal pit is found just mesial to the distal teeth as a means of determining the relationships between populations.
marginal ridge. A supplemental groove from the mesial pit may extend Thus, if the same highly heritable dental variants occur with a similar
over the mesial marginal ridge. From the buccal aspect, the mesiobuccal frequency in two populations, then the populations are likely to have a
 DENTO-OSSEOUS STRUCTURES 25

Fig. 2.43 Arizona State University reference plaque

detailing scoring system for shovelling on the
maxillary second incisor. 0 = None: Lingual surface
is essentially flat. 1 = Faint: Very slight elevations of
mesial and distal aspects of lingual surface can be
seen and palpated. 2 = Trace: Elevations are easily
seen. 3 = Semishovel: Stronger ridging is present
and there is a tendency for ridge convergence at
the cingulum. 4 = Semishovel: Convergence and
ridging are stronger than in grade 3. 5 = Shovel:
Strong development of ridges, which almost contact
at the cingulum. 6 = Marked shovel: Strongest
development. Mesial and distal lingual ridges are
sometimes in contact at the cingulum. 7 = (maxillary
first and second incisors only) Barrel: Expression
exceeds grade 6. Turner CG II, Nichol CR, Scott GR
1991 Scoring procedures for key morphological
traits of the permanent dentition: The Arizona State
University dental anthropology system. In: Kelley
MA, Larsen CS (eds) Advances in dental anthropol-
ogy. Wiley–Liss, New York, pp 13–31. Courtesy of
Drs D. Hawksey and S. Haddow.

Fig. 2.44 Arizona State University reference plaque

detailing scoring system for the distolingual cusp
(hypocone) in maxillary molars. 0 = No hypocone.
Site is smooth. 1 = Faint ridging present at the site.
2 = Faint cuspule present. 3 = Small cusp present
but not shown. 3.5 = Moderate sized cusp present.
4 = Large cusp present. 5 = Very large cusp present.
Turner CG II, Nichol CR, Scott GR 1991 Scoring
procedures for key morphological traits of the
permanent dentition: The Arizona State University
dental anthropology system. In: Kelley MA, Larsen
CS (eds) Advances in dental anthropology. Wiley–
Liss, New York, pp 13–31. Courtesy of Drs D.
Hawksey and S. Haddow.

Fig. 2.45 Arizona State University reference plaque

detailing scoring system for the parastyle, most
commonly appearing on the buccal surface of the
mesiobuccal cusp (the paracone) of the maxillary
third molar. 0 = The buccal surfaces of the buccal
cusps are smooth. 1 = A pit is present in or near
the buccal groove between the buccal cusps. 2 = A
small cusp with an attached apex is present. 3 = A
medium sized cusp with a free apex is present. 4 = A large cusp with a free apex is
high degree of affinity. These anthropological studies generally utilize present. 5 = A very large cusp with a free apex is present. This form usually
complex statistical analyses on groups of traits, rather than a single feature. involves the buccal surface of both buccal cusps. 6 = An effectively free, peg-
Where frequencies of the features are low, a large sample size is necessary. shaped crown attached to the root of the third molar is present. This condition is
This is particularly relevant when considering the evolution of early extremely rare, and is not shown on the plaque. Turner CG II, Nichol CR, Scott GR
humans, when teeth may be the only physical traces that are preserved. 1991 Scoring procedures for key morphological traits of the permanent dentition:
The Arizona State University dental anthropology system. In: Kelley MA, Larsen CS
Very few of the dental features to be discussed have a simple mendelian (eds) Advances in dental anthropology. Wiley–Liss, New York, pp 13–31. Courtesy
type of inheritance (i.e. autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, sex- of Drs D. Hawksey and S. Haddow.
linked conditions). Therefore, their inheritance depends on a number of
genes (polygenic) but varies minimally in response to environmental
factors. As an introduction to the topic, the following section will deal with The preceding description of the morphology of teeth is, of necessity,
aspects of tooth morphology. only generalized and is related to that found in western Eurasia. However,
Two broad divisions of dental features can be considered. Metric fea- superimposed on the basic shapes of teeth described are a number of other
tures are those considered to be readily amenable to direct quantification, morphological variations affecting both deciduous and permanent teeth.
such as crown length, breadth and height. Such measurements are uncom- In any population, these may be absent or present and display a varying
plicated in newly erupted and unworn teeth. However, when the teeth have degree of penetrance ranging from barely perceptible to very prominent.
been functioning in the mouth, allowance must be made for any loss of Because of the present difficulty in accurately quantifying such features
dental tissues due to attrition and abrasion. The overall size of teeth in within a reasonable period of time, these traits are considered to be
males is slightly greater (2–6%) than in females. This feature, especially non-metric features. However, to allow research scientists to attain some
in the case of lower canines, can be used in some circumstances to help common agreement as to the degree of penetrance, a series of casts
separate dentitions according to sex. The teeth of females also erupt (plaques) for each feature with wide international acceptance has been
slightly earlier than their male counterparts. Using multivariate analysis, produced by Arizona State University and disseminated to researchers in
the size of teeth is also valuable in helping to distinguish different geo- the field, three of which are illustrated in Figures 2.43–2.45.
graphical populations, the largest crowns in living populations being found Over 100 secondary dental traits have been described in the literature,
in Aboriginal Australians and the smallest among Asians and Europeans. but only the more common are indicated below.
 26 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

Fig. 2.46 Shovel-shaped maxillary permanent lateral incisors. Courtesy of the Royal
College of Surgeons of England.

Fig. 2.49 Palatal surface of maxillary permanent canines showing prominent

tubercles. Courtesy of the Royal College of Surgeons of England.

Fig. 2.47 Peg-shaped maxillary Fig. 2.50 Two-rooted mandibular permanent canines. Courtesy of the Royal
Fig. 2.48 Maxillary permanent second College of Surgeons of England.
permanent second incisor.
incisor exhibiting a prominent palatal
tubercle and a deeply grooved root.
Courtesy of the Royal College of
Surgeons of England. Cingulum traits. These are found on the palatal surface of the maxillary
teeth and are reflected as variations in the nature of the cingulum and as-
sociate ridges, fossa and grooves (e.g. interruption grooves), especially in
relation to the second incisor and canine (Figs 2.48, 2.49).
Traits found in incisors and canine teeth
Canine ridges. This trait relates to extra ridging occurring on the mesial
Shovel-shaped incisors. Exaggerated and extensive mesial and distal (Bushman canine) or distal slope of the cusp of the maxillary canine.
marginal ridges combine to result in an exaggerated palatal concavity. This
gives the crown a shovel shape (Fig. 2.46). The ridging may extend on to Winging of maxillary first incisors. Although not related to any varia-
the labial surface, giving rise to a ‘double-shovelled’ appearance. While it tion in form, this trait concerns variation in the orientation of the teeth.
may be present on all the anterior teeth, shovelling is predominantly found Instead of the first incisors being straight and arranged along the dental
in the maxillary incisors. arch, they are inclined mesially and their incisal edges form a V shape.

Maxillary second incisor traits. This tooth has the most variable form Root variation. Whereas the root in all anterior teeth is usually single,
in the dentition (apart from third molars), one common variant being that of the mandibular canine in some populations may show evidence of
‘peg-shaped’ (Fig. 2.47). bifurcation at the apex in 5–10% of cases (Fig. 2.50).
 DENTO-OSSEOUS STRUCTURES 27

a b

Fig. 2.51 Three rooted maxillary first premolar: (a) View from front; (b) Viewed Fig. 2.52 Two-rooted mandibular first premolars. Courtesy of the Royal College of
from side. Surgeons of England.

Traits found in premolar teeth

Accessory marginal tubercles. These tubercles are associated with the
distal marginal ridge of maxillary premolars.

Odontome. This rare trait is a tubercle that can occur on the inner surface
of the buccal cusp of premolars. It overlies a pulp horn in about half the
cases.

Accessory buccal ridges. These lie within the normal mesial and distal
marginal ridges associated with the buccal cusp and are more common in
the maxillary premolars than the mandibular.

Disto-sagittal ridge (Uto-Aztecan premolar). This trait, found in the

maxillary first premolar of Native Americans, is characterized by distal
displacement of the buccal cusp, associated with which is a distal fossa.

Additional lingual cusps. Instead of the typical single lingual cusp Fig. 2.53 Maxillary right permanent Fig. 2.54 Six-cusped mandibular
third molar exhibiting a parastyle. permanent molar. Courtesy of the Royal
present in mandibular second premolars, this trait relates to the presence of
Courtesy of the Royal College of College of Surgeons of England.
up to three cusps (cusplets). Surgeons of England.

Root traits. Instead of the normal two roots (very rarely one), the first
maxillary premolar tooth may have one or three roots (Fig. 2.51). Simi- Paramolar tubercle (parastyle). This trait is represented by the presence
larly, the normal single-rooted mandibular first premolar may present with of a tubercle on the buccal side of the mesiobuccal cusp (Fig. 2.53).
two roots instead of one (Fig. 2.52).
Enamel extensions. Thin extensions of enamel in the region of the root
bifurcation, especially on the buccal surface, may occur in maxillary and
Traits found in molar teeth
mandibular molar teeth (as well as premolars).
Maxillary molars
Root traits. The typical number of three roots generally present on the
Cusplet (tubercle) of Carabelli. This cusplet is situated on the palatal
first molar may be reduced to one or two in the second molar.
surface of the mesiopalatal cusp and is primarily considered with respect
to the first molar tooth. It may be absent or show varying degrees of
penetrance (see page 21). Mandibular molars
Four cusp form. While the first molar generally has five cusps, the second
Distopalatal cusp. While this cusp is invariably present on the first molar, molar may be reduced to a four cusp form because of loss of the distal
it may show variable degrees of reduction in the second molar tooth. cusp.

Accessory tubercles on the marginal ridge. This trait can occur on both Six or seven cusp forms. An additional cusp (cusp 6) may occur on the
the mesial and the distal marginal ridges, primarily involving the first mo- first molar between the distolingual and distal cusps (Fig. 2.54). A fur-
lar. Generally single on the distal marginal ridge (where it has been referred ther cusp (cusp 7) may occur between the mesiolingual and distolingual
to as cusp 5), it may be multiple on the mesial marginal ridge. cusps.
 28 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

Geographical variation in dentitions

It is possible to distinguish the dentitions of different geographical popula-
tions according to the distribution of the dental traits described above.
Although individual dental traits may occur at high frequencies in selective
populations, it is necessary to catalogue the distribution of many dental
traits in helping to identify the population with more certainty. A popula-
tion may be categorized by some traits occurring at high frequencies, some
traits at low frequencies and others at intermediate frequencies. For
example, shovel-shaped incisors have a mean frequency of about 3% in
eastern Europeans and about 85% in Native Americans. Six-cusped lower
first molars have a mean frequency of about 4% in European populations
compared with over 50% in Aboriginal Australians. From detailed exam-
ination of the dentition, it is possible to construct a complex of dental traits
that helps distinguish one geographical human population from another,
allowing for the possibility of separating human populations into related
Fig. 2.55 Mandibular molars showing variation in fissure pattern and number of
cusps. groups.
A major classification of the geographical subdivisions of humanity
considers it capable of being divided into five major groupings.

