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Geodetic Deformation Monitoring From Geophysical to
Engineering Roles International Association of Geodesy
Symposia 1st Edition Fernando Sanso? Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): Fernando Sanso?
ISBN(s): 9783540385967, 3540385967
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 9.50 MB
Year: 2006
Language: english
International Association
of Geodesy Symposia
Fernando Sansò, Series Editor
 International Association
of Geodesy Symposia
Fernando Sansò, Series Editor

Symposium 101: Global and Regional Geodynamics

Symposium 102: Global Positioning System: An Overview
Symposium 103: Gravity, Gradiometry, and Gravimetry
Symposium 104: Sea SurfaceTopography and the Geoid
Symposium 105: Earth Rotation and Coordinate Reference Frames
Symposium 106: Determination of the Geoid: Present and Future
Symposium 107: Kinematic Systems in Geodesy, Surveying, and Remote Sensing
Symposium 108: Application of Geodesy to Engineering
Symposium 109: Permanent Satellite Tracking Networks for Geodesy and Geodynamics
Symposium 110: From Mars to Greenland: Charting Gravity with Space and Airborne Instruments
Symposium 111: Recent Geodetic and Gravimetric Research in Latin America
Symposium 112: Geodesy and Physics of the Earth: Geodetic Contributions to Geodynamics
Symposium 113: Gravity and Geoid
Symposium 114: Geodetic Theory Today
Symposium 115: GPS Trends in Precise Terrestrial, Airborne, and Spaceborne Applications
Symposium 116: Global Gravity Field and Ist Temporal Variations
Symposium 117: Gravity, Geoid and Marine Geodesy
Symposium 118: Advances in Positioning and Reference Frames
Symposium 119: Geodesy on the Move
Symposium 120: Towards an Integrated Global Geodetic Observation System (IGGOS)
Symposium 121: Geodesy Beyond 2000: The Challenges of the First Decade
Symposium 122: IV Hotine-Marussi Symposium on Mathematical Geodesy
Symposium 123: Gravity, Geoid and Geodynamics 2000
Symposium 124: Vertical Reference Systems
Symposium 125: Vistas for Geodesy in the New Millennium
Symposium 126: Satellite Altimetry for Geodesy, Geophysics and Oceanography
Symposium 127: V Hotine Marussi Symposium on Mathematical Geodesy
Symposium 128: A Window on the Future of Geodesy
Symposium 129: Gravity, Geoid and Space Missions
Symposium 131: Geodetic Deformation Monitoring: From Geophysical to Engineering Roles
Geodetic Deformation Monitoring:
From Geophysical
to Engineering Roles

IAG Symposium
Jaén, Spain
March 17-19, 2005

Edited by
Fernando Sansò and Antonio J. Gil
Volume Editors Series Editor

Professor Fernando Sansò Professor Fernando Sansò

Polytechnic of Milan Polytechnic of Milan
D.I.I.A.R. – Surveying Section D.I.I.A.R. – Surveying Section
Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, 32 Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, 32
20133 Milan 20133 Milan
Italy Italy

Professor Antonio J. Gil

University of Jaén
Department of Cartografic, Geodetic
and Photogrammetric Engineering
Campus Las Lagunillas, Edificio A3
23071 Jaén
Spain

Library of Congress Control Number: 2006931677

ISSN 0939-
0939-9585
ISBN-10 3-540-38595-9 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York
ISBN-13 3-540-38595-0 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned,
specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
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Law.
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© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2006
Printed in Germany
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
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Foreword
According to a widely accepted definition, Geodesy is the science dealing with the determination of
the position of points in space, the shape and gravity filed of the earth and with their time variations.

A consequence is that geodesists feel as a permanent subject of research, the detection, analysis and
interpretation of spatial deformation as well as gravity field variation. Deformation in fact is what
remains of time variation when reference systems effects are eliminated; as such, deformation is a
concept much closer to the dynamics of bodies, included the body of the earth, than simple change
of vector components, either for positions or for the gravity field. In addition all problems of
temporal variations can be put on quite different spatial scales so that one and the same concept can
be applied to a number of different physical contexts.

Also time scales of these phenomena can be very different from one another ranging from centuries
down to hours; here in any case we shall consider only slow phenomena such that they could be
described as a transition from one quasi-static state to another, very much as it is done in
equilibrium thermodynamics. For instance the determination of the time history of the polyhedron
of permanent satellite stations, spread all over the world, the same used to define the global
terrestrial reference frame, has as geophysical background the plate motion of the crust taking place
on a global scale (for the earth) and on time scale of the order of decades.

To the opposite side we can put the monitoring of structural deformation, e.g. of a dam or of a
bridge, where the spatial scale is 0,1 to 1 kilometre and the time scale ranges between hours and
days.

Also the gravity field variations can have a wide spectrum of spatial and temporal scales ranging
from global changes due to a very large and intense displacement of masses in the interior of the
earth, down to a continental scale affected, for instance, by a post glacial rebound, to a very local
level where even a change in the depth of the water table is observed in surface gravity
measurements. All these phenomena and the observations performed to detect them are object of
nowadays research and results of recent advances for a large number of instances have been
discussed during the IAG Symposium on March 2005 in Jaen (Spain).

One cannot say that final “conclusions” have been drawn, because this is probably not possible but
a good overview of theoretical matters, models and results stemming from specific applications has
been performed and presented in these proceedings thus allowing to define our today level of
understanding such a field in the geodetic community.

Fernando Sansò

V
Report on the Symposium
The International Symposium on Geodetic Deformation Monitoring has been organized by the
Geodesy Research Group of the Jaén University (Spain).

The International Scientific Committee has been composed by Fernando Sansò (Italy), Athanasios
Dermanis (Greece), Ewald Brückl (Austria), Heinz G. Henneberg (Venezuela) and Antonio J. Gil
(Spain).

The members of the Local Organizing Committee have been: Antonio J. Gil, Mª Jesús Borque, Mª
Selmira Garrido, Clara de Lacy, Mª Isabel Ramos, Antonio M. Ruiz and Gracia Rodríguez-Caderot.

