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Science Fundamentals 1
Life
Science
CELLS • PLANTS • ANIMALS
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• Life science, also called biology, is the study of living things.
What Is • The term biology comes from the Greek words bios (life) and logos (knowledge).
Life Science? • All living things: are made of cells; obtain food to make energy; grow and develop; reproduce; respond and adapt to
their environment.

Cells HOW IT ALL WORKS TOGETHER

Cells: Animal Cells: Organelle: Primary Function(s):
• are the smallest unit of life. • lack a rigid cell wall (present in plant cells); therefore, animal cells:
• are the basic unit of structure for all – exist in a variety of shapes, depending on their function in an organ- cell • encloses the cell
living organisms. ism. membrane • is semi-permeable, allowing
some substances to move in
• create, modify, and utilize proteins, – can change and out of the cell
nucleus
which direct all cellular activity. shape easily.
vacuole cytoplasm • is a watery substance that
• compose and manage nearly every – can sometimes
aspect of living organisms. completely fills the cell
ribosome Golgi
• carry messages that control how surround complex cytoskeleton • provides the cell with its shape
organisms move, eat, and react. and engulf endoplasmic
• can be eukaryotic (contain a other cells or reticulum endoplasmic • transports proteins to other
membrane-bound nucleus) or reticulum parts of the cell
microorganisms
prokaryotic (do not contain a (organisms only Golgi complex • stores proteins
membrane-bound nucleus). visible through mitochondrion
• are microscopic, meaning they can lysosome • destroys old organelles and
a microscope). dangerous substances
only be seen through a microscope. cell membrane
– can transport
substances mitochondrion • converts food particles and
Organisms: cytoplasm oxygen into energy
into and out of
• can be unicellular, or consist of a themselves rela-
lysosome cytoskeleton nucleus • controls almost everything
single cell (e.g., bacteria, amoebae, tively easily. that happens in the cell
some algae). • most animal cells: • houses genes
• can be multicellular, or consist of – are surrounded by a cell membrane.
many cells (e.g., plants, animals, ribosome • makes new proteins, which
– are centered around a nucleus. direct most cellular activity
people). – contain various organelles (miniature organs with specific functions).
vacuole • is a storage area in the cell

Plant Cells: HOW IT ALL WORKS TOGETHER

Cellular Digestion, Respiration,
• possess a rigid cell wall; therefore, they: Organelle: Primary Function(s): Growth & Division
– are mostly square or rectangular in shape. DIGESTION:
– cannot change shape or size. cell • encloses the cell
• animal cells:
– are easily distinguished from animal cells. membrane • is semi-permeable,
– obtain food through the digestive system.
• most plant cells: allowing some
substances to move in – obtain oxygen through the respiratory system.
– are generally larger than animal cells. • plant cells:
and out of the cell
– are surrounded by a cell wall and a cell membrane. – obtain food through photosynthesis.
– are centered around a nucleus. cell wall • is made of cellulose – obtain oxygen through pores on the leaves
– are directly attached to other plant cells via the cellulose-rich • bonds with other cell (stomata).
cell wall. walls to form structure • animal & plant cells:
– have direct links to neighboring cells through small pores in of plant – pass food particles and oxygen through cell
the cell wall. • helps the plant stay membranes by diffusion (the movement of
– contain various organelles, including chloroplasts (unique to upright particles from an area of higher concentration to
plant cells). chloroplast • contains chlorophyll, an area of lower concentration).
– possess vacuoles that: which gives plants a – pass water through cell membranes by osmosis
o occupy most of the cell and store various substances. green color (the movement of water from an area of higher
o cause plants to appear stiff and “full” when they are full of • absorbs energy from water concentration to an area of lower water
water. the sun concentration).
o cause plants to appear wilted when they are lacking water. • performs photosynthesis Respiration:
o cause plants to exhibit a specific color when full of pigment. • is the process cells use to convert food particles
cytoplasm • is a watery substance into energy.
that fills the cell • stores energy in the form of ATP (adenosine
cytoplasm endoplasmic • transports proteins to triphosphate).
vacuole reticulum other parts of the cell • can occur in the presence or absence of oxygen.
(smooth and – aerobic respiration:
nucleus mitochondrion rough) o occurs in the presence of oxygen.
o utilizes the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) to
rough Golgi • stores proteins produce energy.
endoplasmic
complex o releases a significant amount of energy (38 ATP).
reticulum mitochondrion • converts food particles o is significantly more efficient than anaerobic
chloroplast and oxygen into energy respiration.
smooth o produces carbon dioxide and water as waste
endoplasmic nucleus • controls all cell activity products.
reticulum • contains chromosomes – anaerobic respiration:
Golgi with necessary o occurs in the absence of oxygen.
cell wall complex information for making o utilizes fermentation to produce energy.
new cells and organisms o releases less energy than aerobic respiration
vacuole • is an area used for storage (2 ATP).
cell membrane • stores water, pigments, o produces different waste products, depend-
and sugars ing on the organism.