Western Eurasia/Caucasoids (to include western Europe, northern

Europe and North Africa). The dental traits that occur with the highest
frequencies compared to other groups are two-rooted mandibular canines
and four-cusped first and second mandibular molars. In many other respects
dental traits occur with an intermediate frequency, indicating that the group
is defined more by a comparative absence of traits rather than by their
presence.

Sub-Saharan Africa (to include West and South Africa). Among the
traits that occur with high frequency in this group are the presence of a
mesial canine ridge on the maxillary canine, a cusp 7 on mandibular first
molars and a ‘Y’ fissure pattern on the mandibular second molar. There is a
low degree of root traits and four-cusped mandibular second molars.

Sinu-Americas (to include China–Mongolia, Japan, North and South

Fig. 2.56 Three-rooted mandibular permanent molar. Courtesy of the Royal America, Siberia and the Eskimo–Aleuts of the American Arctic). This
College of Surgeons of England.
group is generally most easily recognized by the high frequency of many
dental traits, such as shovelling of incisors, winging, enamel extensions,
Paramolar tubercle (protostylid). As with the maxillary teeth, the man-
odontomes in premolars, and the low frequency of two-rooted maxillary
dibular molars may exhibit the presence of a tubercle on the buccal side of
first premolars and three-rooted maxillary second molars.
the mesiobuccal cusp.
Sunda–Pacific (to include Southeast Asia, Polynesia and Micronesia).
Fissure pattern. The classification of the fissure pattern is primarily de-
This group seems to have no characteristic dental trait occurring with a
pendent on the type of contact between the cusps in the central fossa region.
high frequency that might help characterize the group, but shows inter-
If the mesiolingual and distobuccal cusps contact to intervene between the
mediate frequency of many traits (e.g. shovelling, winging, odontomes)
mesiobuccal and distolingual cusps, then the fissure pattern is said to have
that help to characterize their dentitions.
a ‘Y’ configuration. If the reverse is the case, the configuration is said to be
an ‘X’ pattern. If the four cusps meet equally at the base of the fissure, the
Sahul–Pacific (to include Australia, New Guinea and Melanesia). This
pattern is described as a ‘+’ (Fig. 2.55).
group, like the Sunda–Pacific population, has few dental traits occurring
at high frequency; the dentition is more characterized by a low frequency
Ridges on the first molar. The presence of an accessory ridge parallel-
of many traits.
ling the mesial marginal ridge isolates an anterior fossa (fovea or precuspi-
dal fossa). Another ridge may connect the two mesial cusps (distal trigonid
crest). The crest passing from the mesiolingual cusp to the central fossa
may be angulated (deflecting wrinkle). PULP MORPHOLOGY

Root traits. Whereas the mandibular molars normally have two roots, The dental pulp occupies the pulp chamber in the crown of the tooth and
three roots may be present (Fig. 2.56), a trait associated particularly with the root canal(s) in the root(s). The pulp chamber conforms, in basic shape,
first molars. The second molar may possess only a single root. to the external form of the crown (Fig. 2.57). Root canal anatomy varies
Two additional features are often incorporated into anthropological with tooth type and root morphology. At the apex of the root, the root canal
investigations of dental variation, even though they are not strictly mor- becomes continuous with the periapical periodontal tissues through an
phological features. These are hypodontia (the frequency of missing teeth) apical foramen. Knowledge of the morphology of the pulp chamber and
and hyperdontia (the frequency of supernumerary teeth). root canal is clinically significant: for example, when removing caries and
 DENTO-OSSEOUS STRUCTURES 29

A B
A

B C

Fig. 2.58 Schematic representation of the pulp

morphology of the maxillary first permanent incisor.
Fig. 2.57 Ground section of a molar tooth showing Fig. 2.59 Sectioned maxillary first permanent incisor
the pulp chamber (A) and root canals (B, C). demonstrating pulp morphology. A = labial; B = palatal.

restoring teeth, it is important to avoid exposing the pulp. Furthermore,

when the pulp is diseased and must be removed and replaced with a filling
material (root canal therapy), it is essential to remove and replace all the
pulp tissue and avoid injuring the periapical supporting tissues.
In the general descriptions of the pulp morphology in teeth of the per-
manent dentition that follow, each tooth is illustrated from the labial
(buccal) and distal surfaces. The red outline shows the pulp cavity in the
young tooth, the blue outline shows the pulp in the old tooth. In anterior
teeth, the pulp chambers merge almost imperceptibly into the root canals.
In the premolar and molar teeth, the pulp chambers and root canals are
distinct. Pulp horns (or cornua) extend from the pulp chambers to the
Fig. 2.60 Schematic representation of the pulp morphology of the maxillary
mesial and distal angles of the incisor tooth crowns and towards the cusps second permanent incisor.
of posterior teeth. Each root most often contains one root canal, but two
are not unusual (mandibular molars, for example, commonly have two root
canals in their mesial roots). When roots are fused, the tooth still maintains
the usual number of root canals. The size of the pulp chamber and the
diameter of the root canals decrease significantly with age and in response ment. Viewed distally, the pulp tapers towards the incisal edge and widens
to caries, attrition or other external stimuli due to the deposition of second- cervically. A constriction (the cervical bulge) separates the single and
ary (and sometimes tertiary) dentine (see pages 143–145). When the tooth centrally placed root canal from the pulp chamber. The root canal tapers
first erupts into the oral cavity, root development is incomplete and the towards the apical foramen, where it may curve slightly either distally or
apical foramen is wide (see Fig. 25.2). The apical foramen narrows with labially. In cross-section, the root canal is ovoid for much of its extent but,
subsequent development of the root and a constriction formed with cemen- in common with canals in other teeth, becomes round as it nears the apex.
tum develops. This constriction marks the boundary between pulpal and With age, the dimensions of the pulp chamber and root canal are reduced
periapical tissue (see Fig. 26.9). as secondary dentine is laid down. The pulp chamber recedes and may
disappear completely. In conducting root canal therapy on older teeth,
locating the root canal in the absence of a pulp chamber may be the major
INCISORS clinical challenge.
Maxillary first (central) permanent incisor
Maxillary second (lateral) permanent incisor
Viewed from the labial aspect, the pulp chamber of the maxillary first
permanent incisor (Figs 2.58, 2.59) follows the outline of the crown, being The pulp chamber of this incisor (Fig. 2.60) is similar to, but smaller than,
widest towards the incisal edge. In a young tooth, the pulp chamber has that of the maxillary central incisor. The root canal is single, slightly ovoid
three pulp horns that correspond to the mamelons present during develop- and commonly curves both distally and palatally.
 30 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

Mandibular first (central) permanent incisor and the single root canal are wider labiopalatally than mesiodistally. The
root canal does not constrict markedly until the apical third of the root is
The pulp chamber of the mandibular first permanent incisor (Figs 2.61,
reached. The root canal, which is always single, is oval or triangular in
2.62) is similar to that described for the maxillary first incisor although,
cross-section except in its apical third, where it is round.
being in a much smaller tooth, it is smaller. The pulp chamber is oval in
cross-section, being wider labiolingually than mesiodistally, and is con-
stricted at the cervical margin. The root canal is ovoid, becoming round Mandibular permanent canine
in the apical third. As many as 30% of mandibular first incisors have two
The pulp cavity of the mandibular permanent canine (Figs 2.66, 2.67)
root canals, although most of these fuse near the apex and exit by a single
resembles that of the maxillary permanent canine, although it is smaller
foramen.
in all dimensions. The root canal is oval in cross-section, being wider
buccopalatally, but becomes round apically. About 6% of these teeth have
Mandibular second (lateral) permanent incisor two root canals, usually with separate foramina.
Both tooth and root canal systems are larger than those of the mandibular
first incisor (Fig. 2.63). Two root canals are somewhat more common PREMOLARS
(43%). Most of these root canals exit by separate foramina.
Maxillary first premolar
CANINES The maxillary first premolar (Figs 2.68, 2.69) usually has two roots (85%
of cases), although they are sometimes fused. The two canals generally
Maxillary permanent canine
exit by separate foramina. A single root and single canal is present in less
The pulp chamber of the maxillary permanent canine (Figs 2.64, 2.65) is than 10% of cases. A small number (5%) have three canals (sometimes in
narrow, with a single pulp horn that points cuspally. Both the pulp chamber three roots). The pulp chamber is wide buccopalatally with two distinct

B A

Fig. 2.61 Schematic represen- Fig. 2.63 Schematic represen- Fig. 2.64 Schematic representation
tation of the pulp morphology tation of the pulp morphology of the pulp morphology of the
of the mandibular first of the mandibular second maxillary permanent canine.
permanent incisor. permanent incisor.

Fig. 2.62 Sectioned mandibular first permanent incisor

demonstrating pulp morphology. A = labial; B = lingual.

B A
B A

Fig. 2.66 Schematic representation of the pulp

morphology of the mandibular permanent canine.

Fig. 2.67 Sectioned mandibular permanent canine

Fig. 2.65 Sectioned maxillary permanent canine tooth demonstrating pulp morphology. A = labial;
demonstrating pulp morphology. A = labial; B = palatal. B = lingual.
 DENTO-OSSEOUS STRUCTURES 31

A B
Fig. 2.68 Schematic representation of the pulp Fig. 2.70 Schematic representation of the pulp
morphology of the maxillary first premolar. morphology of the maxillary second premolar.

Fig. 2.69 Sectioned maxillary first premolar demon-

strating pulp morphology. A = buccal; B = palatal.

B A

B A
Fig. 2.74 Schematic
representation of the
pulp morphology of the
Fig. 2.72 Schematic mandibular second
representation of the premolar.
pulp morphology of the
mandibular first
premolar.
Fig. 2.71 Sectioned maxillary second premolar Fig. 2.73 Sectioned mandibular first premolar
demonstrating pulp morphology. A = buccal; demonstrating pulp morphology. A = buccal;
B = palatal. B = lingual.

pulp horns pointing towards the cusps. From the buccal view, the pulp In cross-section the root canal is oval until the apical third of the root,
chamber is much narrower. The floor of the pulp chamber is rounded with where it becomes round.
the highest point in the centre. It usually lies within the root just apical to
the cervix. Where the root canals arise from the pulp chamber, the orifices
are funnel-shaped. The pulp chamber is closest to the surface mesially, Mandibular first premolar
where the shape of the crown is indented by the canine fossa. The dental
The pulp chamber in the mandibular first premolar (Figs 2.72, 2.73), like
pulp may be exposed in this area by caries or restorative cavities that are
that of the maxillary premolars, is wider buccolingually than mesiodistally.
extended interproximally. The root canals diverge but are usually straight
Unlike the maxillary premolars, there is usually only one pulp horn, which
individually and taper evenly from their origin to the apical foramina. In
extends into the buccal cusp. Occasionally, a small pulp horn may pass to
cross-section, the root canals are generally round. With age, the general
the reduced lingual cusp. There is usually a single root canal (in 75% of
shape of the pulp cavity remains the same but its dimensions, particularly
cases) that becomes constricted towards the middle third of the root. Most
the height of the pulp chamber, are reduced.
teeth that have two canals have two apical foramina.