The main topics covered in the symposium have been: mathematical and statistical models for
crustal deformation analysis, deformation monitoring from GPS and InSAR data: analysis and
geophysical interpretation, geodetic monitoring of movements in civil engineering, integration of
spatial and terrestrial techniques in deformation studies, geodynamical applications of gravimetric
observations and present-day geodetic instrumentation for deformation monitoring, which were got
into four sessions: SESSION A: General Methods for Deformation Analysis, SESSION B: Special
Measurements Tools, Data Integration and Specific Models, SESSION C: Geodynamical
Applications, Crustal Deformation and SESSION D: Local and Engineering Applications.

About eighty people from more than twenty countries have attended the symposium. Fifty-five
papers have been presented in the oral and poster sessions. The most interesting papers have been
accepted for publication in these ISGDM Proceedings after a revision process by the following
reviewers: Z. Altamimi, D. Arabelos, R. Barzaghi, L. Bastos, B. Benciolini, B. Betti, L. Biagi, K.
Borre, C. Braitenberg, M. Brovelli, E. Brückl, F. Brunner, J. Catalao, M. Crespi, M. Crosetto, A.
Dermanis, M. Doufexopoulou, R. Eyers, A. Fotiou, J. Gárate, A.J. Gil, E.W. Grafarend, R. Hanssen,
B. Hofmann-Wellenhof, U. Hugentobler, K. Jacobsen, B. Kearsley, C. Kotsakis, C. Lacy, M.
Llubes, A. Manzino, G. Manzoni, G.F. Panza, J.A. Peláez, F. Riguzzi, G. Rodríguez-Caderot, A.M.
Ruiz, F. Sacerdote, F. Sansò, I.N. Tziavos, G. Vassena, M. Vermeer and A. Wieser.

The symposium has been sponsored by the International Association of Geodesy, Ministerio de
Educación y Ciencia (Spain), Leica Geosystems, Trimble, Department of Cartographic, Geodetic
and Photogrammetric Engineering, Jaén University, Eurolingua Foundation, Provincial Council of
Jaén, Caja de Granada and Colegio Oficial de Ingenieros Técnicos en Topografía (Andalusia,
Spain).

Finally, as President of the Local Organizing Committee I would like to express my gratitude to the
authorities of the Jaén University for all institutional support to organize this event; to the members
of the committees and reviewers for their work really well done and to the attendees for coming to
Jaén. I hope they all have found this symposium fascinating.

Antonio J. Gil

VII
Contents

Invited Opening Address 1

Recent Crustal Movements, Geodetic Tasks, History, Present and Future 3

H.G. Henneberg

SESSION A: General Methods for Deformation Analysis 5

Chairmen: F. Sansò / A. Dermanis
Estimating Crustal Deformation Parameters from Geodetic Data: Review of Existing Methodologies, 7
Open Problems and New Challenges
A. Dermanis and C. Kotsakis (Invited paper)

The Bayesian Approach Applied to Significant Deformation Identification 19

F. Sansò and M.C. de Lacy (Invited paper)

Deformations Detection by a Bayesian Approach: Prior Information Representation and Testing 30

Criteria Definition
A. Albertella, N. Cazzaniga, F. Sansò , F. Sacerdote, M. Crespi, and L. Luzietti

Spectral Analysis of Geoidal Signals at Points of Geodynamical Interest Used in the Investigation of 38
the Depth of Mass-Density Causal “Sources” of Ground Deformations
M.G. Doufexopoulou, B. A. Massinas and G. Bartha

Deformations Monitoring by Integrating Local and Global Reference Systems 48

J. Zurutuza and M.J. Sevilla

Uncertainty Modelling in Local Geodetic Networks 56

M. Chueca, S. Baselga, J. L. Berné and I.C. Maestro

SESSION B: Special Measurement Tools, Data Integration and Specific Models 63

Chairman: E. Brückl
PS InSAR Integrated with Geotechnical GIS: Some Examples from Southern Lombardia 65
C. Meisina, F. Zucca, D. Fossati, M. Ceriani and J. Allievi

Tidal Errors and Deformations in Regional GPS Networks 73

L. Biagi, G. Pietrantonio and F. Riguzzi

The Treatment of Time-Continuous GPS Observations for the Determination of Regional 83

Deformation Parameters
L. Biagi and A. Dermanis

High Precision GPS Deformation Monitoring Using Single Receiver Carrier Phase Data 95
N. Raziq and P. Collier

Automated Form Recognition of Laser Scanned Deformable Objects 103

C. Hesse and H. Kutterer

IX
The Impact of Vertical Refraction at Local Three-Dimensional Engineering Control Networks 112
J. Casaca, M.J. Henriques and J. Coelho

Monitoring and Analysing Structural Movements with Precise Inclination Sensors 116
B. Erol, S. Erol and R.N. Celik

SESSION C: Geodynamical Applications, Crustal Deformation 127

Chairmen: H.G. Henneberg / A. Dermanis
Tilting and Horizontal Movement at and across the Northern Border of the Adria Plate 129
C. Pinato Gabrieli, C. Braitenberg, I. Nagy and D. Zuliani

Deformation Monitoring in Northern Israel between the Years 1996 and 2002 138
L. Shahar and G. Even-Tzur

Designing the Configuration of the Geodetic-Geodynamic Network in Israel 146

G. Even-Tzur

Monitoring of Deformations along Fethiye-Burdur Fault Zone (Turkey) with GPS 152
S. Erdogan, M. Sahin, H. Yavasoglu, H. Karaman, T. Erden, S. Bilgi, G. Ruzgar, E. Tari, Z.
Coskun, O. Tuysuz, M. Gullu, T. Baybura, I. Tiryakioglu, O. Erdogan, F. Taktak, E. Gokalp and
Y. Boz

Monitoring Crustal Movements and Sea Level in Lanzarote 160

L. García-Cañada and M.J. Sevilla

GPS Measurements along the North Anatolian Fault Zone on the Mid-Anatolia Segment 166
H. Yavasoglu, E. Tari, H. Karaman, M. Sahin, O. Baykal, T. Erden, S. Bilgi, G. Ruzgar, C.D.
Ince, S. Ergintav, R. Çakmak, U. Tari and O. Tuysuz

Assessment of Coulomb Stress Changes Associated with the 1995 Aigion Earthquake in the Gulf of 172
Corinth (Greece)
C. Mitsakaki, M. Sakellariou, D. Tsinas and A. Marinou

