Nervous System

Nervous system
The nervous system detects and responds to changes
inside and outside the body.

Your nervous system is your body's command center.

Originating from your brain, it controls your
movements, thoughts and automatic responses to the
world around you. It also controls other body systems
and processes, such as digestion, breathing and sexual
development (puberty).
Structural Organization of Nervous System
Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic
Functions of Nervous System

1. The master controlling and communicating system of the

body
2. Sensory input: Detects external and internal stimuli
3. Integration: Processes and responds to sensory unit
4. Control of Muscles and Glands
5. Homeostasis is maintained by regulating others system
6. Center for Mental activities
General principles of nervous system
Neuron
Neurons are information messengers. They use
electrical impulses and chemical signals to transmit
information between different areas of the brain, and
between the brain and the rest of the nervous system.
Classifications of neurons
According to the number of process
• Multipolar neurons: These neurons have a single axon and symmetrical dendrites
that extend from it. This is the most common form of neuron in the central nervous
system.
• Unipolar neurons: Usually only found in invertebrate species, these neurons have
a single axon.
• Bipolar neurons: Bipolar neurons have two extensions extending from the cell
body. At the end of one side is the axon, and the dendrites are on the other side.
These types of neurons are mostly found in the retina of the eye. But they can also
be found in parts of the nervous system that help the nose and ear function.
• Pyramidal neurons: These neurons have one axon but several dendrites to form a
pyramid type shape. These are the largest neuron cells and are mostly found in the
cortex. The cortex is the part of the brain responsible for conscious thoughts.
• Purkinje neurons: Purkinje neurons have multiple dendrites that fan out from the
cell body. These neurons are inhibitory neurons, meaning they release
neurotransmitters that keep other neurons from firing.
In terms of function, scientists classify neurons into three broad types:

• Sensory neurons: Sensory neurons are triggered by physical and chemical

inputs from your environment. Sound, touch, heat, and light are physical inputs.
Smell and taste are chemical inputs.

• Motor neurons: Motor neurons play a role in movement, including voluntary

and involuntary movements. These neurons allow the brain and spinal cord to
communicate with muscles, organs, and glands all over the body. There are two
types of motor neurons: lower and upper. Lower motor neurons carry signals
from the spinal cord to the smooth muscles and skeletal muscles. Upper motor
neurons carry signals between your brain and spinal cord.

• Interneurons: Interneurons are neural intermediaries found in your brain and

spinal cord. They’re the most common type of neuron. They pass signals from
sensory neurons and other interneurons to motor neurons and other
interneurons. Often, they form complex circuits that help you to react to
external stimuli.
Neuroglia
The neuroglia is a diverse class of cells that provide developmental,
physiological, and metabolic support for neurons.
Why sympathetic action is diffuse and long-lasting, while parasympathetic is local and short-lived?
Or
What would happen to body systems during a stressful situation if these characteristics were reversed?
The actions of the sympathetic nervous system are long-lasting and
diffusing because of the long-term secretions of the hormone
epinephrine from the adrenal gland. This would prepare the entire body
for any emergent purposes.
While the actions of the parasympathetic nervous system are local and
short-lived because of the rapid breakdown of the acetylcholine (Ach)
neurotransmitters in the synapses of the neurons. Suppose these
characteristics are reversed in a stressful situation, the homeostasis of the
body would be disturbed that might cause cerebrovascular accidents
leading to death.
Types of Neuroglia and their Function
Position of Neurons and Neuroglia
Differences between axon and dendrites
Nerve impulse transmission step/ Transmission of nerve impulse
through synapse/ Release of neurotransmitter