Maxillary second premolar

Mandibular second premolar
The maxillary second premolar (Figs 2.70, 2.71) has in most instances
(75%) a single root with a single root canal. Its pulp chamber extends The pulp morphology of the mandibular second premolar (Fig. 2.74)
apically well below the cervical margin. The appearance of the pulp cavity differs little from that described for the mandibular first premolar, although
viewed from the buccal aspect is similar to that in the first premolar. When a higher proportion (85%) have single canals and there are usually two
two canals are present, they most commonly have separate apical foramina. well developed pulp horns projecting towards its cusps.
 32 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

A B

Fig. 2.75 Schematic representation of the pulp

morphology of the maxillary first permanent molar. Fig. 2.77 Schematic representation of the pulp
morphology of the maxillary second permanent molar.

Fig. 2.76 Sectioned maxillary first permanent molar

demonstrating pulp morphology. The tooth on the
left shows the root canals of the mesiobuccal and
palatal roots, while that on the right shows the two
buccal root canals. A = buccal; B = palatal.

MOLARS
Maxillary first permanent molar
The pulp chamber of the maxillary first permanent molar (Figs 2.75, 2.76)
is rhomboidal in shape, being wider buccopalatally than mesiodistally.
Four pulp horns arise from the roof, one to each of the major cusps. The
pulp horn to the mesiobuccal cusp is the longest. The floor of the pulp
chamber generally lies below the cervical margin. Three root canals are
present (or four in 60% of cases), their orifices being funnel-shaped. The
root canal of the mesiobuccal root leaves the pulp chamber in a mesial
direction and is often significantly curved. In cross-section, it appears as
a narrow slit, being wider buccopalatally. Its anatomy may be complicated
Fig. 2.78 Schematic representation of the pulp morphology of the mandibular first
by irregular branching or bifurcation near the apical foramen. When a permanent molar.
fourth canal is present, it is in the mesiobuccal root. Two-thirds of the
fourth canals rejoin the main canal of the mesiobuccal root near the root
apex. The palatal root canal is the widest and longest of the three root
canals. The floor of the pulp chamber is marked by a series of develop-
mental grooves that join the orifices of the root canals.

Maxillary second permanent molar

The pulp cavity of the maxillary second permanent molar (Fig. 2.77) is
similar to that of the first molar, but smaller with the rhomboidal shape
more compressed. The roots of this tooth are more convergent, bringing
B A
the root canal orifices closer together on the pulpal floor. The roots are
commonly fused. A second mesiobuccal canal is less common than in the
first molar (40% of cases).

Mandibular first permanent molar

The pulp chamber in the mandibular first permanent molar (Figs 2.78,
2.79) is wider mesiodistally than buccolingually. It is also wider mesially
than distally. There are five pulp horns projecting to the cusps, the lingual Fig. 2.79 Sectioned mandibular first permanent molar demonstrating pulp
pulp horns being longer and more pointed. The floor of the pulp chamber morphology. A = buccal; B = lingual.
lies at, or just below, the level of the cervical margin. The root canals leave
the pulp chamber through funnel-shaped orifices, of which the mesial are
finer than the distal. The mesial root has two root canals, mesiobuccal and
mesiolingual. The mesiobuccal root canal follows a curved path, the
 DENTO-OSSEOUS STRUCTURES 33

Fig. 2.80 Schematic representation of the pulp morphol-

ogy of the mandibular second permanent molar.
Fig. 2.81 Sectioned maxillary second deciduous Fig. 2.82 Sectioned mandibular second deciduous
molar demonstrating pulp morphology. molar demonstrating pulp morphology.

mesiolingual canal is straighter; both are circular in cross-section. In 30% ■ The mandibular first deciduous molar may have two to four canals
of teeth, the distal root has two canals. The distal canal, especially when (Fig. 2.82). Most mesial roots (75%) have two canals, 25% of
single, is considerably larger and more oval in cross-section than the distal.
mesial root canals and follows a straighter course. ■ The mandibular second deciduous molar usually has three canals
but can vary from two to five. Two canals are seen in 85% of mesial
roots but only 25% of distal roots have two canals.
Mandibular second permanent molar
The pulp morphology of the mandibular second permanent molar (Fig. ALIGNMENT AND OCCLUSION OF
2.80) closely resembles that of the adjacent first molar, although there are THE PERMANENT TEETH
only four pulp horns and only rarely (8% of cases) two canals in the distal
root. The relationships of the teeth, both within and between the dental arches,
are of fundamental importance to an understanding of mastication and for
such clinical disciplines as orthodontics and restorative dentistry. Tooth
alignment is the term that refers to the arrangement of the teeth within the
SHAPE OF THE PULP CHAMBER IN DECIDUOUS TEETH
dental arches; occlusion refers to the relationship of the dental arches when
As in permanent teeth, the shape of the deciduous pulp chamber reflects tooth contact is made.
the shape of the crown but, in the deciduous teeth, the chamber is relatively Traditionally, textbooks describe a standard set of tooth relationships
larger and the pulp horns longer and closer to the surface of the tooth. All that is called ‘normal’ (i.e. normal alignment and normal occlusion).
incisors and canines have single canals that are either round or oval (being Normal is a term that is generally used to describe situations that are the
compressed mesiodistally). In 10% of deciduous mandibular incisors there ordinary or most frequent; alternatively, normal may define an authorita-
are two root canals. The pulp chambers of deciduous mandibular molars tive standard or ideal that, in medical terms, is the healthy state. In these
are proportionately larger than those of the deciduous maxillary molars. terms, malocclusions could be regarded as normal, for they are more com-
The mesiobuccal pulp horn in deciduous molars is particularly near to the monly found in the population than ‘normal’ occlusion (approximately
occlusal surface and thus highly vulnerable to exposure by dental caries, 75% of the population of the USA have some degree of occlusal
trauma or cavity preparation. Small canals running from the pulp chamber ‘disharmony’).
to the furcation region are common in deciduous molars. In the slender Malocclusions do not always predispose to dental disease and, in most
roots of deciduous molars, the root canals are narrower mesiodistally and cases, are not associated with masticatory dysfunction, speech defects,
more ribbon-shaped than those in permanent teeth. This, and the severe bruxism or pain in and around the temporomandibular joint. Furthermore,
curvature of deciduous roots, makes complete debridement and obturation our knowledge of the association between the structure and function of the
of the root canal system difficult. Although pulpotomy is the more common dental arches during mastication is not yet sufficient to provide an author-
treatment for the diseased deciduous pulp, pulpectomy and canal obtura- itative standard for tooth relationships; in structural terms, the ideal occlu-
tion is feasible. When resorption of the deciduous root begins, it com- sion is a rather subjective concept. If there is an ideal occlusion, it can
mences on the lingual surfaces of the anterior teeth and furcal surfaces of presently be defined only in broad functional terms. We believe therefore
molars; this complicates root canal therapy as the exit to the canal system that the occlusion is ‘ideal’ when:
becomes very wide and may be some distance from the root end as visu- ■ the teeth are aligned such that the masticatory loads are within physi-
alized radiographically. Other features to bear in mind are:
ological range and act through the long axes of as many teeth in the
■ The maxillary first deciduous molar has two to four root canals, with arch as possible
two canals in the mesiobuccal root in 75% of cases. The palatal and ■ mastication involves alternating bilateral jaw movements (and not
distobuccal roots are often fused (one-third of cases) but contain habitual, unilateral biting preferences as a result of adaptation to oc-
distinct canals. clusal interference)
■ The maxillary second deciduous molar has two to five root canals ■ lateral jaw movements occur without undue mechanical interference
(Fig. 2.81). The mesiobuccal root usually bifurcates or contains two ■ in the rest position of the jaw, the gap between teeth (the freeway
canals (90% of cases). Palatal and distobuccal roots sometimes fuse space; see page 41) is correct for the individual concerned
and contain a single, common canal. ■ the tooth alignment is aesthetically pleasing to its possessor.
 34 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

b a
A

B
B

C
C

C C

Fig. 2.84 The configuration of the neutral zone (the stippled area) in the incisor
B region (a) and the molar region (b). 1 = tongue; 2 = lips; 3 = cheek. Redrawn after
B Professors B.J. Kraus, R.E. Jordan and L. Abrams.

Table 2.4 Average widths of the dental arches (males)

A
Age (years) Between Between Between Between
maxillary mandibular maxillary mandibular
Fig. 2.83 The form of the maxillary and mandibular dental arches showing the canines canines first molars first molars
anatomical alignment of the teeth and Angle’s lines of occlusion. (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Despite our reservations, the traditional descriptions of ‘normal’ tooth 6 28 23 42 40
18 32 25 47 43
relationships provide a convenient model for the classification of maloc-
clusions in clinical situations. However, we have chosen to use the terms
‘anatomical alignment’ and ‘anatomical occlusion’ instead of ‘normal
alignment’ and ‘normal occlusion’ in order to avoid the difficulties of
defining normality with respect to tooth relationships. The occlusion of the
deciduous dentition and the development of occlusion is considered in
Chapter 26.

ANATOMICAL ALIGNMENT OF TEETH

Each dental arch (maxillary/upper and mandibular/lower) generally takes
the form of a catenary curve (Fig. 2.83). Such a curve is described when Fig. 2.85 The alignment of the Fig. 2.86 The alignment of the
a rope or chain is hung at both ends. There are no spacings or rotations of maxillary incisors and canine viewed maxillary incisors and canine viewed
teeth within the arch and therefore all teeth are in contact with neighbour- labially. The teeth are not drawn to distally. The teeth are not drawn to
scale and the numerical dental scale and the numerical dental
ing teeth along the arch.
shorthand is used to identify the tooth. shorthand is used to identify the tooth.
Superimposed on the occlusal surfaces of the teeth shown in Figure 2.83 All angles quoted are average figures. All angles quoted are average figures.
are Angle’s ‘lines of occlusion’. Because the maxillary arch is broader than M = mesial.
the mandibular arch, the line of occlusion for the maxillary arch passes
through the cingula of the anterior teeth and through the central fossae of is dependent upon an interaction between the eruptive movements carrying
the posterior teeth. However, the line of occlusion for the mandibular arch the teeth into their functional positions and, once erupted, the forces
runs along the incisal edges of the anterior teeth and along the buccal cusps brought to bear upon each tooth. The term ‘neutral zone’ (Fig. 2.84) is
of the posterior teeth. used to describe that space in which there is an equilibrium of forces so
The well aligned dental arch may be divided into different segments. that the teeth attain a position of relative stability. A change in balance in
A curved line in the coronal plane describes the anterior segment. This this system, such as that produced by abnormal tongue-thrusting behaviour
segment extends across the midline from canine to canine. The middle and abnormal lip posture, can result in malalignment of the teeth.
segments are described by straight lines extending from the distal edges The size of the dental arches varies considerably between individuals.
of the canines to the mesiobuccal cusps of the first molars. The posterior Table 2.4 provides the average widths of the dental arches for the com-
segments extend from the mesiobuccal cusps of the first molars backwards. pleted deciduous dentition (6 years) and the completed permanent denti-
Both the middle and posterior segments lie in the sagittal plane, the pos- tion (18 years) for males. Averages for females are usually 1 mm less.
terior segments being more nearly parallel to this plane than the middle Figures 2.85–2.92 describe the angulation or axial positioning of indi-
segments. vidual teeth within the alveolus relative to perpendiculars dropped from a
The positions of the teeth within the dental arch are determined by hypothetically flat occlusal plane. In these diagrams, the angles quoted are
numerous factors and forces. Indeed, the spatial configuration of the arches average figures, although variation is considerable.
 DENTO-OSSEOUS STRUCTURES 35

Fig. 2.87 The alignment of the maxillary premolars Fig. 2.88 The alignment of the maxillary premolars Fig. 2.89 The alignment of the mandibular incisors
and molars viewed buccally. The teeth are not drawn and molars viewed distally. The teeth are not drawn and canine viewed labially. The teeth are not drawn to
to scale and the numerical dental shorthand is used to scale and the numerical dental shorthand is used scale and the numerical dental shorthand is used to
to identify the tooth. All angles quoted are average to identify the tooth. All angles quoted are average identify the tooth. All angles quoted are average
figures. M = mesial. figures. figures. M = mesial.