Studies on Crustal Structure and Gravity in the Eastern Alps 181

E. Brückl, U. Mitterbauer, M. Behm, CELEBRATION 2000 and ALP 2002 Working Groups
(Invited Paper)

Observing Fennoscandian Gravity Change by Absolute Gravimetry 193

L. Timmen, O. Gitlein, J. Müller, H. Denker, J. Mäkinen, M. Bilker, B.R. Pettersen, D.I. Lysaker,
O.C.D. Omang, J.G.G. Svendsen, H. Wilmes, R. Falk, A. Reinhold, W. Hoppe, H.G. Scherneck, B.
Engen, B.G. Harsson, A. Engfeldt, M. Lilje, G. Strykowski and R. Forsberg

A Model of Plate Motion 200

F. Riguzzi , M. Crespi, M. Cuffaro, C. Doglioni and F. Giannone

Geodetic Control of the Present Tectonic Deformation of the Betic Cordillera (Spain) 209
P. Alfaro, A. Estévez, E.B. Blázquez, M.J. Borque, M.S. Garrido, A.J. Gil, M.C. Lacy, A.M Ruiz, J.
Giménez, S. Molina, G. Rodríguez-Caderot, M. Ruiz-Morales and C. Sanz de Galdeano

Horizontal Deformation Models for the Deception Island (South Shetland Islands, Antarctica) 217
M. Berrocoso, M. E. Ramírez and A. Fernández

Geodetic and Geophysical Repeated Measurements in Geodynamic Monitoring Networks of Estonia 222
T. Kall and T. Oja

X
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eye, grasp it tightly with a pair of forceps, and endeavor to pull it
out. Should it be fixed too deeply for any ordinary force to move it,
do not exert all your power, but take a sharp-pointed knife, which is
better than a lancet, because more under command, and placing its
tip below the obstacle, with a motion, of the wrist oblige it to quit its
situation or to come forth between the ends of the forceps.
Should a flap of the cornea
be left by a bite, probably pus
will be secreted beneath it; the
place must be watched till the
local inflammation has
subsided, and a spot of yellow,
opaque matter can be detected
under the transparent
membrane. With a slight
incision the pus must be
released and the eye bathed
with a lotion composed of water
and chloride of zinc, one grain
AN EYE RECENTLY AFFECTED WITH
to the ounce. SIMPLE OPHTHALMIA.
Other cases will rather be
known by the variety of marks left behind than by any difference in
their necessary treatment. A lotion is generally everything required;
however, should the inflammation become excessive, it may be
necessary to open the eye-vein or the vessel which, journeying
toward its larger trunk, runs directly beneath and from the eye.
When this prominent and visible vein is pierced, it frequently,
although distended, will not bleed. Then place some favorite food
upon the ground,—the bending of the head and the movement of
the jaw will cause the current to flow forth freely.
It is among the most beautiful attributes of the horse, that
though so very timid, it never suspects nor can it understand actual
injury. Thus, the flowing of its own blood does not affect it; it is
otherwise with other animals not more intelligent. If a dog or cat be
hurt, no delicacy can tempt the creature to feed. The horse, when in
battle deprived of its limb, is so accustomed to restraint and so
unsuspicious of harm, that it has been found, after the strife was
ended, maimed, and yet cropping the herbage about it. The
generous beast, when domesticated, retains its gentle disposition,
and soon forgets to recognize danger; it becomes attached to its
superior, and though its treatment be coarse and its usage brutal, it
can pardon all.
The consequences of simple
ophthalmia are little, white,
opaque spots upon the
membrane. Streaks of the same
sort are occasionally left upon
the organ by the abuse of the
whip; the amount of blemish, of
course, will be decided by the
original injury. Never purchase
an animal thus disfigured;
better buy a blind horse. The
opaque places prevent many
rays of light from reaching the
optic nerve; the sight is
HORSE'S EYE INJURED BY THE
LASH. irreparably impaired the horse
sees imperfectly; it may behold
the head of a man, while the
opaque scar conceals the body. Timidity takes alarm at the
apparently spectral object. It has no reason to explain, and it wants
intelligence to understand. The poor abused quadruped becomes a
dangerous shyer.

SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA.
 Before we touch upon the subject which forms the heading to
this article, we wish to establish one proposition, because it will
smooth the way to an understanding between author and reader.
Man cannot make a property of life; he has no power over its
continuance; it may cease to-morrow without his permission and
against his wishes; it is removed from and independent of his
control. Man can have nothing like a property in that which is
altogether above his sway. He then, obviously, has no right to
enslave any living creature, and take no care of the existence which
he has deprived of liberty to provide for itself. When he captures a
wild animal and retains it in captivity, he entails upon himself the
duty of providing for its wants, and becomes answerable for its
welfare. He violently usurps nature's province—obviously, he adopts
nature's obligations; if he rebel against such a moral contract and
persist in viewing dominion as absolute authority, as something
which invests him with power to feed or starve at his pleasure,
house or turn into the air according to his will, nature opposes such
arrogance, and, releasing the life by death, takes the oppressed
creature from the tyranny of the oppressor.
Under some such compact the horse is given to man. The
implied, not written obligation, may not be acknowledged or
understood; but, nevertheless, it exists, and the terms of the bond
are rigidly exacted. Let us regard this matter in relation to specific
ophthalmia. A gentleman possesses five horses; he builds a stable
twenty feet long, twelve feet wide, and nine feet high; into this place
he crams the five huge lives. We will suppose the place to be good
of its kind, to be paved with Dutch clinkers and to be perfectly
drained; still each horse stands in a stall four feet wide; in this it has
to remain all night and the major portion of the day. In this space it
has to relieve its body; the liquid, to be sure, may run off by the
drain, but it has to fall upon straw, which imbibes some, and to flow
over bricks, which absorb more; the solid excrement is during the
day removed by the groom as it falls, but it remains in an open
basket to taint the air of the place. We will suppose the horses and
their attendants, occasionally, are the sole inhabitants, and the
building contains none of those things, living and otherwise, which
ladies are pleased to order should "be carried into the stable."
Will the sane reader assert
that the space is large enough
for its purposes? The stable
never can be sufficiently
ventilated: it will smell of
impurity—of hay, straw, oats,
ammonia, and of various other
things. The air feels hot. Can it
be wondered at? Ten large
lungs have been breathing it for
weeks and years, during twenty
out of every twenty-four hours.
Five huge creatures have been
cabined there, living by day,
sleeping by night, feeding and
performing all the other offices
of nature. Is it astonishing that
the air feels and smells close?
Ought we not rather to wonder
that animal life can exist in such
an atmosphere? The chief
contamination is ammonia;
ammonia will not support
THE SPECIES OF
vitality. The reader has inhaled EYE WHICH IS
smelling salts; those are GENERALLY
purified carbonate of ammonia; SUPPOSED TO BE
have these not made the eyes MOST LIABLE TO
water? The ammonia of the OPHTHALMIA.
stable affects the eye of the
horse; it also undermines the constitution; but, by constantly
entering upon the lungs and stimulating the eyes, it causes the
constitutional disease to first affect the visual organs; in short,
specific ophthalmia is generated.
 Now, to prove the case here stated. In the south of Ireland,
where poverty prevails, humanity is obliged to shelter itself in
strange places, and any hole is there esteemed good lodging for a
horse. In that part of the kingdom ophthalmia affects the majority of
animals; it not only preys on horses, but it seizes upon mankind; for
the author, a few years ago, was much struck by the quantity of
blind beggars to be encountered in the streets of Cork. Here we
have the conclusion of the argument; its moral exemplified and
enforced. If animals are foully housed and poorly kept, they
generate disorders, which at length extend to the human race;
therefore he who contends for a better treatment of the horse, also
indirectly pleads for the immunity of mankind from certain diseases.
Man cannot hold life as a property, or abuse life without his ill deeds
by the ordinances of nature recoiling on himself.
Specific ophthalmia is a constitutional disease affecting the
eyes; it has been submitted to all kinds of rude treatment; no cruelty
but has been experimented with; no barbarity but has been resorted
to. It has been traced to various sources; its origin has been
frequently detected; but the real cause of the disease, to this day,
has not been recognized. The veterinary surgeon is often sent for to
just look at a horse which "has got a hay-seed in its eye." This
mistake is very common, as ophthalmia generally breaks forth during
the long night hours, while the stable is made secure and the
confined air is foulest. The groom sees an animal with a pendant,
swollen lid, and with a cheek bedewed by copious tears; he can
imagine only an accident; but the medical examiner must obey the
summons with an unprejudiced mind, because simple ophthalmia is
a mere misfortune, specific ophthalmia is a constitutional disorder.
 THE FIRST APPEARANCE OF
SPECIFIC
OPHTHALMIA.

The veterinary surgeon, firstly, in the groom's convictions, makes

a grievous mistake. He goes up to the horse on the opposite side to
the affection; being there, he takes the pulse, remarks the
breathing, observes the coat, feels the feet, examines the mouth,
and looks at the nasal membrane. If simple ophthalmia be present,
some of these may be altered from long-endured pain; but if specific
ophthalmia exist, the general disturbance denotes a constitutional
disorder. The pulse is hard, the breathing sharp, the coat staring, the
feet cold, the mouth clammy, and the nasal membrane inflamed or
leaden-colored.
The horse is next ordered round to the stable window, with the
diseased eye toward the light. A pretense is then made of forcing
the lid open; if simple ophthalmia be present, the resistance is
energetic, but not violent. Should specific ophthalmia be the
affection, the horse struggles against the intimation with the
wildness of timidity, striving to escape a terrible torture. The animal
is, there-upon, brought into some shady corner; its fears are allayed,
and it permits the lid to be raised with little difficulty. Should the eye
 have been injured by an
accident, the most prominent
part of the ball is likely to be
hurt. The internal structures are
unaffected; the pupil generally
is larger than usual, and the iris
is unchanged. The haw may be
or may not be projected; but
the color, form, and aspect of
the iris is unaltered. During the
commencement of specific
ophthalmia, the center of the
RAISING THE UPPER LID OF AN EYE cornea may be transparent, but
AFFECTED the circumference of the ball is
WITH SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA. violently inflamed; the reason
being that a constitutional
disorder always first attacks the more vascular structures, and,
therefore, commences in the loose conjunctiva, covering the white of
the globe. In specific ophthalmia, the color of the eye has changed
to a lighter hue, and the pupillary opening is firmly closed, to
prevent the entrance of the dreaded light.
 DIAGRAM OF THE EYE
IN SIMPLE
OPHTHALMIA.
THE DARK LINE
INDICATES THE
EXTENT TO
WHICH HAW MAY
PROTRUDE.

DIAGRAM OF THE HORSE'S EYE WHEN SUFFERING

FROM SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA.