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 Cells (continued)
Growth & division: DNA, Genes & Chromosomes • are passed from parent to offspring, contributing to
• all living organisms begin life as a single cell. DNA: similarities between generations.
• plants and animals have cells that reproduce • is the complete database of information for char- Chromosomes:
through mitosis – the nucleus divides in acteristics and traits of an organism. • are coiled-up strands of DNA.
order to form two identical cells with the • is found in the nucleus of every cell. • are packed inside the cell nucleus.
Genes: • usually occur within the nucleus as matching pairs,
same number of chromosomes.
• are the working subunits of DNA. called homologous pairs.
• plants and animals have cells that reproduce
• are segments along the DNA strand with instruc- • vary in number depending on the organism.
through meiosis – the nucleus divides in
tions for how cells should act.
order to form two new cells with half the
• contain information for how each part of an organ- Fun Facts:
number of chromosomes. • Each cell contains more than six feet (two meters)
ism develops, grows, and functions.
• prokaryotic cells reproduce through binary of DNA .
• occur in variations, called alleles, that determine
fission – the cell pulls apart to form two • If all of the DNA from a single human being were
specific traits for an organism. lined up end to end, it would stretch to the moon
identical cells.
and back 3,000 times.

Classification System
• Biologists use a classification system • Classification divisions, from most inclusive to least inclusive: • The five kingdoms are plants, animals, monera (prokaryotic
to divide living organisms into smaller Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, bacteria), protists, and fungi.
groups with similar characteristics. Family, Genus, Species. • binomial nomenclature:
• Taxonomy is the science of classifying • The three domains are bacteria, archaea, and eukaryota: – is the two-part name assigned to every living thing.
or arranging living things into groups – bacteria are single-celled prokaryotic organisms. – is based on, and attributed to, the Linnaean biological
based on characteristics they share. – archaea are similar to bacteria but share many genetic classification.
• The most commonly used system was similarities with eukaryotes. – is a living thing’s Latin name, based on its genus and
created by the 18th-century Swedish – eukaryota include living things in all but the monera species.
botanist Carl Linnaeus. kingdom.