Fig. 2.90 The alignment of the mandibular incisors Fig. 2.91 The alignment of the mandibular premolars Fig. 2.92 The alignment of the mandibular premolars
and canine viewed distally. The teeth are not drawn and molars viewed buccally. The teeth are not drawn and molars viewed distally. The teeth are not drawn to
to scale and the numerical dental shorthand is used to scale and the numerical dental shorthand is used scale and the numerical dental shorthand is used to
to identify the tooth. All angles quoted are average to identify the tooth. All angles quoted are average identify the tooth. All angles quoted are average
figures. figures. M = mesial. figures.

Fig. 2.93 The curvatures of the maxillary teeth

within the alveolar bone of the maxilla.

Fig. 2.94 The curvatures of the mandibular

teeth within the alveolar bone of the mandible.

Viewed labially, the maxillary incisors have slight distal inclinations cally inclined in the molars. This again contrasts with the mandibular
whereas the canine has a distinct mesial angulation. When these teeth are premolars and molars, where the teeth become more lingually inclined
viewed distally, all show pronounced proclinations into the lip (although moving through the arch.
the canine is slightly more vertical). For the mandibular incisors and
canine, when viewed labially, the incisors are more or less vertical and the
Curvatures of the teeth and arches
canine has a slight mesial inclination. When viewed distally, these anterior
mandibular teeth, like the anterior maxillary teeth, are proclined. The impression could readily be gained from Figures 2.85–2.92 that the
When viewed buccally, the maxillary premolars and molars change axes of the teeth are straight and run perpendicular to a horizontal, flat,
from a slight mesial angulation (premolars) to a distal inclination (the third occlusal plane. However, neither the axes of the teeth nor the occlusal
molar). This contrasts with the mandibular posterior teeth, which show planes are straight but are curved in all directions (Figs 2.93, 2.94). The
increasing mesial inclination moving back through the arch. When the curved axes of the teeth have a tendency to parallelism and are inclined
maxillary premolars and molars are viewed distally, the teeth change from mesially. It is often thought, mistakenly so, that the forces of mastication
being essentially vertical in the premolar region to being distinctly buc- are at right angles to the occlusal surfaces of the teeth. If this were so, and
 36 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

Fig. 2.97 Effects of wear on the curvatures of the occlusal plane, which becomes
Fig. 2.95 Curvatures of the occlusal plane – the curves of Spee. flat.

thought to be related three-dimensionally, the occlusal surfaces of the teeth

being aligned on the curved surface of a segment of a sphere having a
radius of about 10 cm. However, attempts to demonstrate, and then
measure, the spherical curves (of Monson) have been unsuccessful.
With age, and as a result of wear (attrition), the cusps of the teeth are
worn away so that the curvatures of the occlusal plane are lost and the
plane becomes flat (Fig. 2.97). In addition, wear will affect the overjet and
overbite for the anterior teeth (see page 37) and the nature of the tooth
contacts (see centric stops, page 38).

ANATOMICAL OCCLUSION OF TEETH

The relationships of the jaws in function are so variable that our under-
standing of the functional articulation of teeth remains poor. To simplify
analysis, several occlusal positions have been strictly defined. These posi-
tions may be classified into those that are symmetrical and those that are
asymmetrical. This corresponds with the classification of mandibular
movements into symmetrical and asymmetrical movements. The sym-
Fig. 2.96 Curvatures of the occlusal plane – the curves of Wilson. metrical occlusal positions include centric occlusion and bilaterally pro-
trusive position. The asymmetrical occlusal positions are those associated
if the occlusal planes and axes of the teeth were not curved, the arches with lateral (side-to-side) movements. Within the clinic, centric occlusal
might not be stable and the masticatory loads might be at an unfavourable position is regarded as the ‘standard’ or ‘model’ for orthodontic and pros-
angle to the teeth. Indeed, it is thought that, during mastication, the loads thetic diagnoses and treatments. While it is important in the dental clinic
strike the teeth such that there is a mesial component of force (see pages to be confident that oral examinations are based upon an accurate record-
373, 374). The occlusal plane shows two types of curvature – the curve of ing of tooth relationships in centric occlusion, the consistent attainment of
Spee and the curve of Wilson. centric occlusal position for some patients is notoriously difficult. Clini-
The teeth align themselves such that the occlusal plane is not flat but cians have consequently developed a variety of strategies to attain this
describes a relatively linear curve in the anteroposterior direction, the position, including palpating the mandibular condyles within the man-
curve of Spee (Fig. 2.95). The mandibular curve of Spee is concave dibular fossae, pronouncing certain sounds, words or phrases, fatiguing
whereas the maxillary curve is convex. An appreciation of the contribution the mandible by making the patient make rapid movements of the lower
of each tooth to the curve of Spee may be gained from analysis of the jaw, and even hypnosis!
alignment of the long axes of the posterior teeth viewed buccally
(Figs 2.87, 2.91) and from the axes of the anterior teeth viewed distally
Centric occlusal position
(Figs 2.86, 2.90). Although the maxillary and mandibular curves of Spee
are different, they are nevertheless complementary and thereby may help The centric occlusal position (Fig. 2.98) is defined as the terminal position
achieve occlusal balance during mastication by encouraging simultaneous of physiological jaw movements. It is the relationship between the two
contact in more than one area of the dental arches. If the curves are exag- arches when the teeth are brought into contact with the mandibular con-
gerated, however, there will be crowding in the mandibular arch and dyles centrally positioned, at rest, in the mandibular fossae.
increased spacing in the maxillary arch. According to the pioneer orthodontist Edward Angle, the key to the
The occlusal curves of Wilson (Fig. 2.96) are aligned in the transverse intercuspal relationships between the teeth in the centric occlusal position
plane. Analysis of the alignment of the long axes of the posterior teeth is to be found in the relative positions of the maxillary and mandibular
(Figs 2.88, 2.92) shows that the curves of Wilson are such that the occlu- first permanent molars. In the ‘normal’ or anatomical condition, each
sal surfaces of the mandibular molars are directed lingually, while those arch is bilaterally symmetrical. Because the anterior maxillary segment is
of the maxillary molars are directed buccally. As for the curves of Spee, slightly larger than the corresponding mandibular segment (because of the
the curves of Wilson for the maxillary and mandibular posterior teeth are unequal sizes of the maxillary and mandibular first incisors), each maxil-
opposite but complementary. The curves of Spee and Wilson were once lary tooth will contact its corresponding mandibular antagonist and its
 DENTO-OSSEOUS STRUCTURES 37

Fig. 2.98 Lateral view of the arrangement of teeth in anatomical centric occlusion. OVERBITE

OVERJET

Fig. 2.101 The buccolingual incisor Fig. 2.102 The buccolingual incisor
relationships in anatomical centric relationships in anatomical centric
occlusion – overjet. occlusion – overbite.

Normal overbite
Fig. 2.99 Diagram illustrating the relationships between maxillary and mandibular (2–4 mm)
permanent teeth in anatomical centric occlusal position. The teeth are identified
according to the Palmer-Zsigmondy system.

Deep and
complete overbite
(More than 4 mm)

Deep and incomplete

overbite
(More than 4 mm)

Anterior open bite

Fig. 2.103 Classification of overbite.

buccolingual relationships of the arches. As the maxillary arch is a little

larger and broader than the mandibular arch, there is a slight overlap of
Fig. 2.100 The relationships between the occlusal surfaces of the maxillary (red) the mandibular arch by the maxillary arch such that the buccal cusps of
and mandibular (black) permanent teeth in anatomical centric occlusion. the maxillary teeth extend a few millimetres beyond the buccal occlusal
edge of the mandibular teeth. This overlap is termed overjet.
distal neighbour. Thus, the maxillary first permanent molar will contact When the buccolingual incisor relationships in anatomical centric occlu-
the distal part of the mandibular first permanent molar and the mesial part sion are considered (Figs 2.101, 2.102), two types of ‘overlap’ of the
of the mandibular second permanent molar. The only exceptions are the mandibular incisors by the maxillary incisors can be discerned. The overlap
mandibular first incisor and the maxillary third molar. The relationships in the horizontal plane (overjet) is approximately 2–3 mm. The vertical
between maxillary and mandibular permanent teeth in anatomical centric overlap, specific to the incisors and canines, is termed overbite (and is also
occlusal position are shown in Figure 2.99. approximately 2–3 mm). The overbite in anatomical centric occlusion is
Figure 2.100 illustrates the relationships between the maxillary and such that the palatal surfaces of the maxillary incisors on average overlap
mandibular permanent teeth in anatomical centric occlusion by superim- the incisal third of the labial surfaces of the mandibular incisors. Further-
posing the occlusal surfaces of the teeth in the maxillary arch on those of more, the incisal edges of the mandibular incisors are related to the
the mandibular arch. This diagram shows not only the general anteropos- cingulum areas of the maxillary incisors. Figure 2.103 provides a classi-
terior relationships of the maxillary teeth and their antagonists but also the fication of overbite used in the orthodontic clinic.
 38 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

Fig. 2.105 Angle’s class I malocclusion.

Malocclusions result from malposition of individual teeth, malrelation-

ship of the dental arches and/or variation in skeletal morphology of the
jaws. Techniques for determining the skeletal relationships of the jaws are
described on pages 46, 47. Two classifications describing malposition of
teeth and malrelationship of the arches are in general use – Angle’s clas-
Fig. 2.104 The occlusal surfaces of the permanent dentition marked to show the sification and a classification based upon the relationships of the incisors.
position of centric stops in anatomical centric occlusion. A classification of malocclusion based upon canine relationships is also
available for clinical use. However, this is much less employed than
Angle’s classification and the incisor relationship classification.