Weakness increases as specific ophthalmia progresses. The

attack, however, is seldom stationary; the eye first involved may
suddenly become clear and healthy, and the opposite organ may
exhibit the ravage of the disease; thus, the affection keeps rapidly
moving about; when it suddenly quits both eyes, the inflammation
commonly fixes upon some distant part of the body, as the lungs or
feet. No one can predicate how short will be its stay or how long the
attack may last; it has disappeared in a week, it has continued two
months. It seldom reaches its climax during the first assault. It will
occur again and again; generally it ends in the destruction of one or
both eyes; but never, so far as the author's knowledge extends,
causes gutta serena. Like scrofulous affections in the human being,
which it greatly resembles, it generally is the inheritance of youth;
after maturity or after the eighth year has been attained, it is rarely
witnessed.
When this terrible affliction visits a stable, let the proprietor
firmly oppose all active measures. A shed ought to be procured, cool
or shady, and screened on every side, excepting on the north. Every
hole, however minute, should be stopped, because light shines
through a small opening with a force proportioned to its
diminutiveness. The stars and candles in the once popular London
Diorama were only small holes cut in the canvas.
The eye-vein is then to be opened, and the lid, if much enlarged,
punctured in several places; when the bleeding has ceased, a cloth,
saturated in cold water, is to be put over both eyes. As to other
remedies, they must be regulated by the condition of the animal.
Should it be poor, oats and beans, ground and scalded; cut green
meat; gruel made of hay-tea, etc., should be given. No dry fodder
must be allowed; all the provender must be so soft that mastication
may be dispensed with. The movement of the jaw, sending blood to
the head, is highly injurious during an attack of specific ophthalmia.
Let the following ball be given twice, daily:—
Powdered colchicum Two drachms.
Iodide of iron One drachm.
Calomel One scruple.
 Make into a ball with extract of gentian.
Observe the teeth while this physic is being taken. The author
has taken twenty-five grains of calomel daily, for a month, with
impunity; lately, he was slightly salivated by two grains, when not
expecting any effect. Mercury, therefore, operates in accordance
with the system; it is strong or weak as the body is sickly or robust.
Should the animal be fat, do not therefore conclude that it is
strong; obesity is always accompanied with debility. But if the horse
be a hunter or a racer, in training condition, still give the medicine
prescribed, with soft food, not quite so stimulating, and the ball
twice daily. However, as soon as the medicine begins to take effect,
which it will do soonest upon the weakly, change it for:—
Liquor arsenicalis Three ounces.
Muriated tincture of iron Five ounces.
Mix, and give half an ounce in a tumbler of water twice daily.
Do not bother about the bowels; endeavor to regulate them by
mashes and with green meat; if they should not respond, do not
resort to more active measures. Should the pulse be increased, a
scruple of tincture of aconite root may be administered every hour,
in a wineglass of water; should the pain appear to be excessive, the
like amount of extract of belladonna may be rubbed down in a
similar quantity of water, and be given at the periods already stated;
only always be content with doing one thing at a time. Thus reduce
the pulse, for, with the lowering of the vascular action, the agony
may become less intense; however, so long as the beats of the
artery are not more in a minute than sixty-five, and not very thin or
hard, the aconite should be withheld, for during an acutely painful
disorder the heart must be in some degree excited.
The grand measure, however, remains to be told. Remove every
horse from the stable in which the attack occurred; then elevate the
roof, widen the gangway, and enlarge the stalls; improve the
ventilation, overlook the drains, lay down new pavement—in fact,
reconstruct the edifice. It is felt that, in giving these directions, a
proposal is offered to demolish a building. The author is fully alive to
the expense of such a transaction; but one valuable horse will pay
for a great deal of bricks and mortar. Experience has decided that
the most humane way is, in the long run, the cheapest method of
proceeding. Ophthalmia is a teasing and a vexatious disorder. If the
owner has no feeling with the inhabitants of his homestead, still let
him study his own comfort, for it is astonishing how very much good
stabling adds to the appearance and to the happiness of a mansion.
Specific ophthalmia does not terminate in death; it usually leaves
the victim blind in one or both eyes. In England, however, it is
mostly satisfied with the destruction of one organ; the strength of
the other becoming, after its departure, considerably improved. At
the same time, having caused the lids to swell, it leaves them in a
wrinkled or a puckered state; the remaining eye is likewise
somewhat sensitive to light. To gain in some measure the shadow of
the brow, and to escape the full glare of day, the eye is retracted; all
the muscles are employed to gain this end, but the power of the
levator of the upper lid causes the eye to assume somewhat of a
three-cornered aspect.
It is always desirable to recognize the animal which may be or
may have been liable to so fearful an affection. One symptom of
having experienced an attack is discovered on the margin of the
transparent cornea. The inflammation extends from the
circumference to the center. The margin of the transparent ball is
generally the last place it quits; here it frequently leaves an irregular
line of opacity altogether different to and distinct from the evenly-
clouded indication of the cornea's junction with the sclerotic, which
last is natural development.
Nevertheless, the internal structure best display the ravages of
specific ophthalmia; it is upon these the terrible scourge exhausts its
strength. The eye becomes cloudy; loses its liquid appearance; the
black bodies attached to the edges of the pupillary opening either
fall or seem about to leave their natural situation. The pupil becomes
 turbid, then white; the iris
grows light in color, and at last
remains stationary, having
previously been morbidly active.
The whiteness of the pupil
grows more and more
confirmed, and every part
grows opaque; by this
circumstance, the total cataract,
arising from specific
ophthalmia, is frequently to be
challenged. The lens, moreover,
is often driven, by the force of
the disease, from its position; it
AN EYE DISPLAYING THE RAVAGES lodges against the inner surface
OF SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA. of the globe. Very common is a
torn or ragged state of the pupil
witnessed, as was stated,
during the intensity of the attack, for the iris contracts to exclude the
light; remaining thus for any period, it becomes attached to the
capsule of the lens; when the disease mitigates, it often rends its
own structure by its efforts to expand. Should those efforts prove
unavailing, the pupillary opening, as sometimes happens, is lost
forever.
In the previous description of disorder, no mention has been
made of the cartilago nictitans, or haw, or third eyelid, as it has been
called. This thin body is very active, and resides at the inner corner
of the eye; of course, in a disease under which the eye is pained by
light, the haw is protruded to the utmost. In ophthalmia, however, it
is covered by an inflamed membrane, and though in health its
movements are so rapid that it may easily escape notice, yet in this
disease it lies before the eye, red and swollen; this substance it was
once common for farriers to excise, under a foolish notion of
removing the cause of the disorder.
 The use of the cartilago
nictitans in the healthy eye will
now be explained. Let the
reader inspect any of the
illustrations to this article; he
will find the outer corner
represented as being much
higher than the inner corner of
the eye, where the active little
body resides. Under the upper
lid, near to the outer corner, is
situated the lachrymal gland,
which secretes the water or
TERMINATION TO SPECIFIC
tears of the eye.
OPHTHALMIA. Suppose any substance
"gets into the eye;" being
between two layers of conjunctiva, it creates much anguish, it
provokes constant motion of the lid, which in its turn causes the
lachrymal gland to pour forth its secretion. Liquid flowing over a
smooth globe of course gravitates; the substance "in the eye" is thus
partly washed and partly pushed toward the inner corner.
Now, the base of the cartilago nictitans rests upon the fat at the
back of the eye. Pain causes the globe to be retracted by spasmodic
jerks; adipose matter cannot be compressed, and it is therefore
driven forward every time the muscles act. The fat carries with it the
cartilago nictitans, and the edge of the body being very fine and
lying close to the globe, shovels up any foreign substance that may
be within its reach, to place it upon the rounded development at the
inner corner of the eye. Still may the reader inquire, if the cartilago
nictitans is covered with conjunctival membrane, and the inner
corner of the eye is enveloped in the same, does not the foreign
substance occasion pain to these as it did to the globe of the eye?
No; it was just hinted that conjunctiva is not sensitive except two
layers of the membrane are together, as the ball and the inner
surface of the eyelid. The haw, therefore, has no sensation upon its
external surface, neither has the inner corner of the eye, whence all
foreign bodies are quickly washed by the overflow of tears.
Farriers, however, are not an extinct race; many of the fraternity
still exist, still practice, and are, it is to be feared, very little
improved. Should one of these gentlemen offer to cure specific
ophthalmia, it is hoped the owner, after the foregoing explanation,
will not allow the "haw" to be excised.
Let every man treat the animals over which he is given authority
with kindness, as temporary visitors with himself upon earth, and
fellow-inhabitants of a striving world. Let him look around him;
behold the owner of a coveted and highly-prized racer to-day, in a
week reduced to the possessor of a blind and wretched jade; then
ask himself what kind of property that is to boast of, which may be
deteriorated or taken from him without his sanction? Having
answered that question, let him inquire whether it is better to
propitiate the higher being by showing tenderness toward his
creatures, or to defy the power which can in an instant snatch away
his possessions.