Plants
• Plants are multicellular organisms with a true nucleus. Sugar: Pistils:
• Most plants contain chlorophyll and make their own food. • is one of the results of photosyn- • are the female part of a plant.
• Plants are not able to independently move from one place to another. thesis. • are composed of a stigma, style, and
• The plant kingdom is one of the largest groups of living things with more • is the source of energy for plants. ovary:
than half a million different species. • is transported around the plant to – stigma: sticky surface at tip that
• Examples include: algae, moss, ferns, flowering plants, and trees. where it is needed. captures and holds pollen.
• sometimes undergoes respiration, – style: stalk-like structure that holds
Parts of a Plant resulting in carbon dioxide and up the stigma.
Leaf: water. – ovary: part of the pistil that makes
• absorbs sunlight for plant to convert to energy. • can combine into starches, which are the flower’s eggs.
• stores chlorophyll and is the site of photosynthesis. stored by plants and used for energy • generally appear as a short, thick stalk
• can be wide and flat (as in a maple leaf) or long and thin (as in a cactus spine). when needed. in the center of a flower.
• are surrounded by stamens.
Stem: petal
Transportation System
{
The pistil stigma anthers { The stamen
• supports leaves and flowers. contains style (micro- contains
vessels: Stamens:
ovary
• carries water, minerals, and food up and the female
organs ovule
sporangia) the male
organs • xylem vessels carry water and dis- • are the male part of a plant.
down between the plant’s leaves and roots. solved minerals from the roots to the • normally appear as spindly stalks sur-
• can be small and thin (as in a flower) or tall rounding the pistil.
rest of the plant.
and thick (as in a tree). LEAF
• contain anthers at the tip where pollen is
• phloem vessels carry the sap/food
• helps plant grow in a direction toward filament produced.
manufactured in the leaves to all
energy sources.
sepal parts of the plant.
• has light-sensitive tips to ensure growth Fertilization:
toward light. receptacle • is the second step of flowering plant repro-
Transpiration:
duction.
Root: • begins with water absorbed through
STEM • begins when a tube grows from the pol-
• grows down into the soil or water. roots by osmosis.
len grain, through the stigma, and into
• anchors plant to the earth. • results in water evaporating from
the ovary.
• absorbs water and minerals needed for leaves.
ROOT • continues when a male gamete (sex cell)
growth. • cools leaves and protects them from travels through the tube and enters the
• includes varieties, based on structure: the sun. ovary, which contains one or two egg-
– taproots: single large root with a few smaller, branching roots. • also causes a kind of suction, draw- shaped ovules.
– fibrous roots: many small roots branching off in different directions. ing water up the stem from the • is complete when the male gamete fuses
roots. with the female gamete in an ovule.
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants take energy from the sun and Flowering Plant Reproduction Germination:
combine carbon dioxide and water to produce food. Pollination: • begins after fertilization.
• is the first step of flowering plant • is characterized by the ovule turning into
1 Carbon dioxide from the air enters reproduction. a seed and the ovary turning into a fruit.
the leaves through their stomata. y • is the transfer of pollen from one • is successful when the fruit detaches from
erg
2 Water from the soil is absorbed t en flower to another. the plant and disperses its seeds.
ligh
through the roots. oxygen • involves both female (pistil) and male • results in the growth and development of
3 Sunlight energy is absorbed (stamen) parts. new plants.
through chlorophyll, found in the • occurs when insects, wind, or water
leaves of most plants. carbon dioxide transfer pollen from the stamen of Seeds:
4 The chlorophyll uses the sun’s one flower to the pistil of another • contain a plant embryo (the start of
energy to split water into hydrogen flower of the same species: a new plant).
and oxygen. Hydrogen combines water – flowers pollinated by insects are • contain a store of food to help with
with carbon dioxide to form glucose often colorful and scented. growth.
(a sugar), and oxygen is released – flowers pollinated by wind often • settle in soil, swell with water, and break
through the stomata. have small, green flowers. open to allow a new plant to grow.

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 Animals Monera, Protists, Fungi
• Animals are multicellular organisms, where each cell has a true nucleus. Monera are bacteria, or single-celled
• Animals obtain the energy they need by eating other organisms. organisms without a true nucleus.
• Some animals eat only plants (herbivores); some eat only animals (carnivores); and • Bacteria lack a nucleus, mitochondria,
some eat both animals and plants (omnivores). endoplasmic reticulum, and chloro-
• Animals move from one place to another with the help of cilia, flagella, or plasts.
muscular organs. • Bacteria reproduce through fission;
• Biologists divide the animal kingdom into two major groups: invertebrates (without cocci spirilla
they pull apart and create two new
a backbone) and vertebrates (with a backbone).
bacteria cells.
• Bacteria can exchange DNA with
Invertebrates • With no backbone, symmetry developed other organisms or cells to mutate
• Invertebrates make up about 98% of all as an organizational pattern:
and survive:
animal species on Earth. – bilateral (mirror-image) symmetry: an
– through this genetic transforma-
• With such an immense variety of life, the imaginary line divides animals into equal bacilli
and similar halves. tion, bacteria become resistant to
only shared trait is the lack of a backbone.
– radial symmetry: animals are equally antibodies/vaccines.
• Some have specialized internal organs
and systems; others have no specialized and similarly divided by rays from a • All bacteria require carbon to grow and reproduce.
organs at all. central point. • Bacteria can be classified according to shape, oxygen requirements for
• Invertebrates have a very basic nervous survival, and source of carbon.
system and usually act according to – shape:
instinct. o exist as rods (bacilli), spheres (cocci), and spirals (spirilla).
– oxygen requirements:
Phyla: Characteristics: Examples: o aerobic bacteria – need oxygen for survival.
o anaerobic bacteria – do not need oxygen and may die in its pres-
Annelids • have segmented bodies segmented worm, ence.
• have elongated, cylindrical bodies earthworm, leech – carbon source:
• are bilaterally symmetric o autotrophic bacteria (autotrophs) – obtain carbon from carbon
Arthropods • have segmented bodies insects (dragonfly, bee, dioxide:
• have jointed limbs ant), arachnids (spider, > some contain chlorophyll and photosynthesize food and energy.
• have a hard exoskeleton scorpion), crustaceans > autotrophs depend on energy from inorganic sources.
• most belong to 3 major groups: (crab, lobster, krill), o heterotrophic bacteria (heterotrophs) – obtain carbon from their
- insects (have 6 legs) centipede, millipede environment:
- arachnids (have 8 legs) > most bacteria are heterotrophs.
- crustaceans (have 10 or more legs) > heterotrophs depend on energy from organic sources.
• form the largest group of invertebrates > contain enzymes on their cell surfaces that break down organic
Echinoderms • have star-shaped bodies and live in starfish, sea urchin, matter.
water sand dollar > possess enzymes capable of breaking down cell walls in plants.
> convert solid matter into compounds, which are then absorbed.
Mollusks • have soft, muscular bodies snail, clam, octopus > break down these compounds into carbohydrates, sugars, and
• most have a shell inside or outside acids.
their bodies