Angle’s classification
With age, and as a result of attrition, the dimensions of the overjet and
overbite decrease. Angle’s classification of malocclusion was derived at the end of the 19th
Figure 2.104 shows the occlusal surfaces of the permanent dentition century. It relies upon the relationship of the arches in the anteroposterior
marked with the positions of hard contact in anatomical centric occlusion. plane using the maxillary and mandibular first permanent molars as key
These contacts are termed ‘centric stops’ (also sometimes referred to as teeth (with some additional information regarding incisor positions).
‘holding contacts’) and represent the intercuspal contact positions. When Nowadays, clinicians will consider the relationship of the molars, canines
the 32 teeth within the permanent dentition occlude, there are 138 centric and incisors as three separate elements but, perhaps confusingly, still use
stops, although this is seldom achieved during the normal bite. The major Angle’s original terminology.
markings register on the occlusal surfaces of the posterior teeth (Fig.
2.104). The slopes of the maxillary palatal cusps make stops coincident Angle’s class I malocclusion. Although one or more of the teeth are mal-
with the stops within the central fossae of the mandibular posterior teeth. positioned, this does not affect the ‘standard’ anatomical relationship of
The stops in the central fossae of the maxillary teeth coincide with the the first permanent molars. Thus, the mesiobuccal cusp of the permanent
stops on the slopes of the buccal cusps of the mandibular posterior teeth. maxillary first molar tooth occludes with the mid-buccal groove of the per-
The cusps seated in the central fossae are sometimes referred to as ‘sup- manent mandibular first molar tooth. Recently, Andrews has added two
porting cusps’. As befits the anatomical overjet relationships, the tips of further elements to this:
the maxillary buccal cusps and the mandibular lingual cusps remain rela-
1. The distal surface of the distal marginal ridge of the maxillary molar
tively unmarked. For the anterior teeth, the mandibular incisors have the
contacts, and occludes with, the mesial surface of the mesial mar-
centric stops on the incisal edges whereas the stops on the maxillary inci-
ginal ridge of the mandibular second molar.
sors are positioned down their palatal surfaces.
2. The mesiopalatal cusp of the maxillary molar sits in the central fossa
Similar marks to centric stops can be made in the clinic by interposing
of the mandibular molar.
articulating paper between the teeth and then instructing the patient to go
into centric occlusal position. With age, and with attrition, the occlusal In the models shown in Figure 2.105, the maxillary canine is missing and
surfaces become flattened as the cusps are worn and consequently the the premolars are malaligned but the maxillary first molar tooth occludes
centric stops are significantly altered. correctly with the mandibular first and second molar teeth.

Angle’s class II malocclusion. Angle’s class II malocclusion is character-

Variations in the relationships of the dental arches in
ized by a ‘prenormal’ maxillary arch relationship, the maxillary first per-
centric position
manent molars occluding at least half a cusp more mesial to the mandibular
Malocclusions should be regarded as anatomical variations rather than first permanent molars than the standard anatomical position. Thus, the
abnormalities for, although they may be aesthetically displeasing, they are mesiobuccal cusp of the permanent maxillary first molar tooth occludes
rarely involved in masticatory dysfunction. Our lack of understanding of mesial to the mid-buccal groove of the permanent mandibular first molar
the relationships between masticatory efficiency and tooth and arch form tooth.
is responsible for the classification of malocclusion in terms of variations Angle’s class II malocclusion also takes into consideration incisor
in the anatomical centric position and not in more functional terms. position.
 DENTO-OSSEOUS STRUCTURES 39

Fig. 2.109 Classification of malocclusion using incisor relationships.

Classification based on canine relationships

Class I. The cusp of the permanent maxillary canine tooth occludes in the
Fig. 2.106 Angle’s class II malocclusion (division 1). embrasure between the permanent mandibular canine and first premolar
teeth.

Class II. The permanent maxillary canine tooth occludes mesial to that in
Class I.

Class III. The permanent maxillary canine tooth occludes distal to that in
Class I.

Classification based on incisor relationships

As for Angle’s classification, the classification of malocclusions based
upon incisor relationships uses the categories class I, class II (division 1),
class II (division 2) and class III. However, care must be taken not to
confuse these classifications – for example, an Angle’s class I molar rela-
Fig. 2.107 Angle’s class II malocclusion (division 2). tionship might exist alongside an incisor class III relationship in the same
person!
As the permanent molars do not have a fixed relationship in the arch,
and may migrate following early loss of deciduous teeth, the classification
of malocclusion based upon incisor relationships (Fig. 2.109) is often
preferred to Angle’s classification. Furthermore, a classification of maloc-
clusion related to the incisors is seen by many clinicians as being more
appropriate because a major objective of orthodontic treatment is to estab-
lish an anatomical incisor relationship (patients being more concerned
about, and aware of, the aesthetics of the incisor relationship than they are
of the molar relationship). Thus, a classification based on incisor relation-
ships is a much more informative method of describing the malocclusion.
Furthermore, it avoids the confusion that can sometimes occur when trying
to use Angle’s original classification to describe a patient who presents
with class I molars with class II canines and class III incisors (such as may
Fig. 2.108 Angle’s class III malocclusion. occur in a patient with normal buccal segment relationships, missing max-
illary second incisors and first incisors that are retroclined).
The incisor relationship classification was devised by Ballard and
Wayman in the 1960s and relies upon the relationship of incisors relative
Angle’s class II malocclusion (division 1) indicates that the maxillary to a specific landmark – the cingulum plateau on the maxillary central
incisors are proclined (Fig. 2.106). incisor.
Angle’s class II malocclusion (division 2) indicates that the maxillary
incisors are retroclined (Fig. 2.107). Frequently only the first incisors are Class I incisor relationship. This represents the relationship where the in-
retroclined, the second incisors being proclined. For this malocclusion it is cisors do not show any malposition. The incisal margins of the permanent
not uncommon to see increased overbite in the incisor region. mandibular incisors occlude with, or lie directly below, the middle third of
the palatal surfaces of the permanent maxillary incisors (i.e. on or below
Angle’s class III malocclusion. This malocclusion is characterized by a the cingulum plateau area).
‘postnormal’ maxillary arch relationship, the maxillary first permanent
molars occluding at least half a cusp more distal to the mandibular first Class II incisor relationship. The incisal margins of the mandibular
permanent molars than the ‘standard’ anatomical position. Thus, the mesio- incisors lie behind the cingulum plateau area on the palatal surfaces of the
buccal cusp of the permanent maxillary first molar tooth occludes distal to maxillary incisors. Thus, the incisal margins of the mandibular incisors are
the mid-buccal groove of the permanent mandibular first molar tooth. The related to the gingival third of the palatal surfaces of the maxillary incisors.
incisor relationship varies from ‘normal’ overjet to an ‘edge-to-edge’ bite Division 1 indicates that the maxillary central incisors are proclined with
to reverse overjet (where the mandibular incisors lie labially to the maxil- an increased overjet; division 2 indicates that the maxillary central incisors
lary incisors – as shown in Figure 2.108). are retroclined and there is increased overbite.
 40 ORAL ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY

Fig. 2.111 Anterior open bite.

Fig. 2.110 Crowding within the dental arches.

Class III incisor relationship. The incisal margins of the permanent man-
dibular incisors lie in front of the cingulum plateau area on the palatal
surfaces of the permanent maxillary incisors. Thus, the incisal margins of
the mandibular incisors are related to the incisal third of the palatal surface
of the maxillary incisors and there is a reduced, or even a reverse, overjet
(the lower incisors lying anterior to the maxillary incisors).

Forms of malocclusion Fig. 2.112 Bilateral crossbite.

Three common forms of malocclusion are: crowding, anterior open bite

and crossbite.
Crowding is the term used to describe the condition where teeth are Table 2.5 Severity and types of malocclusions in the general population
markedly out of the line of the dental arch because there is disproportion of the USA
between the size of the arch and the size of the teeth. The severe crowding
illustrated in Figure 2.110 reflects the developmental positions of the teeth Distribution (%)
before eruption (note that the second incisors develop inside the dental arch Age 6–11 years Age 12–17 years
and the canines develop outside the arch). Spacing within an arch occurs
Severity
where the teeth are small in relation to the size of the arch (or where there
are missing teeth). The site of crowding also reflects the timing of eruption. Near-ideal occlusion 23 10
Mild malocclusion 40 35
The last teeth to erupt usually manifest the crowding – hence buccally Moderate malocclusion 23 26
displaced maxillary canines and impacted mandibular second premolars. Severe or very severe malocclusion 14 29
Anterior open bite (Fig. 2.111) occurs where there is no incisor contact
Type
and no incisor overbite. It may be caused by thumb-sucking habits, by
abnormal swallowing patterns or by skeletal anomalies. Skeletal anterior Crowding/malalignment problems
open bites sometimes result from lack of development of the anterior Ideal 57 13
alveolar region but are more often associated with an increase in anterior Moderate 39 44
intermaxillary height (i.e. the distance between the maxillary and man- Severe 4 43
dibular dental bases; see Fig. 2.124). Anterior open bite may also be Anteroposterior problems

‘physiological’ and related to the stage of eruption (incomplete eruption) Overjet (6 mm or more) 17 15
of the incisors. Reverse overjet (1 mm or more) 1