CATARACT.

Cataract is a white spot within the pupillary opening. The spot

may be indistinct or conspicuous,—soft, undefined or determined; it
may be as small as the point of a needle, or so big as to fill the
entire space: in short, any indication of whiteness or opacity upon
the pupil is regarded as a cataract.
Cataracts are designated according to the parts on which they
reside. The lens of the eye is contained within a capsule, as an egg
is within its shell. Any whiteness upon this capsule is termed a
capsular cataract. The lens floats in a liquor which surrounds it, as
the white does the yolk of an egg. Any turbidness in this fluid is
termed a milky cataract; any speck upon the lens is a lenticular
 cataract; and any little
glistening appearance behind
the capsule is spoken of as a
spurious cataract.
Moreover, there are the
osseous, the cartilaginous,
and the opaque cataracts;
but those distinctions rather
concern the anatomist than the
pathologist, as they may be
guessed at, yet are not to be
distinguished with certainty one
PARTIAL CATARACTS, OR SMALL from another, during life.
WHITE
SPECK WITHIN THE PUPIL OF THE That which more concerns
EYE. the reader is, to learn the
manner, if possible, of
preventing cataract from disfiguring his horse's eyes. Then will the
gentleman be kind enough to hold a sheet of white paper close to
his nose, so that the eyes may see nothing else, for a single half
hour. Let us suppose the trial has been made. With many people the
head has become dizzy and the sight indistinct. In some persons
singing noises are heard and a sensation of sickness has been
created. Let the author strive to explain this fact. Travelers, passing
over the Alps, wear green veils, to prevent the strain or excitement
which looking upon a mass of white snow occasions the visual
organs. Any excitement is prejudicial to the eye. Workers at trades
dealing in minute objects, often go blind, and the use of the
microscope has frequently to be discontinued. But to look
continuously upon a white mass is the most harmful of all other
causes.
This fact must be considered as established. And what does the
horse proprietor have done to his stable? He orders the interior to be
whitewashed. It looks so clean, he delights to see it; but do the
horses—does nature equally enjoy to look upon those walls of
"spotless purity?" Before those walls, with its head tied to the
manger, stands the animal through the hours of the day. Close to its
nose shines the painful whiteness which the master so enjoys. Is it,
then, surprising (seeing how nature for its own wise purposes has
connected all life) that the equine eye, doomed to perpetual
excitement, sometimes shows disease?
A horse with imperfect vision is a dangerous animal. A small
speck upon the lens confuses the sight as much as a comparatively
large mark upon the cornea. To render this clear, let the reader hold
a pen close to the eye; it prevents more vision than yonder huge
post obstructs. So impediments are important, as they near the optic
nerve. The lens is nearer than the cornea, and therefore any opacity
upon the first structure is more to be dreaded.
However, let it be imagined a horse, with an opacity upon the
pupil, and the sight confused by staring at a white flat mass spread
out before it, is led forth for its master's use. By the aid of the
groom and its own recollections, it manages to tread the gangway,
and even to reach the well-known house door in safety. The owner,
an aged gentleman, of the highest respectability, comes forth in
riding costume. He mounts, and throwing the reins upon the neck of
the animal, sets his nag into walking motion, while he, erect and
stately, looks about him and proceeds to pull on his gloves. The
horse, however, has not gone many steps before the cataract and
the confused vision, acting conjointly, produce alarm. The steed
shies and the gentleman loses his seat, being very nearly off. The
passengers laugh, the proprietor suffers in his temper, but the whip
is used, and the equestrian is soon out of sight.
The man and horse proceed some distance; the gentleman
becomes much more calm, and the horse recovers sufficient
composure to try and look around it. The pace now is rather brisk,
when the horse thinks, or its disabled vision causes it to imagine, it
sees some frightful object in the distance. The timid animal suddenly
wheels round. The rider is not prepared for the eccentric motion: he
is shot out of the saddle. He falls upon his head; he is picked up and
carried home; but afterward he avoids the saddle.
Never buy the horse with imperfect vision; never have the
interior of your stable whitewashed. Then what color is to be
employed? Probably blue would absorb too many of the rays of light;
at all events, it seems preferable to copy nature. Green is the livery
of the fields. In these the eyes take no injury, although the horse's
head be bent toward the grass for the greater number of the hours.
Consequently, the writer recommends that green wash, which is
cheap enough, should be employed, instead of the obnoxious white,
for the interior of stables.
For complete cataract
nothing can be done. In man,
operation or couching may be
performed with success; but the
horse can retract the eye and
protrude the cartilago nictitans.
Thereby difficulties are created;
but these may be overcome.
However, when an opening
through the cornea is perfected,
the spasmodic contraction of
the muscles of the eye, acting
COMPLETE CATARACT. upon the fibrous covering of the
globe, is apt to drive forth the
liquid contents of the organ in a
jet: this is irreparable, of course. When so fearful a catastrophe does
not ensue, still the capsule of the lens is always difficult to divide,
and the lens itself cannot easily be broken down. The lens,
therefore, must be abstracted; but that necessitates a large incision,
which the previously named probability forbids. Displacement is the
only resort left; but the lens, when forced from its situation into the
posterior or dark cavity, is, by the contraction of the muscles, forced
up again. The uncertainty of the result, even when the operation is
successfully performed, is peculiarly disheartening. Half lose their
eyes in consequence of the attempt; half the remainder are in no
way benefited; to the rest, as these cannot wear spectacles to
supply the place of the absent lens, of course the pain endured
becomes useless torture.
Where partial cataract is feared but cannot be detected, then
artificially dilate the pupil. Rub down two drachms of the extract of
belladonna in one ounce of water. Have this applied, with friction, to
the exterior of the lids and about the eye; mind none gets into the
eye. The belladonna, acted upon by the secretions, turns to grit;
inflammation is the consequence, and the clearness of the cornea is
impaired. When the belladonna is properly used, it dilates the iris
and exposes the margin of the lens, thus enabling the practitioner to
inspect the eye in a full light.
 To tell a spurious cataract,
which defect is never
permanent, first observe the
spot. Note if it present any
metallic appearance, and try
whether, as the horse's head is
moved, it alters in shape,
catching irregular lights. Then
inspect the exterior of the eye;
see if it retain any signs of
recent injury. Subsequently
endeavor, so far as may be
DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE possible, to ascertain the exact
ACTION OF BELLADONNA. position occupied by the defect:
The inner space upon all this evidence put
represents the together, make up your opinion.
natural pupil, on
which no cataract To distinguish between the
is to be observed. different kinds of cataract, apply
The second space the belladonna. Next place the
represents the horse near a window or under a
pupillary opening
door. Should the sun shine,
as it may be
enlarged by the have the animal led into the full
application of glare of day. Look steadily into
belladonna, the eye from different points of
whereon two view. Then have the horse's
partial cataracts
head moved about, all the time
are to be
remarked. The keeping your sight fixed upon
other space the part you are desirous of
merely represents inspecting.
the dilated pupil.
Should one spot continue in
every position, of one bulk, and
of one aspect, never becoming very narrow and always occupying
one place throughout the examination,—it is a lenticular cataract
that is beheld.
 If the whiteness changes
appearances, in some positions
seeming very thin or perceptibly
less bulky, it is assuredly a
capsular cataract which is
inspected.
Most cataracts may either
be partial or complete; but a
spurious cataract is always
partial, never permanent, and
invariably caused by violence.
For spurious cataract, treat
the injury to the exterior of the
eye. For other cataracts, do
nothing: there is no known
medicine of any beneficial
effect. However, it is well to
add, the author's and the
general opinion favors the
absorption of cataract; or that
DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE
these opacities may appear and
DIFFERENT KINDS OF CATARACT.
after a time go away without 1. A capsular
the aid of medicine. cataract or an
Nevertheless, to hasten such a opacity, situated
process, have the interior of the on the envelope
stable colored. However much of the lens.
in favor a clean white wall may 2. A lenticular
cataract or an
be with grooms or with the
opacity, within
lower order, exercise an the substance of
informed judgment; have the the lens.
wall shaded of the tint most 3. A spurious
pleasant to the inhabitants' cataract, or a
sight, and the prospect of particle of lymph
adhering to the
recovery will by so trivial an
inner surface of
outlay be materially facilitated.
 the lenticular
capsule.