1. Action potential reaches presynaptic terminal

2. Depolarization of presynaptic terminal, opens ion channels and allowing
calcium (Ca2+) into the cell
3. Ca2+ triggers release of neurotransmitter from the vesicles
4. Neurotransmitters binds to receptor site of postsynaptic membrane
5. Opening and closing of channels cause change in postsynaptic membrane
potential
6. Action potential propagates through next cell Neurotransmitter is activated
or transported back into presynaptic terminal.
Synapse
Synapse is the junction between two neurons. It is a
physiological continuity between two nerve cells.
Classification of Synapse
A. Based on the mode of impulse transmission, the synapse is
classified into two:
 Chemical synapse: Some synapses of mammals transmit stimuli by
current flow across adjacent membranes. In this case the neurons are
generally in much closer proximity and even in some instances pre-
synaptic arid post-synaptic membranes fused together.
 Electrical synapse: In this case the pre-synaptic membrane release
chemical compound (neuro-humor) which is also known as
neurotransmitter.
 Electrochemical synapse: In this synapse stimulus transmitted both
with the aid of electron and neurotransmitter.
Classification of Synapse
B. On the basis of nature of connections between neurons, synapses
have been classified into three types:
• Axosomatic: The terminal processes of the pre-synaptic neuron end on
the cell body or soma of the post-synaptic neurons. This type of
synapses is found in the cerebellum between the basket cell and
Purkinje cells.
• Axodendritic: The terminal process of the axon of the pre-synaptic
neuron end in the dendrites of the postsynaptic neurons. In the
cerebellum, the climbing fibers form connections with the dendrites of
the Purkinje cells.
• Axoaxonic: Here the terminal processes of the pre-synaptic axon make
connections with the terminal processes of the axon of the post-
synaptic neurons.
Components of Synapse
Presynaptic membrane
Postsynaptic membrane
Receptors
In biochemistry and pharmacology, receptors are chemical
structures, composed of protein, that receive and transduce
signals that may be integrated into biological systems.
A cell or group of cells that receives stimuli.

Binding site of ligand

Classification of receptors
A. Functional classification
Thermoreceptors
Chemoreceptors
Mechanoreceptors
Nociceptors
Classification of receptors
B. Structural classification
Non-capsulated receptor. Example: free nerve ending
Encapsulated receptor. Example: Encapsulated free nerve ending
Functions of Receptors
Receptors, the protein molecules in the target cell or on its surface
are involved in various functions including:
It regulates cell binding
It helps in signal transduction
It controls the membrane channels
It is also involved in immune responses and immunotherapy
It induces cell metabolisms, including cell growth, cell division and cell
death
Short note on IPSP and EPSP/ Differentiate between IPSP and EPSP
Spinal Cord
The spinal cord extends downward
from the base of your brain.

- It's made up of nerve cells and

groups of nerves that carry messages
between your brain and the rest of
your body.
Reflex
an action or movement that is made automatically without thinking
as a reaction to a stimulus.

A few examples of reflex action are:

• When light acts as a stimulus, the pupil of the eye changes in size.
• Sudden jerky withdrawal of hand or leg when pricked by a pin.
• Coughing or sneezing, because of irritants in the nasal passages.
• Knees jerk in response to a blow or someone stamping the leg.
• The sudden removal of the hand from a sharp object.
• Sudden blinking when an insect comes very near to the eyes
Purpose of reflexes
Flow of reflex action
Reflex arc
A reflex arc is a neural pathway that controls a reflex. Reflex
arc, neurological and sensory mechanism that controls a reflex,
an immediate response to a particular stimulus
Types of Reflex arc
There are two types:
1) Autonomic reflex arc (affecting inner organs) and
2) Somatic reflex arc (affecting muscles).
Components of reflex arc
The reflex pathway or the reflex arc is composed of five primary
components. These are:
• Receptor– It receives information and assists in generating
impulses
• Sensory Nerve– Its function is to carry information from the
receptor to the interneurons present in the spinal cord
• Interneuron– Processing of information and generating
effective responses is done here
• Motor Nerve– It carries the processed information from the
spinal cord to the effector
• Effector Organ– This is an organ in the body that receives the
information from effector neurons and conducts the appropriate
response or reflex action
 Trace the sequence of events that occur when a
bright light is focused on your eyes
• When a bright light is focused on our eye, the receptor cell receives the
message and passes it on to the sensory neuron, then it goes to the brain,
the brain reverts the message by a motor neuron which contracts the pupil.
The sequence of events that occur is:

Receptor → Sensory neuron → Brain → Motor neuron → Eye → Eye muscle contracts.

• The iris regulates the amount of light entering the eyes by controlling the
diameter and size of the pupil.
Cranial nerve
The cranial nerves are a set of 12 paired nerves in the back of your brain. Cranial
nerves send electrical signals between your brain, face, neck and torso.
Spinal nerve
spinal nerves send electrical
signals between your brain,
spinal cord and the rest of your
body.
Spinal nerves consist of 31
symmetrical pairs of nerves
that connect the spinal cord to
the periphery. There are 8
cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar,
5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal
nerves.
Lobe
In anatomy, a lobe is a clear anatomical division or extension of an organ
(as seen for example in the brain, lung, liver, or kidney) that can be
determined without the use of a microscope at the gross anatomy level.