Crossbite (Fig. 2.112) is a transverse abnormality of the dental arches Vertical problems
where there is an asymmetrical bite. It may be unilateral or, as illustrated Open bite (2 mm or more) 1 1
in Figure 2.112, bilateral. Crossbites are frequently related to discrepancies Overbite (6 mm or more) 8 12
in the widths of the dental bases and may involve the displacement of the Transverse problems
mandible to one side to obtain maximal intercuspation. Lingual crossbite (two or more teeth) 5 6
Table 2.5 provides data indicating the severity and type of malocclu- Buccal crossbite (two or more teeth) 1 2
sion in the population of the USA. Approximately 80% of children and
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Fig. 16.
If a heavy substance, like gold, be greatly extended by hammering and beating into thin
leaves, and then dropped from the hand, the resistance of the air becomes very apparent;
and a gold coin and a piece of gold-leaf would not reach the earth at the same time if
allowed to fall from any given height. This fact is easily displayed by the assistance of a long
glass cylindrical vessel placed on the air-pump, with suitable apparatus arranged with little
stages to carry the different substances; upon two of them may be placed a feather and a
gold coin, and on the third, another gold coin and a piece of gold-leaf.
In arranging the experiment, great care ought to be taken that the little stages are all nicely
cleaned, and free from any oil, grease, or other matter which might cause the feathers or
the gold-leaf to cling to the stages when they are disengaged, by moving the brass stop
round that works in the collar of leathers. Sometimes these leathers are oiled, and in that
case, when the vacuum is made, the oil, by the pressure, is squeezed out, and, passing
down, may reach the stages and spoil the experiment, by causing the feathers and gold-leaf
to stick to the brass, producing great disappointment, as the illustration, usually called the
"guinea and feather glass experiment" takes some time to prepare. The air-pump being in
good order, the long glass is first greased on the lower welt or edge, and then placed firmly
on the air-pump plate. The top edge, or welt, may now be greased, and the gold coins,
feathers, and gold-leaf arranged in the drop-apparatus; this is carefully placed on the top of
the glass, and firmly squeezed down. The author has always found a tallow candle, rolled in
a sheet of paper (so as to leave about half the candle exposed), the best grease to smear
the glass with for air-pump experiments; if the weather is cold, the candle may be placed for
a few minutes before an ordinary fire to soften the tallow. Pomatum answers perfectly well
when the surfaces of glass and brass are all nicely ground; but as air-pumps and glasses by
use get scratched and rubbed, the tallow seems to fill up better all ordinary channels by
which air may enter to spoil a vacuum.
 The apparatus being now arranged, the air is
pumped out; and here, again, care must be
taken not to shake the gold off the stages.
When a proper vacuum has been obtained,
which will be shown by the pump-gauge, the
stop is withdrawn from one of the stages, and
the gold and feather are seen to fall
simultaneously to the air-pump plate. Another
stage, with the gold-leaf and coin, may now be
detached; both showing distinctly, that when the
resistance of the air is withdrawn, all bodies,
whether called light or heavy, gravitate equally
to the earth. Then, the screw at the bottom of
the pump barrels being opened, attention may
be directed to the whizzing noise the air makes
on entering the vacuum, and when the air is
once more restored to the long glass vessel, the
last stage may be allowed to fall; and now, the
gold coin reaches the pump-plate first, and the
feather, lingering behind, loses (as it were) the
race, and touches the plate after the gold coin;
thus demonstrating clearly the resistance of the
air to falling bodies.
Another, and perhaps less troublesome, mode of
showing the same fact, is to use a long glass Fig. 17.
tube closed at each end with brass caps
cemented on. One cap should have the largest possible aperture closed
by a brass screw, and the other may fit a small hand-pump.

Fig. 18.

Fig. 19.
a b. Glass tube containing a piece of gold and a feather, which are placed in at the large
aperture a. c. Small hand-pump.

If a piece of gold and a small feather are placed in the tube, it may be shown that the
former reaches the bottom of the tube first, whilst it is full of air, and when the air is
withdrawn by means of the pump, and the tube again inverted, both the gold and the
feather fall in the same time.
For this reason, all attempts to measure heights or depths by observing the time occupied by
a falling body in reaching the earth must be incorrect, and can only be rough
approximations. An experiment tried at St. Paul's Cathedral, with a stone, which was allowed
to fall from the cupola, indicated the time occupied in the descent to be four and a half
seconds: now, if we square this time, and multiply by 16, a height of 324 feet is denoted;
whereas the actual height is only 272 feet, and the difference of 52 feet shows how the
stone was retarded in its passage through the air; for, had there been no obstacle, it would
have reached the ground in 4-3/20ths seconds.
The force of gravitation is further demonstrated by the action of the
sun and moon raising the waters of the ocean, and producing the
tides; and also by the earth and moon, and other planets and
satellites, being prevented from flying from their natural paths or
orbits around the sun. It is also very clearly proved that there must
be some kind of attractive force resident in the earth, or else all
moveable things, the water, the air, the living and dead matters,
would fly away from the surface of the earth in obedience to what
is called "centrifugal force." Our earth is twenty-four hours in
performing one rotation on its axis, which is an imaginary line
drawn from pole to pole, and represented by the wire round which
we cause a sphere to rotate. All objects, therefore, on the earth are
moving with the planet at an enormous velocity; and this
movement is called the earth's diurnal, or daily rotation. Now, it will
be remembered, that mud or other fluid matter flies off, and is not
retained by the circumference of a wheel in motion: when a mop is
trundled, or a dog or sheep, after exposure to rain, shake
themselves, the water is thrown off by what is called centrifugal
force (centrum, a centre, fugio, to fly from). Fig. 20.
 CHAPTER II.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE.
That power which drives a revolving body from a centre, and it may be illustrated by turning
a closed parasol, or umbrella, rapidly round on its centre, the stick being the axis—the ribs
fly out, and if there is much friction in the parts, the illustration is more certain by attaching
a bullet to the end of each rib, as shown in our drawing.

Fig. 21.
The same fact may be illustrated by a square mahogany rod, say one inch square and three
feet long, with two flaps eighteen inches in length, hanging by hinges, and parallel to the
sides of the centre rod, which immediately fly out on the rotation of the long centre piece.
 Fig. 22.
The toy called the centrifugal railway is also a very pretty illustration of the same fact. A
glass of water, or a coin, may be placed in the little carriage, and although it must be twice
hanging perpendicular in a line with the earth, the carriage does not tumble away from its
appointed track, and the centrifugal force binds it firmly to the interior of the circle round
which it revolves.

Fig. 23.
Another striking and very simple illustration is to suspend a hemispherical cup by three
cords, and having twisted them, by turning round the cup, it may be filled with water, and
directly the hand is withdrawn, the torsion of the cord causes the cup to rotate, and the
water describes a circle on the floor, flying off at a tangent from the cup, as may be noticed
in the accompanying cut.
 Fig. 24.
A hoop when trundled would tumble on its side if the force of gravitation was not overcome
by the centrifugal force which imparts to it a motion in the direction of a tangent (tango, to
touch) to a circle. The same principle applies to the spinning-top—this toy cannot be made
to stand upon its point until set in rapid motion.
Returning again to the subject of gravitation, we may now consider it in relation to other and
more magnificent examples which we discover by studying the science of astronomy.
 CHAPTER III.
THE SCIENCE OF ASTRONOMY.
In a work of this kind, professedly devoted to a very brief and popular view of the different
scientific subjects, much cannot be said on any special branch of science; it will be better,
therefore, to take up one subject in astronomy, and by discussing it in a simple manner, our
young friends may be stimulated to learn more of those glorious truths which are to be
found in the published works of many eminent astronomers, and especially in that of Mr.
Hind, called "The Illustrated London Astronomy." One of the most interesting subjects is the
phenomenon of the eclipse of the sun; and as 1858 is likely to be long remembered for its
"annular eclipse," we shall devote some pages and illustrations to this subject.
Eclipses of the sun are of three kinds—partial, annular, and total. Many persons have
probably seen large partial eclipses of the sun, and may possibly suppose that a total eclipse
is merely an intensified form of a partial one; but astronomers assert that no degree of
partial eclipse, even when the very smallest portion of the sun remains visible, gives the
slightest idea of a total one, either in the solemnity and overpowering influence of the
spectacle, or the curious appearances which accompany it.
The late Mr. Baily said of an eclipse (usually called that of Thales), which caused the
suspension of a battle between the Lydians and Medes, that only a total eclipse could have
produced the effect ascribed to it. Even educated astronomers, when viewing with the naked
eye the sun nearly obscured by the moon in an annular eclipse, could not tell that any part
of the sun was hidden, and this was remarkably verified in the annular eclipse of the 15th
March of this year.
During the continuance of a total eclipse of the sun, we are permitted a hasty glance at
some of those secrets of Nature which are not revealed at any other time—glories that hold
in tremulous amazement even veteran explorers of the heavens and its starry worlds.
The general meaning of an eclipse may be shown very nicely by lighting a common oil, or
oxy-hydrogen lantern in a darkened room, and throwing the rays which proceed from it on a
three-feet globe. The lantern may be called the sun, and, of course, it is understood that
correct comparative sizes are not attempted in this arrangement; if it were so, the globe
representing the earth would have to be a mere speck, for if we make the model of the sun
in proportion to a three-feet globe, no ordinary lecture hall would contain it. This being
premised, attention is directed to the lantern, which, like the sun, is self-luminous, and is
giving out its own rays; these fall upon the globe we have designated the earth, and
illuminate one-half, whilst the other is shrouded in darkness, reminding us of the opacity of
the earth, and teaching, in a familiar manner, the causes of day and night. Another globe,
say six inches in diameter, and supported by a string, may be compared to the moon, and,
like the earth, is now luminous, and shines only by borrowed light: the moon is simply a
reflector of light; like a sheet of white cardboard, or a metallic mirror. When, therefore, the
small globe is passed between the lantern and the large globe, a shadow is cast on the large
globe: it is also seen that only the half of the small globe turned towards the lantern is
illuminated, while the other half, opposite the large globe, is in shadow or darkness. And
here we understand why the moon appears to be black while passing before the sun; so also
by moving the small globe about in various curves, it is shown why eclipses are only visible
at certain parts of the earth's surface; and as it would take (roughly speaking) fifty globes as
large as the moon to make one equal in size to our earth, the shadow it casts must
necessarily be small, and cannot obscure the whole hemisphere of the earth turned towards
it. An eclipse of the sun is, therefore, caused by the opaque mass of moon passing between
the sun and the earth. Whilst an eclipse of the moon is caused by the earth moving directly
between the sun and the moon: the large shadow cast by the earth renders a total eclipse of
the moon visible to a greater number of spectators on that half of the earth turned towards
the moon. All these facts can be clearly demonstrated with the arrangement already
described, of which we give the following pictorial illustration:—

Fig. 25.
In using this apparatus, it should be explained that if the moon were as large as the sun, the
shadow would be cylindrical like the figure 1, and of an unlimited length. If she were of
greater magnitude, it would precisely resemble the shadow cast in the experiment already
adduced with the lantern and shown at No. 2. But being so very much smaller than the sun,
the moon projects a shadow which converges to a point as shown in the third diagram.

Fig. 26.
 Fig. 27.

Fig. 28.
In order to comprehend the difference between an annular and a total eclipse of the sun, it
is necessary to mention the apparent sizes of the sun and moon: thus, the former is a very
large body—viz., eight hundred and eighty-seven thousand miles in diameter; but then, the
sun is a very long way off from the earth, and is ninety millions of miles distant from us;
therefore, he does not appear to be very large: indeed, the sun seems to be about the same
size as the moon; for, although the sun's diameter is (roughly speaking) four hundred times
greater than that of the moon, he is four hundred times further away from us, and,
consequently, the sun and moon appear to be the same size, and when they come in a
straight line with the eye, the nearer and smaller body, the moon, covers the larger and
more distant mass, the sun; and hence, we have either an annular, or a total eclipse,
showing how a small body may come between the eye and a larger body, and either partially
or completely obscure it.
With respect to an annular eclipse, it must be remembered, that the paths of all bodies
revolving round others are elliptical; i.e., they take place in the form of an ellipse, which is a
figure easily demonstrated; and is, in fact, one of the conic sections.
If a slice be taken off a cone, parallel with the base, we have a circle thus—

Fig. 29.
If it be cut obliquely, or slanting, we see at once the figure spoken of, and have the ellipse as
shown in this picture.