FUNGOID TUMORS WITHIN THE SUBSTANCE

OF THE EYE.

These, fortunately, are rare affections. We know of no immediate

cause for their production. No man can prophesy their appearance.
The horse, to human judgment, may enjoy the top of health; may
be in flesh and full of spirit—altogether blooming. Nevertheless, the
action of the legs may perceptibly grow higher, and the ears become
more active. The animal will wait to be urged or guided, when the
road is clear. Also, it may run into obstacles, when the rider does not
touch the rein. Should anything be left in the gangway of the stable,
it is certain to be upset, by what the groom terms "that clumsy
horse." Sometimes it will stand for hours together neglecting its
food, with the head held piteously on one side. Occasionally, when
at grass, it may be found separated from its companions, alone and
dejected, with the head as before, held on one side, while the
waters of the eye copiously bedew the cheek.
At last the eyes are examined. The eyeball may be clear, but
some brilliant yellow substance may be discerned shooting from the
base of the interior, and the horse is declared contaminated by a
cancerous disease.
All is now explained: the sight is lost; the horse is blind. There
are three terrible decisions now left to the master. Is the life to be
shortened? The thought shudders at taking existence, when misery
pleads for consolation. Is the animal to live on and nurture to
maturity the seeds of a cancerous disease? The mind shrinks from
subjecting any creature to the terrible depression and hopeless
agony attendant upon such disorders. Is an operation to be
performed? Shall the surgeon extirpate the eye? This last proposal
seems the worst of all; nor does inquiry improve the prospect. The
cancer does not entirely reside within the eye; it is not limited to
 that part. The taint is in the
constitution, and the operation
can do no more than retard its
effect. The eye removed, the
cancerous growth will soon fill
the vacant orbit. After two or
several months of dreadful
suspense, the life at last will be
exacted, and the animal, worn
out with suffering, will expire.
Under such circumstances,
the writer recommends death,
before the full violence of the
FUNGUS disease is endured. Should,
HÆMATOIDES, however, the reader think
OR CANCEROUS
GROWTHS differently, and prefer the
WITHIN THE extirpation of the eyeball, the
SUBSTANCE OF operation will here be
THE EYE. described. First, mind the
operator has two knives not
generally kept by veterinary surgeons: one of small size and slightly
bent to one side; the other larger, and curved to one side till it has
nearly reached a semicircle. Mind the operator has everything ready
before he begin: a sharp scalpel, two straight triangular-pointed
needles, each armed with strong twine; one curved needle, similarly
provided; sponge, water, injecting tube, bellows, lint,—and all things
at hand. It is necessary the proprietor should see to this, as some
men will commence an operation upon a mere horse and be obliged
to stop in the middle, not having brought all the instruments which
they may require.
Cast the horse. Impale both eyelids, each with one of the straight
needles, and leave the assistant to tie the thread into loops. Through
these loops the assistant places the fore-finger of each hand, and
then looks toward his superior. The sign being given, the man pulls
the eyelid asunder, while the surgeon rapidly grasps the straight
knife and describes a circle round the globe, thereby sundering the
conjunctival membrane. The knife is then changed, the small curved
blade being taken. The assistant again makes traction, and the knife,
being passed through the divided conjunctiva, is carried round the
eyeball, close to the bone; the levator and depressor muscles are
detached by this movement. The assistant again relaxes his hold the
operator relinquishing the knife, selects the curved needle. With this
the cornea is transfixed. The thread is drawn through and is then
looped. Into this loop the surgeon puts the fore-finger of his left
hand, and giving the sign once more to his assistant, takes hold of
the large bladed knife. Traction is made on all the loops. The curved
knife is inserted into the orbit, and, with a sawing motion, is passed
round the organ. The posterior structures are thereby divided, and
the eye is drawn forth.
The operation ought to be
over in less time than five
minutes; but speed depends on
previous preparation. The
assistant, during the operation,
should rest his hand upon the
horse's jaw and face; sad
accidents by that means are
prevented; but, above all
things, he should be cool, doing
just what is sufficient and no
more.
Some hemorrhage follows
the removal of the orb; to stop
it, inject cold water into the
empty socket; should that have EXTIRPATION OF THE EYE.
no effect, drive a current of air
from the bellows upon the
divided parts; if this be of no avail, softly plug the cavity with lint,
bandage the wound to keep in the dressing, and leave the issue to
nature.
 Such is the undisguised operation for extirpating the horse's eye.
The reader is confidently asked, whether a few months of miserable
existence, with the certainty of a fearful death, are not dearly
purchased at so great a suffering?