Protists are mostly single-celled eukaryotic organisms.

Vertebrates • Vertebrate animals are complex organ- • Some protists are multicellular.
• Vertebrates make up about 2% of all animal isms with many specialized organs and • Protists are classified according to type: animal-like,
species on Earth. interconnected systems: plant-like, and fungus-like.
• Vertebrates belong to only one of 30 phyla – systems include: circulatory, digestive, – animal-like:
in the animal kingdom. endocrine, immune & lymphatic, integu- o have complex life cycles.
• They are characterized by a spinal column mentary, muscular, nervous, reproduc- o actively move through their environment.
composed of boney vertebrae. tive, respiratory, skeletal, and urinary. o may consume other organisms.
• The spinal column provides structural support – vertebrates have a highly-developed
o examples include amoeba and paramecium.
to the body and protects the spinal cord. nervous system.
– plant-like:
amoeba
o use photosynthesis to convert sunlight into
Type: Characteristics: Examples: energy.
o form integral part of food web in watery envi-
Amphibians • can live in water (have gills) or on land (have lungs) frog, toad
• have smooth, moist skin ronments.
• lay eggs in water o examples include algae and euglena.
• are cold-blooded (cannot regulate their body – fungus-like: brown
temperature) o produce spores to reproduce and absorb algae
nutrients.
Fish • live in water goldfish, shark, o can surround and ingest food.
• breathe through gills ray o can move through their environment.
• use fins to swim o examples include some molds.
• have bodies covered with scales
• Many protists have one or two flagella (single whip-
• are cold-blooded
like appendage), cilia (multiple hair-like append- red
Reptiles • have bodies covered with scales lizard, snake, ages), or pseudopods (finger-like projections of algae
• breathe with lungs alligator cytoplasm), enabling active movement.
• lay leathery-shelled eggs on dry land • Protists can reproduce sexually (spores) and asexually (binary fission).
• are cold-blooded
Birds • have wings with feathers parrot, ostrich,
Fungi are mostly multicellular organisms.
• most can fly cardinal
• Some fungi are single-celled.
• have beaks
• lay eggs with hard shells • Fungi are heterotrophs – they do not make their own food:
• are warm-blooded (can regulate their body – some secrete enzymes to break down food into smaller substances
temperature) and components.
– some are parasites that feed off other plants and animals.
Mammals • have bodies covered with hair or fur whale, dog, – some are symbionts that live together with other organisms to mutual
• give birth to fully-developed young that grow kangaroo, benefit.
inside mother’s body human • Fungi have no means of independent transportation – they cannot move
• are fed with mother’s milk on their own.
• are warm-blooded • Examples include mushrooms, molds, and yeast.