Fig. 30.
Now, the ellipse has two points within it, called "the foci," and these are easily indicated by
drawing an ellipse on a diagram-board, in which two nails have been placed in a straight
line, and about twelve inches apart. Having tied a string so as to make a loop, or endless
cord, a circle may first be drawn by putting the cord round one of the nails, and holding a
piece of chalk in the loop of the string, it may be extended to its full distance, and a circle
described; here a figure is produced round one point, and to show the difference between a
circle and an ellipse, the endless cord is now placed on the two nails, and the chalk being
carried round inside the string, no longer produces the circle, but that familiar form called
the oval. As a gardener would say, an oval has been struck; and the two points round which
it has been described, are called the foci. This explanation enables us to understand the next
diagram, showing the motion of the earth round the sun; the latter being placed in one of
the foci of a very moderate ellipse, and the various points of the earth's orbit designated by
the little round globes marked a, b, c, d, where it is evident that the earth is nearer to the
sun at b than at d. In this diagram the ellipse is exaggerated, as it ought, in fact, to be very
nearly a circle.

Fig. 32.
Fig. 31.

We are about three millions of miles nearer to the sun in the winter than we are in the
summer; but from the more oblique or slanting direction of the rays of the sun during the
winter season, we do not derive any increased heat from the greater proximity. The sun,
therefore, apparently varies in size; but this seeming difference is so trifling that it is of no
importance in the discussion: and here we may ask, why does the earth move round the
sun? Because it is impelled by two forces, one of which has already been fully explained, and
is called the centrifugal power, and the other, although termed the centripetal force, is only
another name for the "attraction of gravitation."

Fig. 33.
To show their mutual relations, let us suppose that, at the creation of the universe, the
earth, marked a, was hurled from the hand of its Maker; according to the law of inertia, it
would continue in a straight line, a c, for ever through space, provided it met with no
resistance or obstruction. Let us now suppose the earth to have arrived at the point b, and to
come within the sphere of the attraction of the sun s; here we have at once contending
forces acting at right angles to each other; either the earth must continue in its original
direction, a c, or fall gradually to the sun. But, mark the beauty and harmony of the
arrangement: like a billiard-ball, struck with equal force at two points at right angles to each
other, it takes the mean between the two, or what is termed the diagonal of the
parallelogram (as shown in our drawing of a billiard-table), and passes in the direction of the
curved line, b d; having reached d, it is again ready to fly off at a tangent; the centrifugal
force would carry it to e, but again the gravitating force controls the centripetal, and the
earth pursues its elliptical path, or orbit, till the Almighty Author who bade it move shall
please to reverse the command.
 Fig. 34.
The mutual relations of the centripetal and centrifugal forces may
be illustrated by suspending a tin cylindrical vessel by two strings,
and having filled it with water, the vessel may be swung round
without spilling a single drop; of course, the movement must be
commenced carefully, by making it oscillate like a pendulum.
The cord which binds it to the finger may
be compared to the centripetal force,
whilst the centrifugal power is illustrated
by the water pressing against the sides
and remaining in the vessel. Upon the like
principles the moon revolves about the
earth, but her orbit is more elliptical than
that of the earth around the sun; and it is
evident from our diagram that the moon is
much further from the earth at a than at b. Fig. 35.
Fig. 36. As a natural consequence, the moon
appears sometimes a little larger and sometimes smaller than the
sun; the apparent mean diameter of the latter being thirty-two minutes, whilst the moon's
apparent diameter varies from twenty-nine and a half to thirty-three and a half minutes.
Now, if the moon passes exactly between us and the sun when she is apparently largest,
then a total eclipse takes place; whereas, if she glides between the sun and ourselves when
smallest—i.e., when furthest off from the earth—then she is not sufficiently large to cover
the sun entirely, but a ring of sunlight remains visible around her, and what is called an
annular eclipse of the sun occurs. This fact may be shown in an effective manner by placing
the oxy-hydrogen lantern before a sheet, or other white surface, and throwing a bright circle
of light upon it, which may be called the sun; then, if a round disc of wood be passed
between the lantern and the sheet, at a certain distance from the nozzle of the lantern, all
the light is cut off, the circle of light is no longer apparent, and we have a resemblance to a
total eclipse.
 Fig. 37.
By taking the round disc of wood further from the lantern, and repeating the experiment, it
will be found that the whole circle of light is not obscured, but a ring of light appears around
the dark centre, corresponding with the phenomenon called the annular (ring-shaped)
eclipse.
If a bullet be placed very near to one eye whilst the other remains closed, a large target may
be wholly shut out from vision; but if the bullet be adjusted at a greater distance from the
eye, then the centre only will be obscured, and the outer edge or ring of the target remains
visible.
When the advancing edge, or first limb, as it is termed, of the moon approaches very near to
the second limb of the sun, the two are joined together for a time by alternations of black
and white points, called Baily's beads.
This phenomenon is supposed to be caused partly by the uneven and mountainous edge of
the moon, and partly by that inevitable fault of telescopes, and of the nervous system of the
eye, which tends to enlarge the images of luminous objects, producing what is called
irradiation. It is exceedingly interesting to know that, although the clouds obscured the
annular eclipse of 1858, in many parts of England, we are yet left the recorded observations
of one fortunate astronomer, Mr. John Yeats, who states that—
"All the phenomena of an annular eclipse were clearly and beautifully visible on the
Fotheringay-Castle-mound, which is a locality easily identified. Baily's beads were perfectly
plain on the completion of the annulus, which occurrence took place, according to my
observation, at about seventy seconds after 1 o'clock; it lasted about eighty seconds. The
'beads,' like drops of water, appeared on the upper and under sides of the moon, occupying
fully three-fourths of her circumference.
"Prior to this, the upper edge of the moon seemed dark and rough, and there were no other
changes of colour. At 12.43, the cusps, for a few moments, bore a very black aspect.
"There was nothing like intense darkness during the eclipse, and less gloom than during a
thunderstorm. Bystanders prognosticated rain; but it was the shadow of a rapidly-declining
day. At 12 o'clock, a lady living on the farm suddenly exclaimed, 'The cows are coming home
to be milked!' and they came, all but one; that followed, however, within the hour. Cocks
crowed, birds flew low or fluttered about uneasily, but every object far and near was well
defined to the eye.
"A singular broadway of light stretched north and south for upwards of a quarter of an hour;
from about 12.54 to 1.10 p.m."
 If the annular
eclipse of the sun
be a matter for
wonderment, the
total eclipse of
the same is much
more surprising;
no other
expression than
that of awfully
grand, can give
an idea of the Fig. 39.
Fig. 38. effects of totality,
and of the
suddenness with which it obscures the light of heaven.
The darkness, it is said, comes dropping down like a mantle, and as the moment of full
obscuration approaches, people's countenances become livid, the horizon is indistinct and
sometimes invisible, and there is a general appearance of horror on all sides. These are not
simply the inventions of active human imaginations, for they produce equal, if not greater
effects, upon the brute creation. M. Arago quotes an instance of a half-starved dog, who was
voraciously devouring some food, but dropped it the instant the darkness came on. A swarm
of ants, busily engaged, stopped when the darkness commenced, and remained motionless
till the light reappeared. A herd of oxen collected themselves into a circle and stood still, with
their horns outward, as if to resist a common enemy; certain plants, such as the convolvulus
and silk-tree acacia, closed their leaves. The latter statement was corroborated during the
annular eclipse of the 15th of March, 1858, by Mr. E. S. Lane, who states, that crocuses at
the Observatory, Beeston, had their blossoms expanded before the eclipse; they commenced
closing, and were quite shut at about one minute previous to the greatest darkness; and the
flowers opened partially about twenty minutes afterwards. A "total eclipse" of the sun has
always impressed the human mind with terror and wonder in every age: it was always
supposed to be the forerunner of evil; and not only is the mind powerfully impressed, as
darkness gradually shuts out the face of the sun, but at the moment of totality, a
magnificent corona, or glory of light, is visible, and prominences, or flames, as they are
often termed, make their appearance at different points round the circle of the dark mass.
This glory does not flash suddenly on the eye; but commencing at the first limb of the sun,
passes quickly from one limb to the other. Our illustration shows "the corona" and the "rose-
coloured prominences," whose nature we shall next endeavour to explain. Professor Airy
describes the change from the last narrow crescent of light to the entire dark moon,
surrounded by a ring of faint light, as most curious, striking, and magical in effect. The
progress of the formation of the corona was seen distinctly. It commenced on the side of the
moon opposite to that at which the sun disappeared, and in the general decay and disease
which seemed to oppress all nature, the moon and the corona appeared almost like a local
sore in that part of the sky, and in some places were seen double. Its texture appeared as if
fibrous, or composed of entangled threads; in other places brushes, or feathers of light
proceeded from it, and one estimate calculated the light at about one-seventh part of a full
moon light. The question, whether the corona is concentric with the sun and moon, was
specially mooted by M. Arago, and Professor Baden Powell has produced such excellent
imitations of the "corona" by making opaque bodies occult, or conceal, very bright points,
that it cannot be considered as material or real, although it ought to be remembered that
the best theory of the zodiacal light represents it to be a nebulous mass, increasing in
density towards the sun, and yet no portion of this nebulous mass was seen during the
totality. But by far the most remarkable of all the appearances connected with a "total
eclipse" are the rose-coloured prominences, mountains, or flames, projecting from the
circumference of the moon to the inner ring of the corona; and, although they had been
observed by Vaserius (a Swedish astronomer) in 1733, they took the modern astronomers
entirely by surprise in 1842, and they were not prepared with instruments to ascertain the
nature of these strange and almost portentous forms. In 1851, however, great preparations
were made to throw further light on the subject. Professor Airy went to make his
observations, and he says, "That the suddenness of the darkness in 1851 appeared much
more striking than in 1842, and the forms of the rose-coloured mountains were most
curious. One reminded him of a boomerang (that curious weapon thrown so skilfully by the
aborigines of Australia); this same figure has been spoken of by others as resembling a
Turkish scimitar, strongly coloured with rose-red at the borders, but paler in the centre.
Another form was a pale-white semicircle based on the moon's limbs; a third figure was a
red detached cloud, or balloon, of nearly circular form, separated from the moon by nearly
its own breadth; a fourth appeared like a small triangle, or conical red mountain, perhaps a
little white in the interior;" and the Professor proceeds to say, "I employed myself in an
attempt to draw roughly the figures, and it was impossible, after witnessing the increase in
height of some, and the disappearance of another, and the arrival of new forms, not to feel
convinced that the phenomena belonged to the sun, and not to the moon."
Still the question remains unanswered, what are these "rose-coloured prominences?" If they
belong to the sun, and are mountains in that luminary, they must be some thirty or forty
thousand miles in height.
M. Faye has formally propounded the theory, that they are caused by refraction, or a kind of
mirage, or the distortion of objects caused by heated air. This phenomenon is not peculiar to
any country, though most frequently observed near the margin of lakes and rivers, and on
hot sandy plains. M. Monge, who accompanied Buonaparte in his expedition to Egypt,
witnessed a remarkable example between Alexandria and Cairo, where, in all directions,
green islands appeared surrounded by extensive lakes of pure, transparent water. M. Monge
states that "Nothing could be conceived more lovely or picturesque than the landscape. In
the tranquil surface of the lake, the trees and houses with which the islands are covered
were strongly reflected with vivid and varied hues, and the party hastened forward to enjoy
the refreshment apparently proffered them; but when they arrived, the lake, on whose
bosom the images had floated—the trees, amongst whose foliage they arose, and the people
who stood on the shore, as if inviting their approach, had all vanished, and nothing
remained but the uniform and irksome desert of sand and sky, with a few naked and ragged
Arabs."
If M. Monge and his party had not been undeceived, by actually going to the spot, they
would, one and all, have been firmly convinced that these visionary trees, lakes, and
buildings had a real existence. This kind of mirage is known in Persia and Arabia by the
name of "serab" or miraculous water, and in the western districts of India by that of
"scheram." This illusion is the effect of unusual refraction, and M. Faye attempts to account
for the rose-coloured mountains by something of a similar nature.
It is right, however, to mention, that learned astronomers do not consider this theory of any
value.
Lieutenant Patterson, one of the observers of the eclipse of 1851, says, that "It is very
remarkable that the flames or prominences correspond exactly (at least as far as he could
judge) with the spots on the sun's surface." Taking this statement with that of M. Faye, it
may be assumed, as a new idea, and nothing more, that these prominences are, after all,
mere aerial pictures of these openings in the sun's atmosphere, or what are called "sun
spots." In the "Edinburgh Philosophical Journal," it is said, that although it has lately been
shown in the Edinburgh Observatory that it is possible to produce, by certain optical
experiments, red flames on the sun's limb of precisely the rose-coloured tint described, yet,
on weighing the whole of the evidence, there does seem a great preponderance in favour of
the eclipse flames being real appendages of the sun, and in that case they must be masses
of such vast size as to play no unimportant part in the economy of that stupendous orb.
During the last eclipse great disappointment was felt that the darkness was so insignificant,
although, when we consider the enormous light-giving power of the sun, and know that it
was not wholly obscured, we could hardly have expected any other result. There can be no
doubt that a decided change in the amount of light is only to be observed during a total
eclipse of the sun, one of which occurred on the 7th of September, 1858; but, unfortunately,
it was only visible in South America; we must therefore content ourselves with the
descriptions of those astronomers who can be fully relied on. From the graphic account
given by Professor Piazzi Smyth, the astronomer-royal for Scotland, of a total eclipse as seen
by him on the western coast of Norway, we may form some notion of the imposing
appearance of the surrounding country when obscured during the occurrence of this rare
astronomical phenomenon.
The Professor remarks, "To understand the scene more fully, the reader must fancy himself
on a small, rocky island on a mountainous coast, the weather calm, and the sky at the
beginning of the eclipse seven-tenths covered with thin and bright cirro-strati clouds. As the
eclipse approaches, the clouds gradually darken, the rays of the sun are no longer able to
penetrate them through and through, and drench them with living light as before, but they
become darker than the sky against which they are seen. The air becomes sensibly colder,
the clouds still darker, and the whole atmosphere murkier.
"From moment to moment as the totality approaches, the cold and darkness advance apace;
and there is something peculiarly and terribly convincing in the two different senses, so
entirely coinciding in their indications of an unprecedented fact being in course of
accomplishment. Suddenly, and apparently without any warning (so immensely greater were
its effects than those of anything else which had occurred), the totality supervenes, and
darkness comes down. Then came into view lurid lights and forms, as on the extinction of
candles. This was the most striking point of the whole phenomenon, and made the Norse
peasants about us flee with precipitation, and hide themselves for their lives.
"Darkness reigned everywhere in heaven and earth, except where, along the north-eastern
horizon, a narrow strip of unclouded sky presented a low burning tone of colour, and where
some distant snow-covered mountains, beyond the range of the moon's shadow, reflected
the faint mono-chromatic light of the partially eclipsed sun, and exhibited all the detail of
their structure, all the light, and shade, and markings of their precipitous sides with an
apparently supernatural distinctness. After a little time, the eyes seemed to get accustomed
to the darkness, and the looming forms of objects close by could be discerned, all of them
exhibiting a dull-green hue; seeming to have exhaled their natural colour, and to have taken
this particular one, merely by force of the red colour in the north.
"Life and animation seemed, indeed, to have now departed from everything around, and we
could hardly but fear, against our reason, that if such a state of things was to last much
longer, some dreadful calamity must happen to us all; while the lurid horizon, northward,
appeared so like the gleams of departing light in some of the grandest paintings by Danby
and Martin, that we could not but believe, in spite of the alleged extravagances of these
artists, that Nature had opened up to the constant contemplation of their mind's-eye some
of those magnificent revelations of power and glory which others can only get a glimpse of
on occasions such as these."
It can be easily imagined, that under such peculiar and awful circumstances, the careful
observation of these effects must be somewhat difficult, and the only wonder is that the
astronomical observations are conducted with any certainty at all.
In the eclipse of 1842, it was not only the vivacious Frenchman who was carried away in the
impulse of the moment, and had afterwards to plead that "he was no more than a man" as
an excuse for his unfulfilled part in the observations, but the same was the case with the
grave Englishman and the more stolid German. In 1851, much the same failure in the
observations occurred; and on some person asking a worthy American, who had come with
his instruments from the other side of the world expressly to observe the eclipse, what he
had succeeded in doing? he merely answered, with much quiet impressiveness, "That if it
was to be observed over again, he hoped he would be able to do something, but that, as it
was, he had done nothing: it had been too much for him." This is not quite so bad as the
fashionable lady who had been invited to look at an eclipse of the sun through a grand
telescope, but arriving too late, inquired whether "it could not be shown over again."
With this brief glance at the science of astronomy, we once more return to the term
"gravity," which will introduce to us some new and interesting facts, under the head of what
is called "centre of gravity."
 CHAPTER IV.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
That point about which all the parts of a body do, in any situation, exactly balance each
other.
The discovery of this fact is due to Archimedes, and it is a point in every solid body
(whatever the form may be) in which the forces of gravity may be considered as united. In
our globe, which is a sphere, or rather an oblate spheroid, the centre of gravity will be the
centre. Thus, if a plummet be suspended on the surface of the earth, it points directly to the
centre of gravity, and, consequently, two plummet-lines suspended side by side cannot,
strictly speaking, be parallel to each other.
 Fig. 40.
f.The centre. a b c d e. Plummet-lines, all pointing to the centre, and therefore diverging from
each other.