LACERATED EYELID.

Horses frequently endeavor to amuse the weary hours by a

playful game with one another; if accident results, it is not wholly
the fault of the guileless animals; they are tied to the mangers; they
cannot exert their activity; otherwise their principal enjoyment
resides in the freedom of their heels. And looking at a blank mass of
monotonous white for many hours may have disabled the sight or
have confused the judgment.
The groom being absent, advantage is taken of the event to have
a romp. The animals snap at one another over the divisions to their
stalls; often the amusement extends, and four or five heads may be
beheld united in the sport. Generally, however, the game is confined
to two players; but, either way, no injury is meant; the teeth rattle,
but they are intended to close upon empty space. However, man has
to bear the consequences which his errors provoke. That species of
confinement to which horses are subjected renders the judgment
uncertain and the sight untrue. The animal pretends to snap, but,
either from one head not being removed quick enough or from the
other head being protruded too far, the teeth catch the eyelid and
divide it through the center. The injury is not very serious, for had
malice impelled the assault, much more than an eyelid would have
been grasped between the jaws.
In other cases, the groom has driven nails into the wall of the
gangway; grooms are fond of seeing the stable decorated with
pendant objects of various kinds. So long as the nails are occupied,
little danger ensues; but they are apt to be left vacant, and horses
are constantly passing along the gangway. To leave room for the
servant obliges the animal, very often, to keep close to the wall; the
projecting nail catches the lid of the eye, and a long rent,
commencing upon the outer side, usually results.
Such an injury creates great
alarm, but it is less serious than it
appears to be. Let the wound,
from whatever cause it springs, be
well bathed with a soft sponge and
cold water; this should be done till
the bleeding ceases. Afterward,
the wound should be let alone for
two or three hours, that the edges
may become partially sticky; then
let there be procured a long piece
of strong thread, having a needle
at each end; the needles should be
EYELID TORN BY A NAIL. new, very sharp, and of the
stronger sort employed by glovers.
Let all the punctures be made from within outward, to avoid injuring
the eyeball, and a separate needle be employed for each divided
surface. The thread being brought through, cut off the needles, and
loop, but do not tie the thread. Proceed with another suture, and do
not tie that; then with another, observing the same directions, and
thus, till the eyelid has a sufficient number of sutures. Then proceed
to draw all to an even tightness—none should be absolutely tight.
The parts ought only to be approximated, not tied firmly together;
well, all the sutures being of equal size, they are fastened, and the
operation is concluded.
But as the wound begins to heal it is apt to itch, and the horse
will often rub the eye violently to ease the irritation. To prevent this,
fasten the animal to the pillar-reins of its stall, and let it remain there
till the wound has healed; the injury will in a short time close, but
the sutures should be watched. When the holes begin to enlarge,
the thread can be snipped. If the punctures be dry, let the divided
sutures remain till nature shall remove them. If they are moist, and
the wound appears united, you may try each thread with a pair of
forceps; should any appear loose, then withdraw it, for after division
it can be of no use, and may provoke irritation; however, should it be
retained, employ no force; have patience, and it will come forth
without man's interference.
Feed liberally, regulate the
bowels by mashes and green
meat; smear the wound with oil
of tar to dispel the flies; for
should the accident happen
during the warmer months,
these pests biting and blowing
upon so delicate a part as the
eye may occasion more harm
than our best efforts can rectify.
When the lid is bitten through,
the operation is precisely THE LID, WHEN
DIVIDED BY THE
similar; the divided edges are to TEETH,
be brought together by sutures. BROUGHT
To prevent needless repetition, TOGETHER BY
an engraving of the bitten lid, MEANS OF
after the operation has been SUTURES.
performed, is here presented.

IMPEDIMENT IN THE LACHRYMAL DUCT.

The lachrymal duct in the horse is a small canal leading from

the eye to the nostril; it commences by two very minute openings
near the terminations of the upper and lower lids, at the inner
corner of the eye; it emerges upon the dark skin which lines the
commencement of the horse's nostril, being on the inner side of the
internal membrane. Its use is to carry off the superflux of tears;
hence, with human beings, who have a like structure, "much
weeping at the theaters provokes loud blowing of noses."
The channel being so minute, any substance getting into it soon
becomes swollen with the moisture and closes the passage. The
tears cannot escape, and being secreted, flow upon the cheek. The
perpetual stream pouring over a part not designed for such uses,
causes the hair to fall off, and thus forms gutters, along which the
fluid continues to run. The flesh at length excoriates, and numerous
sores are established; the lids swell and become raw at the margins;
the conjunctiva reddens, and the transparency of the cornea is
greatly lessened by the spread of inflammation.
The wretched animal in this
condition presents a very
sentimental appearance to a
person ignorant of the facts of
the case. The swollen lid,
because of its weight, is
permitted to close over the eye,
while the tears, flowing fast
upon the cheek, with the
general dejection, gives the
creature an aspect of weeping
over some heavy affliction.
Like the late William
Percivall, whose works on
A HORSE'S HEAD, veterinary subjects remain a
DISPLAYING monument to his memory, the
OBSTRUCTION author has encountered but a
OF THE single case of this description; it
LACHRYMAL
GLAND.
was in a matured but not a very
aged animal. The report was,
that a year ago it had been
attacked by influenza; the lid then enlarged, and the near cheek had
been wet ever since.
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