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 Ecology
What Is Ecology? Biome: Features: Climate:
Ecology is the study of living things in their environment (their natural surround- Tundra • treeless • long, cold winters
ings) and how they affect each other. • mostly located around the poles • brief summers with long
• much of the land remains frozen year-round daylight hours
Taiga • located in the northern hemisphere • long, cold winters
Ecological Organization Biome: • bordered on the north by tundra and on the • short growing season
Living things can be studied at six different • is a region with a distinct climate south by steppe (flat, treeless region)
• contains approximately one-third of all
levels: (weather patterns over a period forested land on Earth (mostly evergreen
Individual: of time). conifers)
• is an organism belonging to a particular • climate determines the types of • consists of many swampy areas during
species. organisms that can live within the warmer spring months
biome. Forest • large groups of trees that grow close together
Population: • is identified by its flora (plants) • three types:
• is a group of organisms of the same spe- and fauna (animals). • long, cold winters
– coniferous forests (contain mostly cone-
cies living together in a specific area. • Earth is divided into distinct land bearing trees) • low rainfall
• is the total count of individuals within a biomes.
– deciduous forests (contain mostly trees • mild temperature
group. • abundant rainfall
that seasonally shed their leaves)
Biosphere:
Community: • is the sum of Earth’s biomes. – tropical rain forests (dense collections • constant warm
• is made up of populations of different of evergreen trees that receive a large temperature
• is the living part of the planet. amount of rainfall) • 80 or more inches of rain
species living together in the same area. • extends from just above to just per year
• these organisms usually interact and below Earth’s surface.
depend on each other. Grasslands • mostly flat with some rolling areas • semiarid (dry, but not as
dry as a desert)
Fun Facts: • 10-20 inches of rain per
Ecosystem: • If all newspaper were recycled, year
• is a system in which biotic (living) organ- 250,000,000 trees could be left Desert • little or no vegetation • hot and dry
isms interact with each other and their • less than 10 inches of
standing.
abiotic (nonliving) environment. rainfall per year
• abiotic environments include things such • Recycling one aluminum can
saves enough energy to run a Mountain • high altitude • can vary depending on
as sunlight, soil, moisture, temperature, • vegetation varies depending on the elevation altitude
and nutrients. television for three hours.

Relationships Parasitism: Commensalism:

Mutualism/SYMBIOSIS: • is a relationship in which one organism (parasite) • is a relationship between two organisms of different
• is a relationship between organisms of two secures its required food and energy by living on or in species in which one organism (guest) lives on or in
different species in which both organisms another organism (host). another organism (host).
receive some benefit. • is usually beneficial to the parasite and harmful to the • is beneficial to the guest organism.
host. • is neither beneficial nor harmful to the host organism.

Food Chain & Web • Producers: o predators hunt and kill other animals for
FOOD CHAIN: – can use nonliving matter to produce food. food and occupy the top of the food chain.
• is a series of organisms – are usually plants that use the sun’s energy to photo- • Decomposers:
linked together in the synthesize their own food. – are organisms that obtain food and energy
order that they feed on • Consumers: by causing plants and animals to rot or decay
each other. – cannot produce their own food. (decompose).
• linear graphs depicting – must eat other organisms for nourishment (nutri- – are usually bacteria and fungi.
energy flow among organ- ents and energy): – break down producers and consumers, releasing
isms as a series of links. o herbivores eat only plants. nutrients and minerals into the soil.
• energy passes from the or- o carnivores eat only animals.
o omnivores eat both plants and animals. Food Web:
ganism being eaten to the organism that eats it.
– are classified by their place in the food chain: • is a network of feeding relationships composed of
• most food chains only consist of four or five
o primary consumers eat producers. interconnected food chains.
links. o secondary consumers eat primary consumers.
• food chains illustrate one possible series of links. • illustrates multiple food chains and a possible
o tertiary consumers eat secondary (and primary)
series of links.
consumers.

Cycles photosynthesis
Water Cycle: – precipitation:
Oxygen Cycle: • is the continuous movement of water o water drop-
• is the process by oxygen between Earth and the atmosphere lets in clouds
which oxygen and (layer of air surrounding Earth). form and
carbon dioxide – evaporation: fall back to
are exchanged respiration o water changes from a liquid to a Earth.
between plants gas (water vapor). o water can
carbon
and animals: o water vapor is released into the fall as rain,
dioxide
– animals use oxy- atmosphere from open bodies of snow, sleet,
gen and produce water and from plants (through or hail.
carbon dioxide transpiration). o water falls
(respiration). – condensation: into open
– plants use carbon o water vapor enters the atmosphere, bodies of
dioxide and is cooled, and converts to a liquid. water such as oceans, lakes, and rivers.
produce oxygen (photosynthesis). o clouds form when water vapor
condenses in the atmosphere.

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