Lobes and their functions

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): Cerebrospinal fluid is a clear, colorless body fluid
found within the tissue that surrounds the brain and spinal cord of all
vertebrates.
- Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is an ultra-filtrate of plasma contained within the
ventricles of the brain and the subarachnoid spaces of the cranium and spine.
Circulation of CSF
Action potential and their stages
An action potential is caused by either threshold or supra-threshold
stimuli upon a neuron.
-Action potentials are nerve signals. Neurons generate and conduct
these signals along their processes in order to transmit them to the target
tissues. Upon stimulation, they will either be stimulated, inhibited, or
modulated in some way.
The action potential can be classified into
five stages –

• Stimulus
• Depolarization
• Repolarization
• Hyperpolarization
• Resting state
• Stimulus
Stimulus starts the rapid change in voltage or action potential. In patch-clamp mode,
sufficient current must be administered to the cell in order to raise the voltage above
the threshold voltage to start membrane depolarization.
• Depolarization
Depolarization is caused by a rapid rise in membrane potential opening of sodium
channels in the cellular membrane, resulting in a large influx of sodium ions.
• Repolarization
Membrane Repolarization results from rapid sodium channel inactivation as well as a
large efflux of potassium ions resulting from activated potassium channels.
• Hyperpolarization
Hyperpolarization is a lowered membrane potential caused by the efflux of potassium
ions and closing of the potassium channels.
• Resting state
Resting state is when membrane potential returns to the resting voltage that occurred
before the stimulus occurred.
What are Nerve Fibres?
A nerve fibre, also called an axon, is a long and slender projection of
nerve cells (or neurons) that carry electrical impulses away from the
nerve cell body. A neuron typically has one nerve fibre emanating from
its cell body that transmits impulses to other neurons, muscles or glands.
Physiological Properties of Nerve Fibres
• Excitability: The nerve fibres are highly excitable structures that respond to several stimuli
and can also generate electrical impulses.
• Conductivity: The electrical impulses generated in the nerve fibres are propagated along its
entire length and to different neurons, muscles and glands by synaptic connections.
• Refractory Period: The nerve fibres can conduct one action potential at once, i.e., the
excitability of the fibres is less during conduction and hence a new electrical impulse cannot
be generated.
• The nerve fibres are not fatigued even when they are stimulated continuously.
• All or None Response: A nerve fibre translates either all of the impulse or none at all. If a
stimulus is applied upto a threshold level, an action potential will be generated but
increasing the strength of the stimulus will not affect the action potential.
• Summation: If a sub-threshold stimulus is applied, it cannot generate an action potential.
However, when multiple sub-threshold stimuli are applied in rapid succession, an action
potential is generated.
 Classification of Nerve Fibres
On the Basis of Conducting Velocity and Diameter Relation
Erlanger and Gasser, two American physiologists classified nerve
fibres on the basis of the mutual relation between the diameter of a
nerve fibre and its nerve conduction velocity. They then grouped the
nerve fibres into three major groups: group A, group B and group C.
Group A Nerve Fibres: Group A nerve fibres are heavily myelinated nerve
fibres that are further subdivided into four types: alpha Aα; beta Aβ;
gamma Aγ; and delta Aδ. The fibres with larger diameters and more
myelination tend to transmit the impulses at a faster rate.
Group B Nerve Fibres: Group B nerve fibres are less myelinated than
group A, but more myelinated than group C nerve fibres. They include
visceral nerves such as the vagus nerve.
Group C Nerve Fibres: Group C nerve fibres are unmyelinated fibres that
usually have a smaller diameter and low conduction velocity.
 Classification of Nerve Fibres
• On the Basis of Presence of Myelin Sheath
• There are both myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibres
in the nervous system. Both the types of nerve fibres differ
in their relative composition. Let us look at them.
• Myelinated Nerve Fibres: Myelinated nerve fibres are covered
by a layer of insulating sheet called myelin sheath. In the
peripheral nervous system, the myelin sheath is formed by the
Schwann cells whereas in the central nervous system, the myelin
sheaths are formed by the oligodendrocytes.
• Non Myelinated Nerve Fibres: Nonmyelinated nerve fibres are
covered by cytoplasm of Schwann cells but the myelin is not
secreted in such cases. They are commonly found in the
autonomic nervous system.
 Classification of Nerve Fibres
On the Basis of Functional Relation to the Central Nervous System
On the basis of functional relation to the central nervous system, the nerve
fibres are divided into afferent and efferent fibres. Let us look at them
separately.
• Afferent Nerve Fibres: The peripheral nerve fibres receive impulses
from different receptors of the body and transmits them to the central
nervous system, these types of fibres are called afferent nerve fibres.
These fibres are pseudounipolar in nature.
• Efferent Nerve Fibres: The fibres that carry nerve impulses away from
the central nervous system to other effector organs such as glands and
muscles are called efferent nerve fibres. Morphologically, they are
multipolar in nature.