If it were possible to bore or dig a gallery through the whole substance of the earth from
pole to pole, and then to allow a stone or the fabled Mahomet's coffin to fall through it, the
momentum—i.e., the force of the moving body, would carry it beyond the centre of gravity.
This force, however, being exhausted, there would be a retrograde movement, and after
many oscillations it would gradually come to rest, and then, unsupported by anything
material, it would be suspended by the force of gravitation, and now enter into and take part
in the general attracting force; and being equally attracted on every side, the stone or coffin
must be totally without weight.
Momentum is prettily illustrated by a series of inclined planes cut in mahogany, with a
grooved channel at the top, in imitation of the famous Russian ice mountains: and if a
marble is allowed to run down the first incline, the momentum will carry it up the second,
from which it will again descend and pass up and down the third and last miniature
mountain.

Fig. 41.
p p p.Inclined planes, gradually decreasing in height, cut out of inch mahogany, with a groove
at the top to carry an ordinary marble. b b b. Different positions of the marble, which starts
from b a.

In a sphere of uniform density, the centre of gravity is easily discovered, but not so in an
irregular mass; and here, perhaps, an explanation of terms may not be altogether
unacceptable.
Mass, is a term applied to solids, such as a mass of lead or stone.
Bulk, to liquids, such as a bulk of water or oil.
Volume, to gases, such as a volume of air or oxygen.

Fig. 42.
a b d,The three points of suspension. c, The point of intersection, and, therefore, the centre of
gravity. p, The line of plummet.
To find the centre of gravity of any mass, as, for example, an ordinary school-slate, we must
first of all suspend it from any part of the frame; then allow a plumb-line to drop from the
point of suspension, and mark its direction on the slate. Again, suspend the slate at various
other points, always marking the line of direction of the plummet, and at the point where the
lines intersect each other, there will be the centre of gravity.
If the slate be now placed (as shown in Fig. 43) on a blunt wooden point at the spot where
the lines cross each other, it will be found to balance exactly, and this place is called the
centre of gravity, being the point with which all other particles of the body would move with
parallel and equable motion during its fall. The equilibrium of bodies is therefore much
affected by the position of the centre of gravity. Thus, if we cut out an elliptical figure from a
board one inch in thickness, and rest it on a flat surface by one of its edges (as at No. 1, fig.
44), this point of contact is called the point of support, and the centre of gravity is
immediately above it.
In this case, the body is in a state of secure equilibrium, for any
motion on either side will cause the centre of gravity to ascend in
these directions, and an oscillation will ensue. But if we place it
upon the smaller end, as shown at No. 2 (fig. 44), the position will
be one of equilibrium, but not stable or secure; although the centre
of gravity is directly above the point of support, the slightest touch
will displace the oval and cause its overthrow. The famous story of
Columbus and the egg suggests a capital illustration of this fact;
and there are two modes in which the egg may be poised on either
of the ends.
Fig. 43.

Fig. 44.
The point of support. c, The centre of gravity.

The one usually attributed to the great discoverer, is that of scraping or slightly breaking
away a little of the shell, so as to flatten one of the ends, thus—
 Fig. 45.
a Represents the egg in its natural state, and, therefore, in unstable equilibrium; b, another
egg, with the surface, s, flattened, by which the centre of gravity is lowered, and if not
disturbed beyond the extent of the point of support the equilibrium is stable.

The most philosophical mode of making the egg stand on its end and without disturbing the
exterior shell is to alter the position of the yolk, which has a greater density than the white,
and is situated about the centre. If the egg is now shaken so as to break the membrane
enclosing the yolk, and thus allow it to sink to the bottom of the smaller end, the centre of
gravity is lowered; there is a greater proportion of weight concentrated in the small end, and
the egg stands erect, as depicted at fig. 46.

Fig. 46.
No. 1. Section of egg. c. Centre of gravity. y. The yolk. w. The white. No. 2. c. Centre of
gravity, much lowered. y. The yolk at the bottom of the egg.

It is this variable position of the centre of gravity in ivory balls (one part of which may be
more dense than another) that so frequently annoys even the best billiard-players; and on
this account a ball will deviate from the line in which it is impelled, not from any fault of the
player, but in consequence of the ivory ball being of unequal density, and, therefore, not
Welcome to our website – the perfect destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. We believe that every book holds a new world,
offering opportunities for learning, discovery, and personal growth.
That’s why we are dedicated to bringing you a diverse collection of
books, ranging from classic literature and specialized publications to
self-development guides and children's books.

More than just a book-buying platform, we strive to be a bridge

connecting you with timeless cultural and intellectual values. With an
elegant, user-friendly interface and a smart search system, you can
quickly find the books that best suit your interests. Additionally,
our special promotions and home delivery services help you save time
and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Join us on a journey of knowledge exploration, passion nurturing, and

personal growth every day!

ebookbell.com